英语词汇学精华版一、选择1-15；二、填空16-20*2；三、四、21-40选择连线；五、41-45名词解释*2；六、简答46-48*4；七、分析综合49-50*9
针对复习,
一、选择,
二、填空,
三、四、选择连线*****
1、types of morphemes,Free morphemes; bound morphemes; inflectional morphemes,
2、types of bound morphemes：Prefix; Suffix,
3、types of idioms,Idioms Nominal in nature; Idioms Adjectival in nature; Idioms Verbal in nature; Idioms Adverbal in nature; sentence idioms,
4、types of word meaning,Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning; conceptual meaning and associative meaning (connotative meaning\stylistic ~\affective ~\collocative ~)
5、idioms stylistic features,colloquialisms; slang; literary expressions,
6、idioms rhetorical features,
phonetic manipulation (alliteration\rhyme); lexical manipulation (reiteration\repetition\juxtaposition);figures of speech (simile\metaphor\metonymy\synecdovhe\euphemism\personification)
7、types of word formation,affixation; compounding; conversion; blending; clipping; acronym; back-formation; word from proper names,
8、changes in wording,extension; narrowing; elevation; degradation; transfer,
9、types of motivation,morphological motivated; semantic ~; etymological ~; onomatopoeic ~
10、语系划分的标准Estern set,Balto-Slavic(Prussian,Lithuanian,Polish,Czech,Bulgarian,Slovenian and Russian.),Indo-Iranian（Persian,Hindi）,Armenian and Albanian ；Western set,Celtic(Scottish,Irish,Welsh,Breton),Italic(Portuguese,Spanish,French,Italian,Roumanian),Hellenic(Greek),Germanic(Norwegian,Icelandic,Danish and Swedish,English,German),
五、41-45名词解释*2；
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics,inquiring into the origins and meanings of words,
Morphology,the study of morpheme and their different forms,
Semantics：the study of word meaning,
Etymology,the study of the origin of words,and of their history and changes in their meaning,
Stylistics,the study of the variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer
Lexicography,the compiling of dictionaries,
Synchronic study,the study of a word or words at one particular point in time,
Diachronic study,an approach to lexicology which studies how a word (or words) changes over a period of time,
word,a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function,
vocabulary：Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language,but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect,given book,a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person,
Terminology术语 consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine,
Jargon 行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts,sciences,trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business,
slang 俚语belongs to the sub-standard language,a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words
Argot黑话 generally refers to the jargon of criminals,Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups,and outsiders can hardly understand it,
Archaisms古词语 are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use,
Neologisms 新词语are newly-created words or expressions,or words that have taken on new meanings,
denizens同化词are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language,
Alien非同化词 are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling,
Translation-loans,借译词Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language,
Semantic-loans借义词Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form,But their meanings are borrowed,
Content word,the basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary,which accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language,It is the most important part of vocabulary.
Creation,the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely roots,affixes and other elements,Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need,
Morpheme,the smallest meaningful unit in a language
Allomorph,any of the different forms of a morpheme
Free morpheme,a linguistic form which can be used on its own as a word
Bound morpheme,a form (morpheme) which can not he used alone hut must be used with another morpheme,Bound morphemes include hound roots and affixes
Affixes,forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function
Prefixation(suffixation),is the formation of new words by adding prefixes(suffixes) to stem
Inflectional affixes,affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships
Derivational affixes,affixes added to other morphemes to create new words
Root,a morpheme which is the basic part of a word that can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity
Stem,a form to which affixes of any kind can be added
Bound root,a root that can not stand alone as a word
Monomorphemic words,words that have nothing more than a free morpheme
Affixation,Derivation (also known as affixation) is the process of formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems,Affixaton consisits of prefixation and suffixation,Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems; suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems,
Compounding,Compounding or composition is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems,Words formed in this way tire called compounds,
Conversion：Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class,Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation,Adjective to noun,(1) full conversion (2) partial conversion
Acronymy Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g,BBC,VOA,TB2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g,CORE,TEFL
Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a won! plus a part of another word,Words formed by blending are called blends or pormanteau,
Clipping is a way of making new words which involves the shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead,
Back-formation is a process of forming new words considered to the opposite process of suffixation by the removal of an affix from existing word,
Words from proper names of place,people,trade,book,etc,
Concept,is beyond language,is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in the human mind
Sense,denotes the relationships inside the language,
Reference is the relationship between language and the world,
外来词分为四类：1 Denizens,cup from cuppa,port form portus 2) Aliens garage,décor 3) Translation –loans e.g,long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g,dream,
Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation,morphological motivation,semantic motivation,etymological motivation,
Types of meaning,grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~,stylistic~,affective ~,collocative ~,)
多义关系及两种研究方法polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings,Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time,Synchronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time,Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created,Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time,
同形同音异义关系 Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another,but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes,perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）,Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning,e.g,bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with,Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning,e.g,saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig,Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning,e.g,dear /dia/ (n) a loved person; deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal,
同形同音异义词与多义词的区别 Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation,This creates the problem of differentiation,The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings,One important criterion is to see their etymology,i.e,homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development,The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness,The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree,e,g,neck (See 6.1 Polysemy),On the other hand,meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another,In dictionaries,a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries,
同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling,There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing,dialects and regional English,figurative and euphemistic use of words,coincidence with idiomatic expressions,There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation,connotation or application,Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality,
Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application
What are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym,3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion,4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intenisty,so each has its own corresponding opposite,
上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion,That is,the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word,Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words,Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs,with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates,But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms,For example,horse,dog,pig are subordinates in relation to animal,but superordinates of mare,hound and boar,Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature,And creature in turn becomes
词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning,changes,extension,narrowing,degradation,elevation,and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common,Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason,class reason,and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening,the influx of borrowing,and analogy).词义的扩大 Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less definite concept,Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing,Paper serves as an example,This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus,which was once used to make paper,In modern times,paper is made from rags,wood,straw and the like,but the product has retained the same name,There is associated transfer,There are other kinds of transfer,such as,concrete to abstract,abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation,
语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境：词汇语境和语法语境。There are two types of contexts,linguistic context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context),Extra-linguistic context refers to those situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use,Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context,By lexical context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question,By grammatical context we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs,
语境的作用：Three major functions of context,elimination of ambiguity,indication of referents,provision of clues for inferring word-meaning,Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2) explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy 6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word structure
英语习语的特点The characteristics of idioms include semantic unity and structural stability,
英语习语的分类According to the criterion of their grammatical functions,we classify them into idioms nominal in nature,idioms adjectival in nature,idioms verbal in nature,idioms adverbial in nature,and sentence idioms,The stylistic features are characterized with colloquialisms,slang,and literary expressions,
英语习语的使用The use of idioms involves their stylistic features,rhetorical features,and variations of idioms,
英语习语的修辞色彩The rhetorical features of idioms are represented with phonetic manipulation ( alliteration 头韵法and rhyme叠韵),lexical manipulation ( reiteration复用,repetition重复and juxtaposition反义词叠用),figures of speech ( simile明喻,metaphor暗喻,metonymy转喻,synecdoche借代,personification拟人,euphemism委婉)
英语习语的变异形式In the variations,addition,deletion,replacement,position-shifting and dismembering are involved in the changes in idioms constituents,
Associative meaning,1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning,2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated,3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture,experience,religion,geographical region,class background,education,etc,4)Associative meaning comprises four types,connotative,stylistic,affective,and collocative,
Metonymy 和Synecdoche,修饰有何区别? Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names,yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa,
词典的种类There are four types of dictionaries with their features mentioned in this parts,(1) monolingual and bilingual dictionaries,(2) linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries,(3) unabridged,desk and pocket dictionaries,(4) specialized dictionaries,A monolingual dictionary is a dictionary which is written in one language,A bilingual dictionary is one in which two languages are involved,A linguistic dictionary is a dictionary which aims at defining words and explaining their usages in the language,An encyclopedic dictionary is one in which encyclopedic information is provided along with the general information as in a linguistic dictionary,An encyclopedia is a dictionary which only provide encyclopedic information concerning each headword,An unabridged dictionary is an unshortened dictionary with at least 200,000 headwords that can supply a great quantity of basic,information about a word,A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000,A pocket dictionary is a dictionary which has about 50,000 entries or fewer,
七、分析综合49-50*9
1、对句子进行理论分析，并改进：ambiguous——原因cause——可以如何理解？——如何改进？improve
2、对单词进行分析：re-collect-ion——归属free morpheme,bound morpheme——解释
3、构词法进行分析：word formation,例如：VIP=very important person 属于aronym
4、分析idiom:属于什么短语——作用
注：重点有 1、idioms相关知识；
2、一些名词解释，如术语等；
3、types of meaning；
二,串讲内容
Introduction 部分,
Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支exicology is a branch of linguistics,
Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系:1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography
研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach,历时语言学2) Synchronic approach,共时语言学e.g,wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？
Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization
第一章
What is word?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释
词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？
1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g,Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g,Management,misfortune,blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为manage 和 –ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortuneblackmail 次划分为black 和 mail
What is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g,dog,cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds,
What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form,Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform,such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e,Old English3)With the development of the language,more and more differences occur between the two,
What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter tore present each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years,and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing,which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary,
要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing
你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g,stimulus (L),fiesta (Sp),eureka (Gr),kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。
What is vocabulary? Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language,but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect,given book,a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person,
Classification of Words (本课的一个重点,年年考试都考)
What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics? Three criteria,1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin
By use of frequency 可划分为：1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary
By notion 可划分为：1) Content word2) Functional word Content words are also known as notional words,(Content words 的别称)Functional words are also known as empty words,or form words,(Functional words 的别称)Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock,i.e,stability According to Stuart Robertson,et al (1957),* (年年考试必考) the nine functional words,namely,and,be,have,it,of,the,to,will,you
What are the characteristics of basic word stock?1) All national character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5) Collocability要把握住‘All national character’词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？e.g,man,woman,fire,water …e.g,machine,video,telephone …e.g,bow,chariot,knight Stability is relative,not absolute,
根据词的use frequency 划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic vocabulary,非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？1) Terminology e.g,sonata,algebra2) Jargon e.g,Bottom line ( Jargon ) 3) Slang e.g,smoky,bear ( Slang ) 4) Argot e.g,persuader5) Dialectal words e.g,station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood)6) Archaisms e.g,wilt (will)7) Neologisms e.g,email ( Neologisms )beaver 是girl 的slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic difference
Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary,content words or functional words? Answer,Content words What is native words? Answer,(1) By origin,English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes,the Angles,the Saxons,and the Jutes,thus know asAnglo-Saxon words,(3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000,but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language
什么叫borrowed words?Answer,(1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary (3) The English language has vast debts,In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed,
什么叫Denizens?Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language,In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling,such as port from portus (L).‘Denizens’的例子都要记：Port from portus (L),cup from cuppa (L),shift from skipta (ON),shirt from skyrta (ON),change from changier (F),pork from porc (F),
什么叫Translation-loans?Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existingmaterial in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language,such as ‘ long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)
什么叫Semantic-loans?words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form,But their meaning are borrowed,in other words,English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language,such as the word dream,which originally meant ’joy’ and ‘music ’,and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse,
第二章：The development of the English vocabulary
The Indo-European Language Family It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it5,000)languages,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar,
(重点：语系划分的标准)What is the criteria to divide language families?The answer,1,the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2,grammar(重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：)Prussian,Lithuanian,Polish,Czech,Bulgarian,Slovenian and Russian,
‘Indo-European’ 两大分支：1.Eastern set 2.Western set Eastern set,Balto-Slavic,Indo-Iranian,Armenian and Albanian Western set,Celtic,Italic,Hellenic,Germanic,In the western Set,Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic,Celtic,Scottish,Irish,Welsh,Breton The five Romance languages,namely,Portuguese,Spanish,French,Italian,Roumanian all belong to the Italic,The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages,Norwegian,Icelandic,Danish and Swedish,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages,Then there is German,Dutch,Flemish and English.With Vikings’ invasion,many Scandinavian words came into the English language,It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English,Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words,It was a highly inflected language just like modern German,
重点句,Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England
古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts)Sound and form 真正达到统一是在什么时期？.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period,modern period,
*现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期 （重要的选择或填空内容）Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance
Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是 (colonization)The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from(Colonization )The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容)Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary
Three main sources of new words,1)The rapid development of modern science and technology 2)Social,economic and political changes;3)The influence of other cultures and language
2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing2)Semantic change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ）Elevation,degradation,extension,narrowing,transfer 外来词可以被称作borrowed words,因此又可以被称作,重点句：borrowed words are also known as loaned words,恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant,This is especially trueof American English,
英语从synthetic language 发展到present analytical language 是在英语的哪一个阶段完成的？答案：Modern English period
文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展的哪个阶段?答案：Early Modern English period
在英语发展过程 在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？French,Latin,English in Middle English period
easel,port,freight,出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？答案：Middle English,Dutch
在英语发展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了2500 个词汇，这种语言是什么？答案：Dutch (前年考题)
据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少?答案：50,000 to 60,000 他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue )第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets,black belt,kongfu,这些词属于英语词汇发展的Present - day English Vocabulary 注意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。
Old English 和 Middle English 最大的striking distinction 存在于哪一个方面?答案：Old English was a language of full endings,Middle English was one of leveled endings,
文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响?答案：Greek,Roman culture
某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段?答案：Modern English
十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种industry?答案：Printing这导致sound and form 出现concord,出现standardization,
第三章复习
The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes)
The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)
In the plural form changing,some of the words will take internal vowel change,this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs)
Deer 复数没有变,还是deer,sheep 复数没有变,还是sheep,因此,这种变化被称作(zero derivation)
名词解释:Morphemes,The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes,In other words,the morphemes isthe smallest functioning unit in composition of words
Allomorphs,The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs,e.g.the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context,e.g,in cats in bags,matches It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet,man-men,goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer,fish-fish
简答题,what are the types of morphemes? ( 答简答题时,名词解释)答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes 。
Free morphemes,1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to be free.2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences,3) They are identical with root words,as each of them consists of a single free root words,as each of them consists of a single free root 4) free morphemes are free roots,
bound morphemes,1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.,2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words,3) Bound morphemes include two types,bound root and affix affix 分为两类,inflectional and derivational affixes,Inflectional affixes,Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes,Derivational affixes,1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words.2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes,root,1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,2) the root,whether free or bound,generally carries the main component of meaning in a word 3) a ’root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed’ stem,1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff,2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as inmouthful,underestimate,3) Therefore,a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added,
问题：Stem 和 root 有一个最大的区别在哪里? ( 连着两年没有考过)答案,a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added,
问题：请加以区别下面两个词的特征,nation,dict 请加以理论的分析?Both nation and dict belong to roots,nation is free root,which can function alone in a sentence,Nation as a free root,has complete meaning,when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed,nation as a free root,still remains Dict is a bound root,which can not function alone grammatically,dict carries the fundamental meaning of words,dict has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words,for example,dictionary,contradiction,
问题：分析下面一句话,He is much more cleverer than any other one in the village,too heads are better than one.请从构词角度分析以上的例子,cleverer,better cleverer (-er,inflectional affixes ) better ( good,well 的特殊变化) It is allomorph of good and well,
第四章,
问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种?答案：有七种:1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending有三种最常用,affixation,compounding and conversion
问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种?答案：Extension 问题：由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式?答案：Narrowing
问题：Affixation 又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类？答案：Affixation is also known as derivation Affixation falls into two subclasses,prefixation and suffixation 要点,有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别:a-,non,ir,negative prefixes de-,dis- ( 既属于negative,也属于reversative prefixes ) mal-,pseudo-,mis-,pejorative prefixes super,sur-,extra,prefixes of degree or size anti-,contra-,counter-,pro-,prefixes of orientation and attitude
trans-,fore- tele-,locative prefixes fore-,post-,prefixes of time and order bi-,uni-,semi-,number prefixes pan-,vice -,miscellaneous prefixessuffixation,1,Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns 2) Deverbal nouns3) De-adjective nouns,ity,-ness,4) Noun and adjective suffixes注意Compounding,acoronymy,blending,conversion,clipping 的名词解释,
要点,复合词分为哪三类,1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open
简答题,what are the characteristics of compounds?What are the difference between compounds and free phrases?答案：1) phonetic features2) Semantic features3) Grammatical features
最常见的三种词性,1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb compounds
问题：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性,哪两种不具有多产性?
在形容性复合词当中,哪三类有多产性?
动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的?
*名词解释:Conversion ( 重点，还没考过)Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one
class to another class,Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation ( 选择或填空要点)Adjective to noun,(1) full conversion (2) partial conversion
问题：形容词转为动词分为哪两类？答案：由Adjective to verbs,(1) Transitive (2) Intransitive
简答题,形容词变动词的三种类别( 没考过)
问题：请你举出由conjunction 变为noun 的一个例子?答案,Ifs and buts blending are also called blends or portmanteau words ( 选择或填空要点)
问题：‘blending’ 分为哪四类合成词？1,head + tail 2,head + head 3,head + word 4,word + tail
问题,绝大多数blending 都是什么词性?答案：nouns，The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns;very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer,
问题：截短法clipping 分为哪四类？答案：There are four common types of clipping,1) Front clipping2) Back clipping3) Front and back clipping4) Phrase clipping要注意clipping 的例子有一个特殊变化：fridge ( refrigerator 截短之后在i,g 中间加一个d ),还有拼写发生变化，比如说：coke ( coca cola)
问题：什么是acronymy？Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g,BBC,VOA,TB2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g,CORE,TEFL
Words from proper names 有四大类:1,Names of people e.g,bobby,Names of people2,Names of places e.g,champagne,rugby 3,Names of books e.g,utopia 4,Tradenames e.g,cabal
问题：以下的词采用哪种构词法？
e.g,diagnosis ---?diagnose,(先有诊断的名词,后有了诊断的动词,这种构词被称作) backformation bloomers (它的构词法满足哪一种词法),属于Words from proper names 中的Names of people VJ-day 这种构词法是由哪一种构成的)属于Initialisms 中的Acronyms Pop,(采用哪一种构词法构成的),clipping Sitcom,blending FORTRAN,head + head Bath (名词) ----- bathe ( 动词) Bath 和 bathe 存在一种什么关系? ( Conversion )重点句：Conversion is also known as functional shift,
问题：Noun + v-ing,这类词构成的词是什么词？答案：compounding
问题：Record-breaking,它是属于复合法中的哪一种？答案：Adjectives compounds
问题：请说出Adjectives compounds 中多产性强的有几类？答案,有三类1) n + v-ing 2) n + a3) n + v-ed
问题：up-bringing 是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？答案：noun compounds (adv + v-ing )
问题：复合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么?答案：区别也就是复合词的特点:1) Phonetic features2) Semantic features3) Grammatical features
问题：red meat,green horn,它们是复合词的哪一个特点构成的词?答案,Semantic features (也就是从构词上推不出它的涵义）
问题：Compounding又被称作什么法？答案：composition
问题：由compounding 或composition 构成的词被称作什么？答案：compounds
问题：复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？答案：分为三类：solid,hyphenated,opensolid,blackmail,blackmarkethyphenated,brother-in-law,open,green horn,green hand
问题：当形容词转为动词时分为几类：Adjectives to verbs答案：有三类：1) Both transitive and intransitive 2) Only transitive 3) Only intransitive
问题：由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性?答案：verb to noun e.g,catch
问题：形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别?答案：分为两类：1) full conversion e.g,black,white
2) partial conversion e.g,the rich,the poor
问题：名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？答案：1) Concrete 2) abstract e.g,host,（可加-ess 变成具体名词）friend,(加-ship 可变成抽象名词)
问题：(只作了解) A word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or false )答案：true ( 可从word 的四个特点看出）
问题：Most loaned words are borrowed from foreign languages without anychange in sound and spelling,（true or false）.答案,true
外来词分为四类：1) Denizens e.g,cup from cuppa,port form portus 2) Aliens e.g,garage,décor 3) Translation –loans e.g,long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g,dream
判断对错题,
1．Conversion means transfer of a word from one class to anther,(true or false )答案：true
2,The relationship between a word symbol and its meaning is mostly arbitrary and conventional.(true or false ).答案：true
3.a word used in different contexts may contrast with different antonyms,(true or false)答案：true
4,an allomorph is any of the variant forms of morphemes,(true or false )答题,false
重点句：A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym,
E.g,fast （fast 在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念）选择题,
Chinese is our native language,but we can not say the Chinese is our?,a)mother tongue b) first language c) mother language d) official language答案：C）mother language ( 不存在的一种说法)
问题：以下的哪一个词 is not an expression used by American? A) tube B) bar C) Mailbox D) Congress答案：tube ( 只有英国人把地铁叫tube,美国人把它叫作subway,underground )
问题：‘smog’它是‘smoke,fog’ 合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一种构词法？A) clipping B ) compounding C) blending D) backformation答案,C ) blending
问题：以下的词哪些属于：A)simple word B) compound word C) derived word D) shortened form.e.g,goldmine (compound word )bike ( shortened form )process (derived word,cess 是一个不可分割的bound root，pro 它是一个前缀)supermarket ( derived word )language ( simple word )driver ( derived word )dorm ( shortened form,clipping )modernize ( derivation )blackboard ( compound )bus ( shortened form ) (omnibus )
(可能会出现的题)What is the difference between content words and functional words,illustrate your point with examples? ( 未考过)注意：答题时先答名词解释，再加以例子说明。
(复习要考虑的题) What is the difference between denotative meaning and connotative meaning?
(论述题) What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock of the English vocabulary? ( 未考过)答题时先答名词解释basic word stock 再答五大特点并配以例子加以说明。(关键答好第一个特点: ‘All national character, 它又分为五个特点)
问题：Which of the following words is not formed through clipping? A) dorm B) Motel C) gent D) zoo答案：Motel,(blending)
问题：Old English has vocabulary of about how many words? 答案：50,000 to 60,000
问题：词素分为自由词素和粘着词素，自由词素又被称作自由词根，粘着词素分为哪两类？答案：粘着词素分为：Bound root 和 affixes
选择题或填空,
Besides French words,English also absorb as many as 2,500 words in the Middle English Period,(Dutch )
A word is a symbol that B,A ) is used by same community B) represents something else in the world C) both simple and complex in nature D) Show different ideas in different sounds
The opposite of semantic elevation in meaning change is called degradation or pejoration.Pronouns and numerals enjoy nationwide use and stability,but has limited Productivity
问题：以下的这些词是粘着词素吗,以下的这些词是什么样的构词法？1) heart and soul ( Adverbial in nature )2) father - male parent ( conceptual meaning )3) City-bred ( noun + v-ed )4) Lip-reading - lip read (backformation )5) headache (compound n + v )6) antecedent ( 下划线的这一部分是什么,bound morphemes )
7) preview ( prefix,前缀)8) receive ( bound root )9) called ( inflectional affixes )
第五章：Word Meaning
The meanings of‘Meaning’ 指的是哪三个层次的内容?意义中的含义的三个层次的划分,What are the meanings of ‘Meaning’?1) Reference (有reference 的词必然具有sense,也必然具有Concept ) 2) Concept( 能够形成Concept 的词必然有reference ) 3) Sense (有sense 的词未必具有concept,也未必具有reference) (Conjunction,prepositions,adverbs,它们都是具有sense 的词,但是未必具有reference,也未必具有concept,例如：if,but,probably,它们有sense,但没有concept )
What is the relationship between the reference and the thing outside the language?（等同于：What is relationship between sound and form ）答,Arbitrary and conventional
名词解释,reference 名词Concept,1,Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical,They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.2,Concept,which is beyond language,is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in the human mind,3,Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture,race,language and so on,4,a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world,
重点,sense 的名词解释：Sense,1,‘ sense’ denotes the relationships inside the language,‘ The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’ 2,Since the sense of an expression is not a thing,it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is,It is also an abstraction,*3,Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)
重点：What are the type of motivation？ 1) Onomatopoeic motivation 2) Morphological Motivation 3) Semantic Motivation 4) Etymological Motivation
填空:1.some of the words when edited with prefixes and suffixes,it will become another new word,either new in meaning or new in sense,this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )
2,Compounds are totally different in the meaning before it was carried out with different elements,so the meaning of a compound can not be deduced from component constituted this compound,this motivation is called ( morphological motivation ) 3,pen in old English,refers to the feather,but with the development of technology,fountain was invented,but the name of this material was kept up to this day,people still used the pen to refer to writting tool,this motivation is called (etymological motivation)
4,Conceptual meaning also know as (denotative meaning )
4.laconic answer (简短回答),laconic 的形成是属于哪一种理据 (etymological motivation)
问题,pingpong ball,cuckoo 是靠哪一种理据形成的新词?答案,Onomatopoeic Motivation
问题:at the foot of mountain,the mouth of river,此时采用了哪一种理据构成?答案,Semantic movtivation
论述题,1,What are the types of motivation?
2,What are the types of meaning?
按大的分支来分分为,(1)grammatical meaning (2)Lexical meaning 分析题:*’The dog is chasing a cat’,analyze the sentence based on grammatical meaning,
Lexical meaning itself has two components,conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(语法意义上分析没考过,但从词汇意义上分析考过)语法意义指一个词的词性,句中充当的成份,句子的时态,单复数形式等.1)’Dog,cat’ are nouns,and ’chase’ is transitive verb.2) The sentence is used in present continuous tense.3) ’The dog,a cat’ are singular form,
问题:The pen is mightier than sword? 请从语法意义的角度上分析这句话?Both ’pen and sword’ are nouns,’mightier’ is an adjective,and ’than’ is preposition.The sentence is in simple present tense.这是现在时中采用的哪一种语法结构?’Mightier than’ is comparative degree.’pen and sword’ are in singular form.’The pen’ is subject,and ’sword’ functions as an object to preposition ’than’.’mightier’ is predictive,
重点名词解释,Conceptual meaning:1) Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning,2) Being constant and relatively stable,conceptual meaning forms the basis for communiation as the same word has the same conceptual meaing to all the speakers of the same language
*Associative meaning 一定要把它的四种分支答上)1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning,2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated,3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture,experience,religion,geographical region,class background,education,etc,4)Associative meaning comprises four types,connotative,stylistic,affective,and collocative,
问题,Connotative meaning is not the same to everybody,every situation and every time,analyze the statement?答案,e.g,A child is prejudiced against,often jeered at,beaten or scolded at home,then home to his is nothing but ’ a hell’,hence unfavourable connotatitions,
问题,某些贬义词是不是任何时候都是贬义词？答案：e.g,A phrase like ’son of a *****’ which normally has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity may convey the connotation of ’friendliness’ and ’intimacy’ used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time,
问题:Stylistic meaning 根据字典上的划分有几种划分?根据The Five Clocks 划分,有几种划分?答案:In some dictionaries,stylistic features are clearly marked as ’formal’,’informal’,’literary’,’archaic’,slang’,Martin Joos in his book The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of formality,’frozen’,’formal’,’consultative’,’casual’ and ’intimate’,
问题:在日常生活中,人们把文体只简单地划分为哪三类?答案:1)formal 2)neutral 3) informal注意:要把书中89页中例子[22][23]分析要记好.在情感意义affective meaning,考试往往要落脚在affective meaning 的两个分类年年affective meaning 例子都考) (1) appreciative meaning (2) pejorative meaning Collocative meaning 中的例子要记好,pretty,handsome Green 搭配的例子记好,green on the job,green fruit,green with envy,green-eyed monster,
问题,Blackmail 从发音的角度被划分成什么词,从理据的角度被划分成什么词?答案:Complex Morphological motivation问题,有 reference 的词必然具有sense and concept ( 正确)
有sense 的词一定具有reference.(错误)
The word which have meaning does not have necessarily reference,
问题,’Forget,forgot,forgetting,forgotten,forgets’这是从哪一个角度来界定这个词的分支?答案,Grammatical meaning
问题,‘frozen,‘formal’,‘consultative’,‘casual’ and ‘intimate’ 这五个词是总结了什么的划分,是根据什么的划分?答案,stylistic meaning,是根据The Five Clocks written by Martin Joos,
问题:But in daily life,we always refer to (formal),(neutral),(informal),
问题,’Pretty boy,pretty woman,pretty garden,pretty garden,pretty car’，请解释这些词的意义一样不一样？如果不一样请加以理论分析？答案:Collocative meaning,when pretty is used to modify different nouns both animate and inanimate,their collocative meaning are totally different,
问题：Table tennis can be replaced by pingpong ball and the name of the bird is also called cuckoo,which can also be reused to refer to the sound of the bird,so their two words are (onomatopoeically) motivated,
问题：’Unexpected,expectation,expecting’,these three words are (morphologically) motivated,
问题,’Hopeless,jobless,dislike’,这三个词是靠什么motivated,( morphologically motivated)
问题：’East or west,home is best’ and ’there is no place like home’,这两话是使用了什么样的意义构成的？答案,Connotative meaning
第六章,Sense Relations and Semantic Field
polysemy,homonymy,synonymy,antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）
Two Approaches to Polysemy,1) Diachronic approach2) Sychronic approach
Two Processes of Development 1) radiation (1) radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes,(2) the meaning are independent of one another,but can all be traced back to the central meaning,e.g,face,neck 2) concatenation (1) meaning ‘ linking together’,is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until,in may cases,there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning,(2) In plain terms the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time,and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally lost,e.g,treacle
注意,这两种模式的名词解释照样要记（这两种模式只在填空，选择，出过题，还没有以名词解释形式考过）
问题：In the linguistic study,what are the sense relations and what are the types of sense relations?答案,A word which is related to the other words is related to them in sense,so it is called sense semantic relations,
types of sense relations,polysemy,homonymy,synonymy,antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）
问题：Fruit 与 apples bananas,pineapples,lychees 是什么语义关系？答案：Hyponymy?
问题：Fruit 这一类里包含apples,bananas,pineapples,grapes 它们形成了一种什么样的理论？答案,Semantic field
问题：有的时候在英语中存在着一种语言不共容的现象，那就是反义词的不共容的现象,那么这种不能够相互溶合，这样的词在反义词当中被称作什么词。比如说：dead,alive,它们之间的反义关系是什么样的一种关系？答案：Contradictory terms它们之间形成的语义关系被称作antonymy
问题：Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？答案：Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable,They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them,
问题：反义词存在不存在一种包容现象？答案：表明two poles,two extremes，的反义词，它们之间存在一种包容现象，这种包容现象被称作（Middle ground） e.g,huge / tiny（ 它们之间存在着big,small,quite big,quite small）e.g,young / old这类反义词被称为(Contrary terms)
问题：fast 这个词,它表示紧的概念时,它 和loose 是一组反义词，表示快的概念 时，它和slow 是一组反义词,这样的 一种语义关系算什么样的语义关系？答案,polysemy
问题：分析deer,dear 这两个词是什么样的词？答案：Homophone
重点,homonyms 有哪三个类别的划分？ 1) perfect homonyms e.g,bank,bear2) homographse.g,bow,sow 3) homophones e.g dear,deer right,write,rite
重点：Origins of Homonyms 1) Change in sound and spelling 2) Borrowing3) Shortening
问题：shortening 可以表现在哪些分支结构构成上? 1) Acronymy 2) Homonymy 3) Narrowing 4) Idioms
重点问题：Homonymy 和 Polysemy 的区别？（ 未考过）
6,Rhetoric Features of Homonyms e.g,Long time no sea,( puns ) humor,sarcasm or ridicule
重点：名词解释 Synonyms
Types of Synonyms,1) Absolute synonyms 2) Relative synonyms
重要简答题：Sources of Synonyms ( 四大来源,配以例子说明就可以了) 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
重点：如何区分同义词？(Discrimination of Synonyms ) 1) Difference in denotation2) Difference in connotation 3) Difference in application
antonymy,反义关系要点:反义词的三种类别的划分,
What are the different types of antonyms?
三种类别的名词解释都要记,1) Contradictory terms exclusive 特例,they cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualifythem,e.g,single/ married (有可能放在分析里去论述) 2) contrary terms 关键词,two poles or extremes middle ground e.g,rich / poor (中间还可出现well-to-do)3) Relative terms e.g,parent / child,predecessor/ successor
问题,What are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 特例:Many words,though having synonyms,do not find their semantic opposites,e.g,read,hit,house,book,power,magazine,Therefore,in a language,there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms,2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym,(这个特点只适用于polysemous )e.g,fast,dull 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.(这里讲的包容性是指一个反义词必然包 含着另外一个反义词的绝对的概念) e.g.man/ woman (man 除了指男性,还可以指整个人类,woman 算作人类的一 部分,所以woman 也算在man 的范畴内,因此,woman 被man 所包容) dog / ***** ( dog 除了指狗类通称,还可以指公狗,*****是母狗,dog指狗类通称的时,*****是狗的一种,因此我们说*****必然被dog所包容,所以,它们之间存在着Semantic inclusion) (语义上的包容性还没有考过) e.g,tall/short,old /young 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intenisty,so each has its own corresponding opposite.(特例)Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time,one being the negative and the other opposite,(未考过,重要的选择或填空内容) e.g,happy / unhappy/ sad ( happy/ unhappy 之间的反义关系是negative,happy/sad 之间的关系是opposite )The use of Antonyms (通常用在习语当中) e.g,rain or sine high and loweasy come,easy go
名词解释:Hyponymy (未考过,很重要的概念)
Hyponymy,1) hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion,2)That is to say,the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word,3) These specific words are known as hyponyms,The general words are the superordinate terms and the more specific ones are subordinate terms,
注意:hyponyms 和 subordinate 都是指下义词,
比如说:考试给你hammer,saw,spanner这些词,然后再给你tool这个词,然后让你用语义关系的理论加以分析这组词?分析,hammer,saw,spanner 都是specific word,它们和tool 存在的关系是semantic inclusion,所以tool 是一个superordinate,hammer,saw,spanner 属于subordinate 或者是hyponyms,(用上下义语义关系进行理论分析的题,也是一个考试的要点)
hyponymy ( 它与语义场semantic field具有一定的联系)注意,上义词与下义词不是一成不变的,也不是绝对的,是一个相对的概念,不同的语义场就存在不同的上下义关系,
重点:Semantic Field (名词解释) (未考过) Semantic Field,1)The massive word store a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas,some large,and others smaller,Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory,2) The German linguist Trier saw vocabulary as ‘an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense,Therefore,the ‘words of languages can be classified into semantically related sets or fields,3) According to Trier’s vision of fields,the whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields,4)Words in each field are semantically related and define one another.注意:答语义场的简答题与它的名词解释相同,
问题:在反义关系中,同一个词具有不同的涵义,因此也就具有了多个不同的反义词 ( true or false )问题,true e.g,fast,dull
问题,反义词分为哪三类:1) Contradictory terms 2) Contrary terms 3) Relative terms
问题:可以用形容词比较级,可以用程度副词 加以修饰的反义词是属于哪一类?答案,Contradictory terms
问题,可以接纳一个Middle ground,这样的词是属于哪一类反义词?答案:contrary terms
问题,Husband and wife,man and woman 这都是表示性别的反义词,但是他们属于同一类反义词的划分,对还是错?答,错
husband and wife,relative terms man and woman,contradictory terms
问题,empty 与 vacant 这两个词都表示空荡荡的感觉,empty表示的是修饰容积,容量,没有填充物的空荡荡,而vacant 表示的是一个not occupied,not taken 所以一般我们说没有放家具的房间叫做vacant apartment,而人去楼空的房间叫empty room,请从同义词的角度对这种用法加以分析? (书111 页)答案,Differnece in application,Empty,vacant are synonyms,but their collocations are not the same,Empty implies that there is no one or nothing inside while vacant suggests that something or some place is not occupied,
问题,反义词之间存在不存在包容性概念semantic inclusion,请举例说明?答案,e.g,man / woman,dog/ ***** tall/ short,old /young
问题:Face 具有不同的它有一个primary meaning也有很多的derived meanings,那么,这种基本语义和派生语义体现在face的身上,是用哪一种方法论研究得出来的结果?答案,diachronic approach
像车轮式一样进行发展的语义属于哪一种模式? 举例说明?答案,radiation e.g,face,neck
问题:harvest 它的意思是time of cutting,time of harvest,现在是指yield of grain or food 是哪一种方法论得出的.答案,diachronic approach
问题:huge/tiny,这是一组反义词,请从反义关系的角度来分析这是哪一种类型的反义词,并加以理论的解释?答案:contrary terms
Antonyms of this kind form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belong neither to one pole nor to the other as shown below,huge/very big/big/quite big / medium-sized/ quite small/small/ tiny( 这种分析题目易考)看例子,desk,table,chair,cupboard,这些词都算在什么范畴之内,加以理论分析?答案:这些词都属于furnature,furnature 是superordinate,desk,table,.,是furniture 的subordinate words 或者称作hyponyms,它们之间形成的relationship is called hyponymy,
第七章,Changes in Word Meaning
两个大的部分,1,Types of Semantic changes (五种) (1)extension extension 又被称作generalization e.g ’manuscript’ original meaning ’ handwritting---now ’any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer "barn" original meaning ’ a place for stroing only barely’---now ’storeroom’(2)narrowing narrowing 又被称作specializatione.g,"deer" animal---now just ’deer’ "corn" grain---now ’maize’only ’garage’ any safe place---’ a place for storing cars’ (3) degradation degradation 又被称作pejoratione.g,"boor" peasant---now a rude,ill-mannered person "churl" peasant or free man---uncultivated or mean person "hussy" housewife---a woman of low moral "villain" a person who worked in a villa---evil person or scoundrel(4) elevationelevation 又被称作 ameliratione.g,"nice" ignorance---foolish---now elevated to ’delight,pleasant’"marshal" keeper of horses---now means ’high-ranking army officer’"constable" keeper of horses---now means ’policeman’(5) transfer e.g,paper ( p140) the lip of a wound ( associated transfer) purse for ’money’ (associated transfer ) clear-sounding ( transfer of sensations )
2.Causes of Changes,1)extra linguistic factors(1) historical reasona word is retained for a name thogh the meaning has changed because the referent has changed,e.g," pen" feather in the past ---pen,ball-pens,fountains pens increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors,(2) class reasonelevation and degradation (3) Psychological reasonThe associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words Religious influence is another kind of psychological need,e.g,"copperhead" on p.143 2)linguistic factorsThe change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system,Especially when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole.The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.The competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division,
语义扩大的三个特例:1)polysemic words of modern English 2)technical terms3)from proper nouns to common words
问题:由普通变成专有名词算哪一类词类变化模式?答案,Narrowing
问题,词义缩小有几个特例?答案:有三个特例1) From common words to proper nouns e.g,city ---> the City
pennisular --->the Pennisular profit --->the Profit 2) shortening3) material nouns
问题,以下的词的词义的变化由什么模式造成的,
1)lust 最早是指人的一种pleasure快乐,现在是指sexual pleasure,这种词义变化属于哪一种模式?答案,degradation,
2)Editorial article 缩写为editorial 这是属于哪一种词义变化的模式?答案,Narrowing
3) the Pennisular,专指利比利亚半岛,那么这个词的形成是属于哪一种模式?答案:Narrowing,因为它是由common words 变成了proper nouns,
4) Sandwitch,最早是指三明治这个家族,但是现在是指一切快餐类食品,这种词义的变化属于哪一种答案：Extension
5)问题:多义词具有了不同的语义,这种词义变化模式属于哪一类?答案：Extension
6) 问题:liquor 最早是指所有液体的通称,现在专门指alcoholic drinking,这种词义的变化算哪一种模式?答案：Narrowing or specialization
7) car 最早是指马拉的战车,但是现在就是指小轿车,那么这种词义的变化算是哪一个原因造成的?答案：Extra linguistic factor中的historical reason
8) computer 最早是指人的手工劳动的计算,后来是指占地面积非常大的计算机,现在的计算机就是指micro computer,那么computer 词义的变化算哪一个原因造成的?答案,Extra linguistic fator 中的historical reason,
9) 这时的computer 指代的是哪一种模式?或者是说哪一种理据的构成?答案：Etymological motivation
10)在南北战争时期,南方的人一见到北方的人就胆战心惊,所以把北方的人比作rattle snake,那么南方人的 这种用词,它是哪一种原因造成的?答案：Extralinguistic factor中的psychological reason,
11) 问题:最早的纸是来自非洲的一种做纸的植物叫papyrus,后来就用paper这个词指代所有的纸张,尽管造纸 的技术和原料变了,但是paper 这个名词却被保留了下来,这算词义变化的哪一种模式?答案:transfer (书140页)
12) 问题,Extention 又被称作什么,哪一种词类的变化最能说明这个原因?答案,generalization,from proper nouns to common nouns,
13) 问题:Narrowing 最能表现词义缩小的是哪一类?答案,From common nouns to proper nouns
1)A concept is universal to all men regardless of____A) culture B) race C) language D) all of the above答案
2)问题,Mouth 在 the mouth of river这个习语,它采用了哪一种motivated?答案,semantically motivated
3)问题,Radiation and concatenation are different stages of development leading to polysemy,generally,radiation 和concatenation 哪一个出现的早?答案,radiation proceeds concatenation
4)问题:Of the most words meaning changes,which are most productive,which are most common?答案:Extension and narrowing
5) 问题,wife 由最早是指所有的woman 变为了married woman,这是属于哪一种?答案：Narrowing
6) 问题,Angel 由最早的messenger 变成了messenger by god,是哪一个词义变化模式?答案,Elvervation
7) 问题,silly 它现在的词义是foolish,它是哪一种语义的变化模式?答案,Degradation
8)问题,cukoo,它既指布谷鸟的声音,也可以指布谷鸟,它是哪种理据构成的词?答案,Onomatopoeic Motivation
9)问题,Italian,它是哪一个语系分支当中的哪一个语族? 答案,Indo-European language family Western set Italic
10)问题,Greek 属于哪一个语系当中的哪一个小的语系当中的哪一个语族?答案,Indo-European language family Western set Hellenic
11)问题,fair and square,这属于Idioms中的哪一个类别?答案,Phonetic manipulation 中的 Rhyme
问题：What are the characteristics of antonyms?答案：有四个,1) Semantic opposition2) A word which ahs more than one meaning can have more than one antonym,3) Semantic inclusion 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity,so each has its own corresponding opposite,
问题,"The chicken is ready to eat",请你从语境的角度来分析？答案：This is wrong sentence,because it has two problems,1)Ambiguity 2)Indication of reference According to two functions of Context1) Elimination of ambiguity2) Indication of ReferenceThis sentence can be corrected as follows,1)what a nice smell,the chicken is ready to eat,2) The chicken is hungery,so the chicken needs foods,
A concept has referring expressions ____.A) one B) many C)a few D) none of the above.答案：B
The grammatical meanings of a word refer to the part of the meaning of a word which indicate grammatical concept or relationship,such as ____,A) part of speech of a word B)Singular and plural forms C) tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms D) All of the above.答案,D)
问题：pick and choose,它算习语中的哪一个类别？答案：reiteration （同义词叠用）
问题：rain or shine,它算习语中的哪一类答案：Juxtaposition (反义词叠用)kith and kin alliteration,might and main,alliteration
cooked 这是哪一种,请从词缀的角度来加以区别cookedinflectional affixation employer derivational affixes
名词解释：connotative meaning,is also known as connnotation What are the differences between hymonyms and polysemyms?
face 是多义词,ball 不是
论述题,I met a write rwho is the relation of a politician,I met a newspaper reporter who is the brother of Senator Buckley.以上这两句话哪一话好，好在哪里？(p119)注意：答这个论述题时先说哪句好，然后加以分析，最后要答上下义关系hyponymy 的名词解释。
第8章 meaning and Context
1 Context 如何进行分类两种,1) Linguistic context，In a narrow sense,it refers to the words,clauses,sentences in which a word appears,This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph,a whole chapter and even the entire book.2) Extra-linguistic context or non-linguistic context IN a broad sense,it includes the physical situation as well,This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context,which embraces the people,time,place,and even the whole cultural background,
Context 这两个分类也就是它的名词解释1)Linguistic context Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context。Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question,The meaning of the word is offten affected and defined by the neighbouring words,
Grammatical context In some cases,the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs,This is what we call grammatical context,
重点:简答题,What is linguistic context?(这道简答题没考过,但是整个context 考过)
重点:The role of Context 语境的作用?三个作用,1) Elimination of Ambiguity,Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy2) Indication of Referents Without clear context,the reference can be very confusing,3) Provision of Clues for Inferring Wordmeaning在3) 中又包括八种线索,(1) Definition (2) Explanation (3) Example (4) Synonymy (5) Antonymy (6) Hyponymy (7) Relevant details (8) Word structure
第九章,English Idioms
这一章关键是要记习语，这些习语都要记。
名词解释,Idioms (重点) (1)Idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas.(2)Strickly speaking,idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of indiviudal elements,(3)In forms idioms may include colloquialisms,catchphrases,slang expressions,
9.1 Character5istics of Idioms
9.1.1 semantic unity (重点)1) idioms each consist of more than one word,2) in the idiom words have lost their individual identity,3) quite often the idiom functions as one word,e.g," till the cows come home",means ’ forever as an adverb,
9.1.2 Structural stability ( 重点) 1) the structure of an idiom is to a large exten unchangeable,first,the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced,e.g," in a brown study" ( deep in thought ) " lip service" ( support only in words,not in fact ) " kick the bucket " ( die) " bury the hatcher" ( come to friendly or peaceful terms) 2) Secondly,the word order cannot be inverted or changed,e.g,twos and threes; tit for tat; the lion’s share 3) Thirdly,the constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or added to,not even an article,e.g,out of the question means ’ impossible’ in question ( being considered) 4) Finally,many idioms are grammatical unanalysable,e.g,diamond cut diamond ( two parties are equally matched ) like cures like (as) sure as eggs ( quite certainly ) stepped up ( improve or enhance) in the raw ( naked ) turnn over a new leaf ( begin a new life ) draw the curtain ( end or concel )
9.2 Classification of Idioms The difficulty in using idioms lies first in the difficulty of grasping the elusive and figurative meaning,of determining the syntactic functions of idioms e.g,heart and soul ( adverbial ) Idioms may be classified into five groups,1) Idioms Nominal in Nature 2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature3) Idioms Verbal in Nature（五类中最重要的）
注意：考试的一个要点在这,动词性习语有哪两类划分？(1) phrasal verbs,短语动词(2) verbal phrases,动词短语4) Idioms Adverbial in Nature e.g,"in clover ’ or " in the clover " ( in rich comfort or having a pleasant or easy life 0 5) Sentence Idioms
9.3 Use of Idioms The rhetoric characteristics of idioms such as,stylistic features,rhetoric features and their occasional variations,9.3.1 Stylistic Feature; Such expressions were all colloquial and informal and once confined to a limited group of people engaged in the same trade or activity,But they proved terse,vivid,forcible and stimulating so that later they broke out of their bounds and gradualy gained wide acceptance.As a result,their early stylistic features faded in part and many became part of the common core of the language and are now used in different situations,9.3.2 Rhetorical Features ( examples are very important ) 1) phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical manipuation (1) Reiteration ( duplication of synonyms ) e.g,hustle and bustle cut and carve odds and ends (2) Repetition e.g,word for word year in year out (3) Juxtaposition ( of antonyms ) e.g,up and down hit or miss rain and shine
3,Figures of speech (1) Simile e.g,as dead as a doornail sleep like a log (2) Metaphor Animals are used to refer to people,e.g,grey mare snake in the grass Inanimate things to refer to people e.g,a new broom flat tire the salt of the earth Things to refer to something else,e.g,bed of dust a wet blanket black bottle Actions,state to refer to abstract ideas or other actions,state,etc,e.g,sit on the fence cut the ground from under sb,fall from grace (3) Metonymy,idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it,(4) Synecdoche,substituting part for the whole e.g,fall into good hands earn one’s bread (5) Personification e.g,The pot calls the cattle back (6) Euphemism
9.3.3 Variations of Idioms 1) Replacement 2) Addition or deletion 3) Position-shifting 4) Shortening 5) Dismembering
问题：classification of idioms可分为哪几类？答案：Idioms may be classified into five groups,1) Idioms Nominal in Natural 2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature 3) Idioms Verbal in Nature 4) Idioms Adverbial in Nature 5) Sentence Idioms
问题：Sentence idioms 如何分类,( 选择或填空还未考过)答案,They embrace declarative,interrogative,imperative and exclamative sentences.In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple,compound and complex sentences,
注意：习语中的特例有可能是填空内容,(Exception1) This class contains numerous prepositional phrases,which in nature are either adjectival or adverbial and in many cases have both functions at the same time,
(Exception2 )Sentence Idioms are mainly proverbs and sayings,including colloquialisms and catchphrases,including colloquialisms and catchphrases,
(Exception3)In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple,compound and complex sentences,
(Exception4) forms and functions of idioms are not necessarily identical,
问题：What are the rhetorical features of idioms?答案：1)Phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical manipulation (1) Reiteration (2) Repetition (3) Juxtaposition
问题：Figures of speech ( 大的修饰格6个,小的修饰格4个)答案,1) Simile 2) Metaphor 3) Metonymy 4) Synecdoche5) Personification 6) Euphemism (1) humourous (2) ironic and sardonic in tones (3) derogatory (4) hyperbole
重点简答题,Metonymy 和Synecdoche,这两种修饰有何区别? ( 未考过)答案：Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names,yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa,
习语的分析：(挑出习语加以分析，它是哪一个类型,然后加以解释) e.g,He goes to the service,rain or shine.答：In this sentence,rain or shine,is an idiom,rain or shine is composed in Juxtaposition,It is Idiom adverbial in nature改写后：He goes to the service,no matter what the weather looks like,no matter what and no matter what kind of difficulties,
第十章 English Dictionaries
词典这一部分在填空或选择时出现的可能是最大的1) 词典的种类2)每一种词典的特殊性也是考试的要点：比如：CCELD它的最大特殊性是它的extra column3) 每一种词典的vocabulary stock 也是考试的要点：
针对复习,
一、选择,
二、填空,
三、四、选择连线*****
1、types of morphemes,Free morphemes; bound morphemes; inflectional morphemes,
2、types of bound morphemes：Prefix; Suffix,
3、types of idioms,Idioms Nominal in nature; Idioms Adjectival in nature; Idioms Verbal in nature; Idioms Adverbal in nature; sentence idioms,
4、types of word meaning,Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning; conceptual meaning and associative meaning (connotative meaning\stylistic ~\affective ~\collocative ~)
5、idioms stylistic features,colloquialisms; slang; literary expressions,
6、idioms rhetorical features,
phonetic manipulation (alliteration\rhyme); lexical manipulation (reiteration\repetition\juxtaposition);figures of speech (simile\metaphor\metonymy\synecdovhe\euphemism\personification)
7、types of word formation,affixation; compounding; conversion; blending; clipping; acronym; back-formation; word from proper names,
8、changes in wording,extension; narrowing; elevation; degradation; transfer,
9、types of motivation,morphological motivated; semantic ~; etymological ~; onomatopoeic ~
10、语系划分的标准Estern set,Balto-Slavic(Prussian,Lithuanian,Polish,Czech,Bulgarian,Slovenian and Russian.),Indo-Iranian（Persian,Hindi）,Armenian and Albanian ；Western set,Celtic(Scottish,Irish,Welsh,Breton),Italic(Portuguese,Spanish,French,Italian,Roumanian),Hellenic(Greek),Germanic(Norwegian,Icelandic,Danish and Swedish,English,German),
五、41-45名词解释*2；
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics,inquiring into the origins and meanings of words,
Morphology,the study of morpheme and their different forms,
Semantics：the study of word meaning,
Etymology,the study of the origin of words,and of their history and changes in their meaning,
Stylistics,the study of the variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer
Lexicography,the compiling of dictionaries,
Synchronic study,the study of a word or words at one particular point in time,
Diachronic study,an approach to lexicology which studies how a word (or words) changes over a period of time,
word,a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function,
vocabulary：Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language,but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect,given book,a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person,
Terminology术语 consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine,
Jargon 行话refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts,sciences,trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business,
slang 俚语belongs to the sub-standard language,a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words
Argot黑话 generally refers to the jargon of criminals,Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups,and outsiders can hardly understand it,
Archaisms古词语 are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use,
Neologisms 新词语are newly-created words or expressions,or words that have taken on new meanings,
denizens同化词are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language,
Alien非同化词 are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling,
Translation-loans,借译词Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language,
Semantic-loans借义词Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form,But their meanings are borrowed,
Content word,the basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary,which accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language,It is the most important part of vocabulary.
Creation,the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely roots,affixes and other elements,Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need,
Morpheme,the smallest meaningful unit in a language
Allomorph,any of the different forms of a morpheme
Free morpheme,a linguistic form which can be used on its own as a word
Bound morpheme,a form (morpheme) which can not he used alone hut must be used with another morpheme,Bound morphemes include hound roots and affixes
Affixes,forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function
Prefixation(suffixation),is the formation of new words by adding prefixes(suffixes) to stem
Inflectional affixes,affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships
Derivational affixes,affixes added to other morphemes to create new words
Root,a morpheme which is the basic part of a word that can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity
Stem,a form to which affixes of any kind can be added
Bound root,a root that can not stand alone as a word
Monomorphemic words,words that have nothing more than a free morpheme
Affixation,Derivation (also known as affixation) is the process of formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems,Affixaton consisits of prefixation and suffixation,Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems; suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems,
Compounding,Compounding or composition is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems,Words formed in this way tire called compounds,
Conversion：Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class,Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation,Adjective to noun,(1) full conversion (2) partial conversion
Acronymy Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g,BBC,VOA,TB2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g,CORE,TEFL
Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a won! plus a part of another word,Words formed by blending are called blends or pormanteau,
Clipping is a way of making new words which involves the shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead,
Back-formation is a process of forming new words considered to the opposite process of suffixation by the removal of an affix from existing word,
Words from proper names of place,people,trade,book,etc,
Concept,is beyond language,is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in the human mind
Sense,denotes the relationships inside the language,
Reference is the relationship between language and the world,
外来词分为四类：1 Denizens,cup from cuppa,port form portus 2) Aliens garage,décor 3) Translation –loans e.g,long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g,dream,
Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation,morphological motivation,semantic motivation,etymological motivation,
Types of meaning,grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~,stylistic~,affective ~,collocative ~,)
多义关系及两种研究方法polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings,Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time,Synchronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time,Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created,Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time,
同形同音异义关系 Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another,but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes,perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）,Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning,e.g,bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with,Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning,e.g,saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig,Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning,e.g,dear /dia/ (n) a loved person; deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal,
同形同音异义词与多义词的区别 Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation,This creates the problem of differentiation,The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings,One important criterion is to see their etymology,i.e,homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development,The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness,The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree,e,g,neck (See 6.1 Polysemy),On the other hand,meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another,In dictionaries,a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries,
同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling,There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing,dialects and regional English,figurative and euphemistic use of words,coincidence with idiomatic expressions,There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation,connotation or application,Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality,
Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application
What are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym,3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion,4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intenisty,so each has its own corresponding opposite,
上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion,That is,the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word,Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words,Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs,with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates,But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms,For example,horse,dog,pig are subordinates in relation to animal,but superordinates of mare,hound and boar,Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature,And creature in turn becomes
词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning,changes,extension,narrowing,degradation,elevation,and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common,Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason,class reason,and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening,the influx of borrowing,and analogy).词义的扩大 Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less definite concept,Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing,Paper serves as an example,This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus,which was once used to make paper,In modern times,paper is made from rags,wood,straw and the like,but the product has retained the same name,There is associated transfer,There are other kinds of transfer,such as,concrete to abstract,abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation,
语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境：词汇语境和语法语境。There are two types of contexts,linguistic context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context),Extra-linguistic context refers to those situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use,Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context,By lexical context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question,By grammatical context we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs,
语境的作用：Three major functions of context,elimination of ambiguity,indication of referents,provision of clues for inferring word-meaning,Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2) explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy 6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word structure
英语习语的特点The characteristics of idioms include semantic unity and structural stability,
英语习语的分类According to the criterion of their grammatical functions,we classify them into idioms nominal in nature,idioms adjectival in nature,idioms verbal in nature,idioms adverbial in nature,and sentence idioms,The stylistic features are characterized with colloquialisms,slang,and literary expressions,
英语习语的使用The use of idioms involves their stylistic features,rhetorical features,and variations of idioms,
英语习语的修辞色彩The rhetorical features of idioms are represented with phonetic manipulation ( alliteration 头韵法and rhyme叠韵),lexical manipulation ( reiteration复用,repetition重复and juxtaposition反义词叠用),figures of speech ( simile明喻,metaphor暗喻,metonymy转喻,synecdoche借代,personification拟人,euphemism委婉)
英语习语的变异形式In the variations,addition,deletion,replacement,position-shifting and dismembering are involved in the changes in idioms constituents,
Associative meaning,1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning,2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated,3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture,experience,religion,geographical region,class background,education,etc,4)Associative meaning comprises four types,connotative,stylistic,affective,and collocative,
Metonymy 和Synecdoche,修饰有何区别? Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names,yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa,
词典的种类There are four types of dictionaries with their features mentioned in this parts,(1) monolingual and bilingual dictionaries,(2) linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries,(3) unabridged,desk and pocket dictionaries,(4) specialized dictionaries,A monolingual dictionary is a dictionary which is written in one language,A bilingual dictionary is one in which two languages are involved,A linguistic dictionary is a dictionary which aims at defining words and explaining their usages in the language,An encyclopedic dictionary is one in which encyclopedic information is provided along with the general information as in a linguistic dictionary,An encyclopedia is a dictionary which only provide encyclopedic information concerning each headword,An unabridged dictionary is an unshortened dictionary with at least 200,000 headwords that can supply a great quantity of basic,information about a word,A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000,A pocket dictionary is a dictionary which has about 50,000 entries or fewer,
七、分析综合49-50*9
1、对句子进行理论分析，并改进：ambiguous——原因cause——可以如何理解？——如何改进？improve
2、对单词进行分析：re-collect-ion——归属free morpheme,bound morpheme——解释
3、构词法进行分析：word formation,例如：VIP=very important person 属于aronym
4、分析idiom:属于什么短语——作用
注：重点有 1、idioms相关知识；
2、一些名词解释，如术语等；
3、types of meaning；
二,串讲内容
Introduction 部分,
Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支exicology is a branch of linguistics,
Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系:1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography
研究lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach,历时语言学2) Synchronic approach,共时语言学e.g,wife纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？
Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization
第一章
What is word?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释
词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？
1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g,Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g,Management,misfortune,blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为manage 和 –ment misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和 fortuneblackmail 次划分为black 和 mail
What is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g,dog,cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds,
What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form,Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform,such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e,Old English3)With the development of the language,more and more differences occur between the two,
What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter tore present each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years,and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing,which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary,
要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing
你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g,stimulus (L),fiesta (Sp),eureka (Gr),kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。
What is vocabulary? Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language,but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect,given book,a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person,
Classification of Words (本课的一个重点,年年考试都考)
What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics? Three criteria,1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin
By use of frequency 可划分为：1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary
By notion 可划分为：1) Content word2) Functional word Content words are also known as notional words,(Content words 的别称)Functional words are also known as empty words,or form words,(Functional words 的别称)Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock,i.e,stability According to Stuart Robertson,et al (1957),* (年年考试必考) the nine functional words,namely,and,be,have,it,of,the,to,will,you
What are the characteristics of basic word stock?1) All national character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5) Collocability要把握住‘All national character’词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？e.g,man,woman,fire,water …e.g,machine,video,telephone …e.g,bow,chariot,knight Stability is relative,not absolute,
根据词的use frequency 划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic vocabulary,非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？1) Terminology e.g,sonata,algebra2) Jargon e.g,Bottom line ( Jargon ) 3) Slang e.g,smoky,bear ( Slang ) 4) Argot e.g,persuader5) Dialectal words e.g,station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood)6) Archaisms e.g,wilt (will)7) Neologisms e.g,email ( Neologisms )beaver 是girl 的slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic difference
Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary,content words or functional words? Answer,Content words What is native words? Answer,(1) By origin,English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes,the Angles,the Saxons,and the Jutes,thus know asAnglo-Saxon words,(3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000,but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language
什么叫borrowed words?Answer,(1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary (3) The English language has vast debts,In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed,
什么叫Denizens?Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language,In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling,such as port from portus (L).‘Denizens’的例子都要记：Port from portus (L),cup from cuppa (L),shift from skipta (ON),shirt from skyrta (ON),change from changier (F),pork from porc (F),
什么叫Translation-loans?Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existingmaterial in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language,such as ‘ long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)
什么叫Semantic-loans?words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form,But their meaning are borrowed,in other words,English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language,such as the word dream,which originally meant ’joy’ and ‘music ’,and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse,
第二章：The development of the English vocabulary
The Indo-European Language Family It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it5,000)languages,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar,
(重点：语系划分的标准)What is the criteria to divide language families?The answer,1,the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2,grammar(重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：)Prussian,Lithuanian,Polish,Czech,Bulgarian,Slovenian and Russian,
‘Indo-European’ 两大分支：1.Eastern set 2.Western set Eastern set,Balto-Slavic,Indo-Iranian,Armenian and Albanian Western set,Celtic,Italic,Hellenic,Germanic,In the western Set,Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic,Celtic,Scottish,Irish,Welsh,Breton The five Romance languages,namely,Portuguese,Spanish,French,Italian,Roumanian all belong to the Italic,The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages,Norwegian,Icelandic,Danish and Swedish,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages,Then there is German,Dutch,Flemish and English.With Vikings’ invasion,many Scandinavian words came into the English language,It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English,Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words,It was a highly inflected language just like modern German,
重点句,Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England
古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于 (scripts )古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了 ( early scripts)Sound and form 真正达到统一是在什么时期？.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为 early period,modern period,
*现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期 （重要的选择或填空内容）Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance
Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是 (colonization)The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from(Colonization )The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容)Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary
Three main sources of new words,1)The rapid development of modern science and technology 2)Social,economic and political changes;3)The influence of other cultures and language
2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing2)Semantic change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ）Elevation,degradation,extension,narrowing,transfer 外来词可以被称作borrowed words,因此又可以被称作,重点句：borrowed words are also known as loaned words,恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant,This is especially trueof American English,
英语从synthetic language 发展到present analytical language 是在英语的哪一个阶段完成的？答案：Modern English period
文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展的哪个阶段?答案：Early Modern English period
在英语发展过程 在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？French,Latin,English in Middle English period
easel,port,freight,出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？答案：Middle English,Dutch
在英语发展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了2500 个词汇，这种语言是什么？答案：Dutch (前年考题)
据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少?答案：50,000 to 60,000 他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue )第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets,black belt,kongfu,这些词属于英语词汇发展的Present - day English Vocabulary 注意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。
Old English 和 Middle English 最大的striking distinction 存在于哪一个方面?答案：Old English was a language of full endings,Middle English was one of leveled endings,
文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响?答案：Greek,Roman culture
某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段?答案：Modern English
十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种industry?答案：Printing这导致sound and form 出现concord,出现standardization,
第三章复习
The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes)
The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)
In the plural form changing,some of the words will take internal vowel change,this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs)
Deer 复数没有变,还是deer,sheep 复数没有变,还是sheep,因此,这种变化被称作(zero derivation)
名词解释:Morphemes,The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes,In other words,the morphemes isthe smallest functioning unit in composition of words
Allomorphs,The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs,e.g.the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context,e.g,in cats in bags,matches It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet,man-men,goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer,fish-fish
简答题,what are the types of morphemes? ( 答简答题时,名词解释)答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes 。
Free morphemes,1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to be free.2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences,3) They are identical with root words,as each of them consists of a single free root words,as each of them consists of a single free root 4) free morphemes are free roots,
bound morphemes,1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.,2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words,3) Bound morphemes include two types,bound root and affix affix 分为两类,inflectional and derivational affixes,Inflectional affixes,Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes,Derivational affixes,1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words.2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes,root,1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,2) the root,whether free or bound,generally carries the main component of meaning in a word 3) a ’root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed’ stem,1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff,2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as inmouthful,underestimate,3) Therefore,a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added,
问题：Stem 和 root 有一个最大的区别在哪里? ( 连着两年没有考过)答案,a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added,
问题：请加以区别下面两个词的特征,nation,dict 请加以理论的分析?Both nation and dict belong to roots,nation is free root,which can function alone in a sentence,Nation as a free root,has complete meaning,when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed,nation as a free root,still remains Dict is a bound root,which can not function alone grammatically,dict carries the fundamental meaning of words,dict has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words,for example,dictionary,contradiction,
问题：分析下面一句话,He is much more cleverer than any other one in the village,too heads are better than one.请从构词角度分析以上的例子,cleverer,better cleverer (-er,inflectional affixes ) better ( good,well 的特殊变化) It is allomorph of good and well,
第四章,
问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种?答案：有七种:1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending有三种最常用,affixation,compounding and conversion
问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种?答案：Extension 问题：由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式?答案：Narrowing
问题：Affixation 又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类？答案：Affixation is also known as derivation Affixation falls into two subclasses,prefixation and suffixation 要点,有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别:a-,non,ir,negative prefixes de-,dis- ( 既属于negative,也属于reversative prefixes ) mal-,pseudo-,mis-,pejorative prefixes super,sur-,extra,prefixes of degree or size anti-,contra-,counter-,pro-,prefixes of orientation and attitude
trans-,fore- tele-,locative prefixes fore-,post-,prefixes of time and order bi-,uni-,semi-,number prefixes pan-,vice -,miscellaneous prefixessuffixation,1,Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns 2) Deverbal nouns3) De-adjective nouns,ity,-ness,4) Noun and adjective suffixes注意Compounding,acoronymy,blending,conversion,clipping 的名词解释,
要点,复合词分为哪三类,1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open
简答题,what are the characteristics of compounds?What are the difference between compounds and free phrases?答案：1) phonetic features2) Semantic features3) Grammatical features
最常见的三种词性,1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb compounds
问题：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性,哪两种不具有多产性?
在形容性复合词当中,哪三类有多产性?
动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的?
*名词解释:Conversion ( 重点，还没考过)Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one
class to another class,Functional shift = conversion Zero-derivation ( 选择或填空要点)Adjective to noun,(1) full conversion (2) partial conversion
问题：形容词转为动词分为哪两类？答案：由Adjective to verbs,(1) Transitive (2) Intransitive
简答题,形容词变动词的三种类别( 没考过)
问题：请你举出由conjunction 变为noun 的一个例子?答案,Ifs and buts blending are also called blends or portmanteau words ( 选择或填空要点)
问题：‘blending’ 分为哪四类合成词？1,head + tail 2,head + head 3,head + word 4,word + tail
问题,绝大多数blending 都是什么词性?答案：nouns，The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns;very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer,
问题：截短法clipping 分为哪四类？答案：There are four common types of clipping,1) Front clipping2) Back clipping3) Front and back clipping4) Phrase clipping要注意clipping 的例子有一个特殊变化：fridge ( refrigerator 截短之后在i,g 中间加一个d ),还有拼写发生变化，比如说：coke ( coca cola)
问题：什么是acronymy？Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:1) initialisms (不发音)e.g,BBC,VOA,TB2) acronyms (形成新的发音)e.g,CORE,TEFL
Words from proper names 有四大类:1,Names of people e.g,bobby,Names of people2,Names of places e.g,champagne,rugby 3,Names of books e.g,utopia 4,Tradenames e.g,cabal
问题：以下的词采用哪种构词法？
e.g,diagnosis ---?diagnose,(先有诊断的名词,后有了诊断的动词,这种构词被称作) backformation bloomers (它的构词法满足哪一种词法),属于Words from proper names 中的Names of people VJ-day 这种构词法是由哪一种构成的)属于Initialisms 中的Acronyms Pop,(采用哪一种构词法构成的),clipping Sitcom,blending FORTRAN,head + head Bath (名词) ----- bathe ( 动词) Bath 和 bathe 存在一种什么关系? ( Conversion )重点句：Conversion is also known as functional shift,
问题：Noun + v-ing,这类词构成的词是什么词？答案：compounding
问题：Record-breaking,它是属于复合法中的哪一种？答案：Adjectives compounds
问题：请说出Adjectives compounds 中多产性强的有几类？答案,有三类1) n + v-ing 2) n + a3) n + v-ed
问题：up-bringing 是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？答案：noun compounds (adv + v-ing )
问题：复合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么?答案：区别也就是复合词的特点:1) Phonetic features2) Semantic features3) Grammatical features
问题：red meat,green horn,它们是复合词的哪一个特点构成的词?答案,Semantic features (也就是从构词上推不出它的涵义）
问题：Compounding又被称作什么法？答案：composition
问题：由compounding 或composition 构成的词被称作什么？答案：compounds
问题：复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？答案：分为三类：solid,hyphenated,opensolid,blackmail,blackmarkethyphenated,brother-in-law,open,green horn,green hand
问题：当形容词转为动词时分为几类：Adjectives to verbs答案：有三类：1) Both transitive and intransitive 2) Only transitive 3) Only intransitive
问题：由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性?答案：verb to noun e.g,catch
问题：形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别?答案：分为两类：1) full conversion e.g,black,white
2) partial conversion e.g,the rich,the poor
问题：名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？答案：1) Concrete 2) abstract e.g,host,（可加-ess 变成具体名词）friend,(加-ship 可变成抽象名词)
问题：(只作了解) A word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or false )答案：true ( 可从word 的四个特点看出）
问题：Most loaned words are borrowed from foreign languages without anychange in sound and spelling,（true or false）.答案,true
外来词分为四类：1) Denizens e.g,cup from cuppa,port form portus 2) Aliens e.g,garage,décor 3) Translation –loans e.g,long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g,dream
判断对错题,
1．Conversion means transfer of a word from one class to anther,(true or false )答案：true
2,The relationship between a word symbol and its meaning is mostly arbitrary and conventional.(true or false ).答案：true
3.a word used in different contexts may contrast with different antonyms,(true or false)答案：true
4,an allomorph is any of the variant forms of morphemes,(true or false )答题,false
重点句：A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym,
E.g,fast （fast 在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念）选择题,
Chinese is our native language,but we can not say the Chinese is our?,a)mother tongue b) first language c) mother language d) official language答案：C）mother language ( 不存在的一种说法)
问题：以下的哪一个词 is not an expression used by American? A) tube B) bar C) Mailbox D) Congress答案：tube ( 只有英国人把地铁叫tube,美国人把它叫作subway,underground )
问题：‘smog’它是‘smoke,fog’ 合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一种构词法？A) clipping B ) compounding C) blending D) backformation答案,C ) blending
问题：以下的词哪些属于：A)simple word B) compound word C) derived word D) shortened form.e.g,goldmine (compound word )bike ( shortened form )process (derived word,cess 是一个不可分割的bound root，pro 它是一个前缀)supermarket ( derived word )language ( simple word )driver ( derived word )dorm ( shortened form,clipping )modernize ( derivation )blackboard ( compound )bus ( shortened form ) (omnibus )
(可能会出现的题)What is the difference between content words and functional words,illustrate your point with examples? ( 未考过)注意：答题时先答名词解释，再加以例子说明。
(复习要考虑的题) What is the difference between denotative meaning and connotative meaning?
(论述题) What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock of the English vocabulary? ( 未考过)答题时先答名词解释basic word stock 再答五大特点并配以例子加以说明。(关键答好第一个特点: ‘All national character, 它又分为五个特点)
问题：Which of the following words is not formed through clipping? A) dorm B) Motel C) gent D) zoo答案：Motel,(blending)
问题：Old English has vocabulary of about how many words? 答案：50,000 to 60,000
问题：词素分为自由词素和粘着词素，自由词素又被称作自由词根，粘着词素分为哪两类？答案：粘着词素分为：Bound root 和 affixes
选择题或填空,
Besides French words,English also absorb as many as 2,500 words in the Middle English Period,(Dutch )
A word is a symbol that B,A ) is used by same community B) represents something else in the world C) both simple and complex in nature D) Show different ideas in different sounds
The opposite of semantic elevation in meaning change is called degradation or pejoration.Pronouns and numerals enjoy nationwide use and stability,but has limited Productivity
问题：以下的这些词是粘着词素吗,以下的这些词是什么样的构词法？1) heart and soul ( Adverbial in nature )2) father - male parent ( conceptual meaning )3) City-bred ( noun + v-ed )4) Lip-reading - lip read (backformation )5) headache (compound n + v )6) antecedent ( 下划线的这一部分是什么,bound morphemes )
7) preview ( prefix,前缀)8) receive ( bound root )9) called ( inflectional affixes )
第五章：Word Meaning
The meanings of‘Meaning’ 指的是哪三个层次的内容?意义中的含义的三个层次的划分,What are the meanings of ‘Meaning’?1) Reference (有reference 的词必然具有sense,也必然具有Concept ) 2) Concept( 能够形成Concept 的词必然有reference ) 3) Sense (有sense 的词未必具有concept,也未必具有reference) (Conjunction,prepositions,adverbs,它们都是具有sense 的词,但是未必具有reference,也未必具有concept,例如：if,but,probably,它们有sense,但没有concept )
What is the relationship between the reference and the thing outside the language?（等同于：What is relationship between sound and form ）答,Arbitrary and conventional
名词解释,reference 名词Concept,1,Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical,They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.2,Concept,which is beyond language,is the result of human cognition,reflecting the objective world in the human mind,3,Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture,race,language and so on,4,a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world,
重点,sense 的名词解释：Sense,1,‘ sense’ denotes the relationships inside the language,‘ The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’ 2,Since the sense of an expression is not a thing,it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is,It is also an abstraction,*3,Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)
重点：What are the type of motivation？ 1) Onomatopoeic motivation 2) Morphological Motivation 3) Semantic Motivation 4) Etymological Motivation
填空:1.some of the words when edited with prefixes and suffixes,it will become another new word,either new in meaning or new in sense,this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )
2,Compounds are totally different in the meaning before it was carried out with different elements,so the meaning of a compound can not be deduced from component constituted this compound,this motivation is called ( morphological motivation ) 3,pen in old English,refers to the feather,but with the development of technology,fountain was invented,but the name of this material was kept up to this day,people still used the pen to refer to writting tool,this motivation is called (etymological motivation)
4,Conceptual meaning also know as (denotative meaning )
4.laconic answer (简短回答),laconic 的形成是属于哪一种理据 (etymological motivation)
问题,pingpong ball,cuckoo 是靠哪一种理据形成的新词?答案,Onomatopoeic Motivation
问题:at the foot of mountain,the mouth of river,此时采用了哪一种理据构成?答案,Semantic movtivation
论述题,1,What are the types of motivation?
2,What are the types of meaning?
按大的分支来分分为,(1)grammatical meaning (2)Lexical meaning 分析题:*’The dog is chasing a cat’,analyze the sentence based on grammatical meaning,
Lexical meaning itself has two components,conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(语法意义上分析没考过,但从词汇意义上分析考过)语法意义指一个词的词性,句中充当的成份,句子的时态,单复数形式等.1)’Dog,cat’ are nouns,and ’chase’ is transitive verb.2) The sentence is used in present continuous tense.3) ’The dog,a cat’ are singular form,
问题:The pen is mightier than sword? 请从语法意义的角度上分析这句话?Both ’pen and sword’ are nouns,’mightier’ is an adjective,and ’than’ is preposition.The sentence is in simple present tense.这是现在时中采用的哪一种语法结构?’Mightier than’ is comparative degree.’pen and sword’ are in singular form.’The pen’ is subject,and ’sword’ functions as an object to preposition ’than’.’mightier’ is predictive,
重点名词解释,Conceptual meaning:1) Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning,2) Being constant and relatively stable,conceptual meaning forms the basis for communiation as the same word has the same conceptual meaing to all the speakers of the same language
*Associative meaning 一定要把它的四种分支答上)1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning,2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated,3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture,experience,religion,geographical region,class background,education,etc,4)Associative meaning comprises four types,connotative,stylistic,affective,and collocative,
问题,Connotative meaning is not the same to everybody,every situation and every time,analyze the statement?答案,e.g,A child is prejudiced against,often jeered at,beaten or scolded at home,then home to his is nothing but ’ a hell’,hence unfavourable connotatitions,
问题,某些贬义词是不是任何时候都是贬义词？答案：e.g,A phrase like ’son of a *****’ which normally has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity may convey the connotation of ’friendliness’ and ’intimacy’ used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time,
问题:Stylistic meaning 根据字典上的划分有几种划分?根据The Five Clocks 划分,有几种划分?答案:In some dictionaries,stylistic features are clearly marked as ’formal’,’informal’,’literary’,’archaic’,slang’,Martin Joos in his book The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of formality,’frozen’,’formal’,’consultative’,’casual’ and ’intimate’,
问题:在日常生活中,人们把文体只简单地划分为哪三类?答案:1)formal 2)neutral 3) informal注意:要把书中89页中例子[22][23]分析要记好.在情感意义affective meaning,考试往往要落脚在affective meaning 的两个分类年年affective meaning 例子都考) (1) appreciative meaning (2) pejorative meaning Collocative meaning 中的例子要记好,pretty,handsome Green 搭配的例子记好,green on the job,green fruit,green with envy,green-eyed monster,
问题,Blackmail 从发音的角度被划分成什么词,从理据的角度被划分成什么词?答案:Complex Morphological motivation问题,有 reference 的词必然具有sense and concept ( 正确)
有sense 的词一定具有reference.(错误)
The word which have meaning does not have necessarily reference,
问题,’Forget,forgot,forgetting,forgotten,forgets’这是从哪一个角度来界定这个词的分支?答案,Grammatical meaning
问题,‘frozen,‘formal’,‘consultative’,‘casual’ and ‘intimate’ 这五个词是总结了什么的划分,是根据什么的划分?答案,stylistic meaning,是根据The Five Clocks written by Martin Joos,
问题:But in daily life,we always refer to (formal),(neutral),(informal),
问题,’Pretty boy,pretty woman,pretty garden,pretty garden,pretty car’，请解释这些词的意义一样不一样？如果不一样请加以理论分析？答案:Collocative meaning,when pretty is used to modify different nouns both animate and inanimate,their collocative meaning are totally different,
问题：Table tennis can be replaced by pingpong ball and the name of the bird is also called cuckoo,which can also be reused to refer to the sound of the bird,so their two words are (onomatopoeically) motivated,
问题：’Unexpected,expectation,expecting’,these three words are (morphologically) motivated,
问题,’Hopeless,jobless,dislike’,这三个词是靠什么motivated,( morphologically motivated)
问题：’East or west,home is best’ and ’there is no place like home’,这两话是使用了什么样的意义构成的？答案,Connotative meaning
第六章,Sense Relations and Semantic Field
polysemy,homonymy,synonymy,antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）
Two Approaches to Polysemy,1) Diachronic approach2) Sychronic approach
Two Processes of Development 1) radiation (1) radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes,(2) the meaning are independent of one another,but can all be traced back to the central meaning,e.g,face,neck 2) concatenation (1) meaning ‘ linking together’,is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until,in may cases,there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning,(2) In plain terms the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time,and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally lost,e.g,treacle
注意,这两种模式的名词解释照样要记（这两种模式只在填空，选择，出过题，还没有以名词解释形式考过）
问题：In the linguistic study,what are the sense relations and what are the types of sense relations?答案,A word which is related to the other words is related to them in sense,so it is called sense semantic relations,
types of sense relations,polysemy,homonymy,synonymy,antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）
问题：Fruit 与 apples bananas,pineapples,lychees 是什么语义关系？答案：Hyponymy?
问题：Fruit 这一类里包含apples,bananas,pineapples,grapes 它们形成了一种什么样的理论？答案,Semantic field
问题：有的时候在英语中存在着一种语言不共容的现象，那就是反义词的不共容的现象,那么这种不能够相互溶合，这样的词在反义词当中被称作什么词。比如说：dead,alive,它们之间的反义关系是什么样的一种关系？答案：Contradictory terms它们之间形成的语义关系被称作antonymy
问题：Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？答案：Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable,They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them,
问题：反义词存在不存在一种包容现象？答案：表明two poles,two extremes，的反义词，它们之间存在一种包容现象，这种包容现象被称作（Middle ground） e.g,huge / tiny（ 它们之间存在着big,small,quite big,quite small）e.g,young / old这类反义词被称为(Contrary terms)
问题：fast 这个词,它表示紧的概念时,它 和loose 是一组反义词，表示快的概念 时，它和slow 是一组反义词,这样的 一种语义关系算什么样的语义关系？答案,polysemy
问题：分析deer,dear 这两个词是什么样的词？答案：Homophone
重点,homonyms 有哪三个类别的划分？ 1) perfect homonyms e.g,bank,bear2) homographse.g,bow,sow 3) homophones e.g dear,deer right,write,rite
重点：Origins of Homonyms 1) Change in sound and spelling 2) Borrowing3) Shortening
问题：shortening 可以表现在哪些分支结构构成上? 1) Acronymy 2) Homonymy 3) Narrowing 4) Idioms
重点问题：Homonymy 和 Polysemy 的区别？（ 未考过）
6,Rhetoric Features of Homonyms e.g,Long time no sea,( puns ) humor,sarcasm or ridicule
重点：名词解释 Synonyms
Types of Synonyms,1) Absolute synonyms 2) Relative synonyms
重要简答题：Sources of Synonyms ( 四大来源,配以例子说明就可以了) 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
重点：如何区分同义词？(Discrimination of Synonyms ) 1) Difference in denotation2) Difference in connotation 3) Difference in application
antonymy,反义关系要点:反义词的三种类别的划分,
What are the different types of antonyms?
三种类别的名词解释都要记,1) Contradictory terms exclusive 特例,they cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualifythem,e.g,single/ married (有可能放在分析里去论述) 2) contrary terms 关键词,two poles or extremes middle ground e.g,rich / poor (中间还可出现well-to-do)3) Relative terms e.g,parent / child,predecessor/ successor
问题,What are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 特例:Many words,though having synonyms,do not find their semantic opposites,e.g,read,hit,house,book,power,magazine,Therefore,in a language,there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms,2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym,(这个特点只适用于polysemous )e.g,fast,dull 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.(这里讲的包容性是指一个反义词必然包 含着另外一个反义词的绝对的概念) e.g.man/ woman (man 除了指男性,还可以指整个人类,woman 算作人类的一 部分,所以woman 也算在man 的范畴内,因此,woman 被man 所包容) dog / ***** ( dog 除了指狗类通称,还可以指公狗,*****是母狗,dog指狗类通称的时,*****是狗的一种,因此我们说*****必然被dog所包容,所以,它们之间存在着Semantic inclusion) (语义上的包容性还没有考过) e.g,tall/short,old /young 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intenisty,so each has its own corresponding opposite.(特例)Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time,one being the negative and the other opposite,(未考过,重要的选择或填空内容) e.g,happy / unhappy/ sad ( happy/ unhappy 之间的反义关系是negative,happy/sad 之间的关系是opposite )The use of Antonyms (通常用在习语当中) e.g,rain or sine high and loweasy come,easy go
名词解释:Hyponymy (未考过,很重要的概念)
Hyponymy,1) hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion,2)That is to say,the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word,3) These specific words are known as hyponyms,The general words are the superordinate terms and the more specific ones are subordinate terms,
注意:hyponyms 和 subordinate 都是指下义词,
比如说:考试给你hammer,saw,spanner这些词,然后再给你tool这个词,然后让你用语义关系的理论加以分析这组词?分析,hammer,saw,spanner 都是specific word,它们和tool 存在的关系是semantic inclusion,所以tool 是一个superordinate,hammer,saw,spanner 属于subordinate 或者是hyponyms,(用上下义语义关系进行理论分析的题,也是一个考试的要点)
hyponymy ( 它与语义场semantic field具有一定的联系)注意,上义词与下义词不是一成不变的,也不是绝对的,是一个相对的概念,不同的语义场就存在不同的上下义关系,
重点:Semantic Field (名词解释) (未考过) Semantic Field,1)The massive word store a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas,some large,and others smaller,Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory,2) The German linguist Trier saw vocabulary as ‘an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense,Therefore,the ‘words of languages can be classified into semantically related sets or fields,3) According to Trier’s vision of fields,the whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields,4)Words in each field are semantically related and define one another.注意:答语义场的简答题与它的名词解释相同,
问题:在反义关系中,同一个词具有不同的涵义,因此也就具有了多个不同的反义词 ( true or false )问题,true e.g,fast,dull
问题,反义词分为哪三类:1) Contradictory terms 2) Contrary terms 3) Relative terms
问题:可以用形容词比较级,可以用程度副词 加以修饰的反义词是属于哪一类?答案,Contradictory terms
问题,可以接纳一个Middle ground,这样的词是属于哪一类反义词?答案:contrary terms
问题,Husband and wife,man and woman 这都是表示性别的反义词,但是他们属于同一类反义词的划分,对还是错?答,错
husband and wife,relative terms man and woman,contradictory terms
问题,empty 与 vacant 这两个词都表示空荡荡的感觉,empty表示的是修饰容积,容量,没有填充物的空荡荡,而vacant 表示的是一个not occupied,not taken 所以一般我们说没有放家具的房间叫做vacant apartment,而人去楼空的房间叫empty room,请从同义词的角度对这种用法加以分析? (书111 页)答案,Differnece in application,Empty,vacant are synonyms,but their collocations are not the same,Empty implies that there is no one or nothing inside while vacant suggests that something or some place is not occupied,
问题,反义词之间存在不存在包容性概念semantic inclusion,请举例说明?答案,e.g,man / woman,dog/ ***** tall/ short,old /young
问题:Face 具有不同的它有一个primary meaning也有很多的derived meanings,那么,这种基本语义和派生语义体现在face的身上,是用哪一种方法论研究得出来的结果?答案,diachronic approach
像车轮式一样进行发展的语义属于哪一种模式? 举例说明?答案,radiation e.g,face,neck
问题:harvest 它的意思是time of cutting,time of harvest,现在是指yield of grain or food 是哪一种方法论得出的.答案,diachronic approach
问题:huge/tiny,这是一组反义词,请从反义关系的角度来分析这是哪一种类型的反义词,并加以理论的解释?答案:contrary terms
Antonyms of this kind form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belong neither to one pole nor to the other as shown below,huge/very big/big/quite big / medium-sized/ quite small/small/ tiny( 这种分析题目易考)看例子,desk,table,chair,cupboard,这些词都算在什么范畴之内,加以理论分析?答案:这些词都属于furnature,furnature 是superordinate,desk,table,.,是furniture 的subordinate words 或者称作hyponyms,它们之间形成的relationship is called hyponymy,
第七章,Changes in Word Meaning
两个大的部分,1,Types of Semantic changes (五种) (1)extension extension 又被称作generalization e.g ’manuscript’ original meaning ’ handwritting---now ’any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer "barn" original meaning ’ a place for stroing only barely’---now ’storeroom’(2)narrowing narrowing 又被称作specializatione.g,"deer" animal---now just ’deer’ "corn" grain---now ’maize’only ’garage’ any safe place---’ a place for storing cars’ (3) degradation degradation 又被称作pejoratione.g,"boor" peasant---now a rude,ill-mannered person "churl" peasant or free man---uncultivated or mean person "hussy" housewife---a woman of low moral "villain" a person who worked in a villa---evil person or scoundrel(4) elevationelevation 又被称作 ameliratione.g,"nice" ignorance---foolish---now elevated to ’delight,pleasant’"marshal" keeper of horses---now means ’high-ranking army officer’"constable" keeper of horses---now means ’policeman’(5) transfer e.g,paper ( p140) the lip of a wound ( associated transfer) purse for ’money’ (associated transfer ) clear-sounding ( transfer of sensations )
2.Causes of Changes,1)extra linguistic factors(1) historical reasona word is retained for a name thogh the meaning has changed because the referent has changed,e.g," pen" feather in the past ---pen,ball-pens,fountains pens increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors,(2) class reasonelevation and degradation (3) Psychological reasonThe associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words Religious influence is another kind of psychological need,e.g,"copperhead" on p.143 2)linguistic factorsThe change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system,Especially when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole.The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.The competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division,
语义扩大的三个特例:1)polysemic words of modern English 2)technical terms3)from proper nouns to common words
问题:由普通变成专有名词算哪一类词类变化模式?答案,Narrowing
问题,词义缩小有几个特例?答案:有三个特例1) From common words to proper nouns e.g,city ---> the City
pennisular --->the Pennisular profit --->the Profit 2) shortening3) material nouns
问题,以下的词的词义的变化由什么模式造成的,
1)lust 最早是指人的一种pleasure快乐,现在是指sexual pleasure,这种词义变化属于哪一种模式?答案,degradation,
2)Editorial article 缩写为editorial 这是属于哪一种词义变化的模式?答案,Narrowing
3) the Pennisular,专指利比利亚半岛,那么这个词的形成是属于哪一种模式?答案:Narrowing,因为它是由common words 变成了proper nouns,
4) Sandwitch,最早是指三明治这个家族,但是现在是指一切快餐类食品,这种词义的变化属于哪一种答案：Extension
5)问题:多义词具有了不同的语义,这种词义变化模式属于哪一类?答案：Extension
6) 问题:liquor 最早是指所有液体的通称,现在专门指alcoholic drinking,这种词义的变化算哪一种模式?答案：Narrowing or specialization
7) car 最早是指马拉的战车,但是现在就是指小轿车,那么这种词义的变化算是哪一个原因造成的?答案：Extra linguistic factor中的historical reason
8) computer 最早是指人的手工劳动的计算,后来是指占地面积非常大的计算机,现在的计算机就是指micro computer,那么computer 词义的变化算哪一个原因造成的?答案,Extra linguistic fator 中的historical reason,
9) 这时的computer 指代的是哪一种模式?或者是说哪一种理据的构成?答案：Etymological motivation
10)在南北战争时期,南方的人一见到北方的人就胆战心惊,所以把北方的人比作rattle snake,那么南方人的 这种用词,它是哪一种原因造成的?答案：Extralinguistic factor中的psychological reason,
11) 问题:最早的纸是来自非洲的一种做纸的植物叫papyrus,后来就用paper这个词指代所有的纸张,尽管造纸 的技术和原料变了,但是paper 这个名词却被保留了下来,这算词义变化的哪一种模式?答案:transfer (书140页)
12) 问题,Extention 又被称作什么,哪一种词类的变化最能说明这个原因?答案,generalization,from proper nouns to common nouns,
13) 问题:Narrowing 最能表现词义缩小的是哪一类?答案,From common nouns to proper nouns
1)A concept is universal to all men regardless of____A) culture B) race C) language D) all of the above答案
2)问题,Mouth 在 the mouth of river这个习语,它采用了哪一种motivated?答案,semantically motivated
3)问题,Radiation and concatenation are different stages of development leading to polysemy,generally,radiation 和concatenation 哪一个出现的早?答案,radiation proceeds concatenation
4)问题:Of the most words meaning changes,which are most productive,which are most common?答案:Extension and narrowing
5) 问题,wife 由最早是指所有的woman 变为了married woman,这是属于哪一种?答案：Narrowing
6) 问题,Angel 由最早的messenger 变成了messenger by god,是哪一个词义变化模式?答案,Elvervation
7) 问题,silly 它现在的词义是foolish,它是哪一种语义的变化模式?答案,Degradation
8)问题,cukoo,它既指布谷鸟的声音,也可以指布谷鸟,它是哪种理据构成的词?答案,Onomatopoeic Motivation
9)问题,Italian,它是哪一个语系分支当中的哪一个语族? 答案,Indo-European language family Western set Italic
10)问题,Greek 属于哪一个语系当中的哪一个小的语系当中的哪一个语族?答案,Indo-European language family Western set Hellenic
11)问题,fair and square,这属于Idioms中的哪一个类别?答案,Phonetic manipulation 中的 Rhyme
问题：What are the characteristics of antonyms?答案：有四个,1) Semantic opposition2) A word which ahs more than one meaning can have more than one antonym,3) Semantic inclusion 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity,so each has its own corresponding opposite,
问题,"The chicken is ready to eat",请你从语境的角度来分析？答案：This is wrong sentence,because it has two problems,1)Ambiguity 2)Indication of reference According to two functions of Context1) Elimination of ambiguity2) Indication of ReferenceThis sentence can be corrected as follows,1)what a nice smell,the chicken is ready to eat,2) The chicken is hungery,so the chicken needs foods,
A concept has referring expressions ____.A) one B) many C)a few D) none of the above.答案：B
The grammatical meanings of a word refer to the part of the meaning of a word which indicate grammatical concept or relationship,such as ____,A) part of speech of a word B)Singular and plural forms C) tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms D) All of the above.答案,D)
问题：pick and choose,它算习语中的哪一个类别？答案：reiteration （同义词叠用）
问题：rain or shine,它算习语中的哪一类答案：Juxtaposition (反义词叠用)kith and kin alliteration,might and main,alliteration
cooked 这是哪一种,请从词缀的角度来加以区别cookedinflectional affixation employer derivational affixes
名词解释：connotative meaning,is also known as connnotation What are the differences between hymonyms and polysemyms?
face 是多义词,ball 不是
论述题,I met a write rwho is the relation of a politician,I met a newspaper reporter who is the brother of Senator Buckley.以上这两句话哪一话好，好在哪里？(p119)注意：答这个论述题时先说哪句好，然后加以分析，最后要答上下义关系hyponymy 的名词解释。
第8章 meaning and Context
1 Context 如何进行分类两种,1) Linguistic context，In a narrow sense,it refers to the words,clauses,sentences in which a word appears,This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph,a whole chapter and even the entire book.2) Extra-linguistic context or non-linguistic context IN a broad sense,it includes the physical situation as well,This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context,which embraces the people,time,place,and even the whole cultural background,
Context 这两个分类也就是它的名词解释1)Linguistic context Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context。Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question,The meaning of the word is offten affected and defined by the neighbouring words,
Grammatical context In some cases,the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs,This is what we call grammatical context,
重点:简答题,What is linguistic context?(这道简答题没考过,但是整个context 考过)
重点:The role of Context 语境的作用?三个作用,1) Elimination of Ambiguity,Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy2) Indication of Referents Without clear context,the reference can be very confusing,3) Provision of Clues for Inferring Wordmeaning在3) 中又包括八种线索,(1) Definition (2) Explanation (3) Example (4) Synonymy (5) Antonymy (6) Hyponymy (7) Relevant details (8) Word structure
第九章,English Idioms
这一章关键是要记习语，这些习语都要记。
名词解释,Idioms (重点) (1)Idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas.(2)Strickly speaking,idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of indiviudal elements,(3)In forms idioms may include colloquialisms,catchphrases,slang expressions,
9.1 Character5istics of Idioms
9.1.1 semantic unity (重点)1) idioms each consist of more than one word,2) in the idiom words have lost their individual identity,3) quite often the idiom functions as one word,e.g," till the cows come home",means ’ forever as an adverb,
9.1.2 Structural stability ( 重点) 1) the structure of an idiom is to a large exten unchangeable,first,the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced,e.g," in a brown study" ( deep in thought ) " lip service" ( support only in words,not in fact ) " kick the bucket " ( die) " bury the hatcher" ( come to friendly or peaceful terms) 2) Secondly,the word order cannot be inverted or changed,e.g,twos and threes; tit for tat; the lion’s share 3) Thirdly,the constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or added to,not even an article,e.g,out of the question means ’ impossible’ in question ( being considered) 4) Finally,many idioms are grammatical unanalysable,e.g,diamond cut diamond ( two parties are equally matched ) like cures like (as) sure as eggs ( quite certainly ) stepped up ( improve or enhance) in the raw ( naked ) turnn over a new leaf ( begin a new life ) draw the curtain ( end or concel )
9.2 Classification of Idioms The difficulty in using idioms lies first in the difficulty of grasping the elusive and figurative meaning,of determining the syntactic functions of idioms e.g,heart and soul ( adverbial ) Idioms may be classified into five groups,1) Idioms Nominal in Nature 2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature3) Idioms Verbal in Nature（五类中最重要的）
注意：考试的一个要点在这,动词性习语有哪两类划分？(1) phrasal verbs,短语动词(2) verbal phrases,动词短语4) Idioms Adverbial in Nature e.g,"in clover ’ or " in the clover " ( in rich comfort or having a pleasant or easy life 0 5) Sentence Idioms
9.3 Use of Idioms The rhetoric characteristics of idioms such as,stylistic features,rhetoric features and their occasional variations,9.3.1 Stylistic Feature; Such expressions were all colloquial and informal and once confined to a limited group of people engaged in the same trade or activity,But they proved terse,vivid,forcible and stimulating so that later they broke out of their bounds and gradualy gained wide acceptance.As a result,their early stylistic features faded in part and many became part of the common core of the language and are now used in different situations,9.3.2 Rhetorical Features ( examples are very important ) 1) phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical manipuation (1) Reiteration ( duplication of synonyms ) e.g,hustle and bustle cut and carve odds and ends (2) Repetition e.g,word for word year in year out (3) Juxtaposition ( of antonyms ) e.g,up and down hit or miss rain and shine
3,Figures of speech (1) Simile e.g,as dead as a doornail sleep like a log (2) Metaphor Animals are used to refer to people,e.g,grey mare snake in the grass Inanimate things to refer to people e.g,a new broom flat tire the salt of the earth Things to refer to something else,e.g,bed of dust a wet blanket black bottle Actions,state to refer to abstract ideas or other actions,state,etc,e.g,sit on the fence cut the ground from under sb,fall from grace (3) Metonymy,idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it,(4) Synecdoche,substituting part for the whole e.g,fall into good hands earn one’s bread (5) Personification e.g,The pot calls the cattle back (6) Euphemism
9.3.3 Variations of Idioms 1) Replacement 2) Addition or deletion 3) Position-shifting 4) Shortening 5) Dismembering
问题：classification of idioms可分为哪几类？答案：Idioms may be classified into five groups,1) Idioms Nominal in Natural 2) Idioms Adjectival in Nature 3) Idioms Verbal in Nature 4) Idioms Adverbial in Nature 5) Sentence Idioms
问题：Sentence idioms 如何分类,( 选择或填空还未考过)答案,They embrace declarative,interrogative,imperative and exclamative sentences.In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple,compound and complex sentences,
注意：习语中的特例有可能是填空内容,(Exception1) This class contains numerous prepositional phrases,which in nature are either adjectival or adverbial and in many cases have both functions at the same time,
(Exception2 )Sentence Idioms are mainly proverbs and sayings,including colloquialisms and catchphrases,including colloquialisms and catchphrases,
(Exception3)In terms of complexity Sentence Idioms can be further divided into simple,compound and complex sentences,
(Exception4) forms and functions of idioms are not necessarily identical,
问题：What are the rhetorical features of idioms?答案：1)Phonetic manipulation (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme 2) Lexical manipulation (1) Reiteration (2) Repetition (3) Juxtaposition
问题：Figures of speech ( 大的修饰格6个,小的修饰格4个)答案,1) Simile 2) Metaphor 3) Metonymy 4) Synecdoche5) Personification 6) Euphemism (1) humourous (2) ironic and sardonic in tones (3) derogatory (4) hyperbole
重点简答题,Metonymy 和Synecdoche,这两种修饰有何区别? ( 未考过)答案：Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names,yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa,
习语的分析：(挑出习语加以分析，它是哪一个类型,然后加以解释) e.g,He goes to the service,rain or shine.答：In this sentence,rain or shine,is an idiom,rain or shine is composed in Juxtaposition,It is Idiom adverbial in nature改写后：He goes to the service,no matter what the weather looks like,no matter what and no matter what kind of difficulties,
第十章 English Dictionaries
词典这一部分在填空或选择时出现的可能是最大的1) 词典的种类2)每一种词典的特殊性也是考试的要点：比如：CCELD它的最大特殊性是它的extra column3) 每一种词典的vocabulary stock 也是考试的要点：
