Management and Leadership
in Organizations
YTP 111
Basic Ideas of Management and
Leadership,cont.
Lecture 3
21th February,2005
Skills Approach
Definition,the ability to use one’s
knowledge and competencies to
accomplish a set of goals or objectives
Katz,the things,the people,the
concepts
Skills Model of Leadership
INDIVIDUAL
ATTRIBUTES
COMPETENCIES LEADERSHIP
OUTCOMES
General Cognitive
Abilities
Crystallized Cognitive
Abilities
Motivation
Personality
Problem Solving
Skills
Social Judgment
Skills
Knowledge
Effective
Problem Solving
and
Performance
Career Experiences
Environmental Influences
Skills Model of Leadership
General cognitive ability
perceptual processing,information
processing,general reasoning skills,
creative and divergent thinking capacities
and memory skills
intelligence,often linked to biology
Crystallized cognitive ability
intellectual ability that is learned or
acquired over time
Skills Model of Leadership
Motivation
must be willing and motivated to tackle
complex organizational problems
must be willing to express dominance
must be committed to the social good of
the organization
Personality
psychological trait theory vs,identity
Skills Model of Leadership
Problem solving skills
creative ability to solve new and unusual,
ill-defined organizational problems
Social judgment skills
capacity to understand people and social
systems
perspective taking,social perceptiveness,
behavioral flexibility,social performance
Skills Model of Leadership
Knowledge
accumulation of information and the
mental structures used to organize that
information
semantic innovation
Skills Model of Leadership
Effective problem solving
the originality and the quality of expressed
solutions to problem situations
Performance
the duties to which s/he has been assigned
Skills Model of Leadership
Career experiences
challenging job assignments,mentoring,
appropriate training,hands-on experience
in solving new and unusual problems
Environmental influences
the level of skill of subordinates
Style Approach
Emphasizes the behavior of leader
Two kinds of behavior,task behaviors
(help group members to achieve their
goals) and relationship behaviors (help
subordinates feel comfortable with
themselves,with each other,and with
the situation)
Style studies since late 1940’s
Style Approach,The
Leadership grid
Concern for Results
Concern for
People
Low
Low
High
High
Country Club
Management
Team
Management
Middle-of-the-Road
Management
Impoverished
Management
Authority-
Compliance
Management
Style Approach,The
Leadership grid
Authority-Compliance
people are tools for getting the job done
communication is for instructions
Country Club Management
personal and social needs of followers,
positive climate
Impoverished Management
no commitment,apathetic
Style Approach,The
Leadership grid
Middle-of-the-Road Management
compromisers,avoid conflicts,emphasize
moderate levels of production
Team Management
stimulate participation,acts determined,
makes priorities clear,behaves open-
mindedly
Paternalism/Maternalism
Opportunism
Situational Approach
Developed by Hersey & Blanchard 1969
Different situations demand different
kinds of leadership
Being an effective leader requires that
an individual adapt her/his style to the
demands of different situations
Directive and supportive dimension
Situational Leadership,Four
Styles
Supportive
Behaviour
’Relationships’
Directive Behaviour
’Task’
High
HighLow
Low
Delegating
Supporting Coaching
Directing
Situational Leadership,Four
Styles
Directing
communication focused on goal
achievement,careful supervising of
instructions
Coaching
encouragement and soliciting subordinate
input,leader makes the final decision
Situational Leadership,Four
Styles
Supporting
brings out the the employee’s skills around
the task,subordinates control for day-to-
day decisions
listening,praising,asking for input,giving
feedback
Delegating
low level of involvement in planning,
control of details,goal clarification
leaves the responsibility to subordinates
Development Level of
Followers
Developed Developing
High Moderate Low
D4 D3 D2 D1
Development Level of
Followers
D1,
low competence and high commitment
D2,
some competence but low commitment
D3,
moderate to high competence but may lack
commitment
D4:
high competence and high commitment
Development Level of
Followers
Effective leader is able to diagnose
where the subordinates are on the
developmental continuum and adapt
her/his style to it
Situational Leadership
Strengths
practical,easy to understand and apply
prescriptive,tells what to do or what to do
not in various situations
leader’s flexibility,employees and leading
styles differ from situation to situation
Criticisms
leader’s styles and employee’s
development level do not always match,
there exist other factors too
Management and Leadership
in Organizations
YTP 111
Organizations
Lecture 3
21th February,2005
Five Circles Model
ORGCulture
Social
structure
Physical
Structure
Technology
Environment
Three Phases of Industrialism
Phase I,From the use of machines to
the factory system
from subcontractors to foremen
first in British textile industry
maintenance workers and supervisors were
men,operative workers were women,
assisted by children
Three Phases of Industrialism
Phase II,Diffusion of factory system
began in the 1850’s
clothing and food manufacturing,engineering,and
chemical,iron and steel processing
complex production processes --> growth in
systems of social organization and bureaucracy
increasing number of managers and administrative
staff
improvements in transportation,communication,
freer trade,consumption
Weber and Marx,creation on new middle class of
managers
Three Phases of Industrialism
Phase III,It is just emerging…
enhanced sensitivity to consumer,new
techniques to stimulate consumption
internationalization
R & D
greater flexibility of organizations
participative style of organizing to ensure
the commitment of members of
organization
Industrialism and
Postindustrialism,Nature of Work
Industrial
routine
deskilled labor
functional
specialization of
tasks
Postindustrial
frenetic,complex
knowledge-based
skills
cross-functional
teamwork
greater emphasis on
learning
more outsourcing,
subcontracting,self-
employing,
teleworking
Classics of Organization
Theory
Adam Smith
The Wealth of Nations (1776)
Efficiency on division of labor? social
structure of organization
Needle factory
Classics of Organization
Theory
Karl Marx
physical needs + relation between humans
and their physical environment = labor
collective work is more productive than
individual work? social and cultural world
fundamental antagonism between the
interests of capital and labor
the conflict arises over how to divide the
surplus value
Classics of Organization
Theory
Karl Marx
necessity to ensure profitability?
organization and control of work activity
ownership of the means of production?
greater political power to design
organizational control systems
alienation= labor is defined as a cost of
production,not as a means to achieve
collective purposes
Classics of Organization
Theory
Emile Durkheim
the structural shift from agricultural to
industrial society
increasing specialization,hierarchy,
interdependence of work tasks
formal and informal aspects of organization
tension between economic and human
aspects
Classics of Organization
Theory
Max Weber
industrial societies,unavoidable increase in
bureaucracy
bureaucracy is objective and impersonal?
benefits of rationality (formal authority)
types of social action,formal rationality,
substantive rationality,affectional,
traditional
three types of legitimate ’Herrschaft’,
rational,traditional,charismatic
Classics of Organization
Theory
Fredrick Winslow Taylor
Scientific Management,method to discover
the most efficient working techniques for
manual forms of labor
Close supervision of highly specified
physical work
Managerial control
Offered differential pay for performance?
eroded worker solidarity
Promoter of rationalization
Classics of Organization
Theory
Henry Fayol
universal principles for the rational administration
of organizational activities
principles,span-of-control,exceptions,
departmentation,unity-of-command,hierarchy
esprit de corps,unity of sentiment and harmony
contribute to the functioning of an organization
functions of manager,planning,organizing,
command,coordination,control
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
General Systems Theory,Modernist
Ludwig von Bertalanffy,essential laws and
principles that would explain all systems
system,a thing with interrelated parts,
each affecting the others and each
depends upon the whole
subsystems which can be highly
differentiated --> benefits of specialization
--> need for organization
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
General Systems Theory,Modernist
Boulding’s hierarchy of systems
organized by levels of complexity and
comprehensiveness,from simple to complex
all lower level systems are embedded in systems
of higher order,but higher level systems have
unique features
theories of lower level can be applied to systems
of a higher order,but not vice versa --> theories
of natural sciences could be used to explain
organizations
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Boulding’s hierarchy of systems
dynamic systems,they have moving parts
and imply change of some sort
closed systems,have the capacity for
control due their ability to generate and
use feedback to corrects deviations from
predetermined desired states -->
cybernetic systems
open systems,depend on environment for
inputs to feed and support their existence
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Organization
Transformation
processInputs Outputs
Open system model
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
General Systems Theory,Modernist
hierarchy of systems (embeddedness),the
super system - the system itself - its
subsystems --> level of analysis
sources of confusion,what is defined as a
system in the particular analysis? what is
the hierarchical level?
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Concepts of Level
Systems level Level of analysis Hierarchical level
Supersystem
System
Subsystem
Environment
Organization
Unit or department
Top management
Middle management
Supervision
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
The Social construction of reality,Symbolic-
Interpretive
Karl Weick,Enactment theory,the use of concept
creates the phenomenon,the phenomenon is
made real by establishing a language for talking
about it,reification
Berger & Luckmann,The social construction of
reality,human social order is produced through
interpersonal negotiations,consensus about how
things are sustains social order,interpretation,
intersubjectivity
it is the analysis that forms the environment to
which the organization responds
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
The Social construction of reality,
Symbolic-Interpretive
Clifford Geertz,thin and thick
description
an eye-blink example
thin description,photograph-like
thick description,social phenomenon in its
cultural environment
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Postmodern organization theory
diversity,no core theory
relativistic,abandons notions of universal
truths and excellence,but not all standards
evolved out of the poststructuralist
movement in France
organization theory also applied linguistic,
semiotic and literary theory
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Postmodern organization theory
against modernism i.e,enlightenment
project to rationalize culture and society,
universal scientific principles and methods
Lyotard,grand narratives as efforts at
universal understanding
fragmentation,breakdown of family,
community,society and truth,and also
traditional concept of identity
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Postmodern organization theory
challenges the progress myth,unilinear
development,predictability
deconstruction
power
voice to silence,participation of
marginalized people in organization and
society
self-reflexivity
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Differences in the Multiple Perspectives of Organization Theory
Perspective Subject/Focus Method Result
Classical
Modern
Symbolic-
Interactive
Postmodern
* the effects of
organization on
society
* management
of organization
* observation and
historical analysis
* personal reflection
on experience
* typologies and
theoretical frameworks
* prescriptions for
management practice
* the organization
through,objective”
measures
* the organization
through,subjective”
measures
* organization theory
and theorizing practices
* descriptive measures
* correlation among
standardized measures
* participant observation
* ethnographic interviewing
* deconstruction
*critique of theorizing
practices
* comparative studies
* multivariate statistical analyses
* narrative texts and organizational
ethnographies
* reflexivity and reflexive accounts
The Environment of
Organization
Modernism
influences organizational outcomes by imposing
constraints and demanding adaptation
uncertainty of the demand of the environment
Symbolic
as theoretical construct
have material consequences,but are primarily
symbolic
interpretation
The Environment of
Organization
Postmodern
problematize the distinction
boundaryless organization,network model
and virtual organization
critique of modernism,exploitation of
environment and silence on corporate
ethics
The Environment of
Organization
Three modernist elements of
environment
The interorganizational network
interaction with the other organizations to
acquire raw materials,hire employees,
secure capital,obtain knowledge,and
build,lease or buy facilities and equipment
interaction with the customers
The Environment of
Organization
The interorganizational network,the manager’s view
ORG
Unions
Customers
Suppliers
Partners
Regulatory
agencies
Competitors
Special
interests
The Environment of
Organization
ORG
A B
C
The interorganizational network,the network analysis
The Environment of
Organization
The general environment
have an influence on organization,but it is
more difficult to discern
The Environment of
Organization
ORG
Network
Legal
Physical
Economy
Technology
Social
Political
Culture
The General
Environment
The Environment of
Organization
International and global environment
United Nations,International Monetary
Fund,General Agreement on Trade and
Tariffs (GATT),Green Peace
The Environment of
Organization
Perlmutter’s (1969) four types of
internationalization
Ethnocentric
foreign subsidiaries have only a little of
autonomy
strategic decisions are made in domestic
headquarters
key positions in headquarters
subsidiaries are managed by expatriates
from home country
The Environment of
Organization
Polycentric
each subsidiary as a distinct national entity
with some decision-making autonomy
subsidiaries usually managed by local
nationals,but they are not promoted to
headquarters
home country nationals are seldom
transferred to foreign subsidiaries
The Environment of
Organization
Geocentric
worldwide approach to operations
both headquarters and subsidiaries form a
unique contribution and with its unique
competence
nationality is ignored in favour of ability
The Environment of
Organization
Regiocentric
reflects the geographic strategy and
structure of multinational
utilizes a wider pool of managers but in a
limited way
expatriates may move outside but only
within the particular geographic region
regional managers may not be promoted
to headquarters but they enjoy a degree of
regional autonomy in decision making
Organization-Environment
Relation
Contingency theory
stable or rapidly changing environment
stable,routine activities,authority,distinct
responsibility? mechanistic organization
rapidly changing,flexibility,fitting into
changing work patterns? organic
organization
actually organizations are combinations
functional relation to environment?
contingency
Organization-Environment
Relation
Resource dependence theory
environment is a powerful constraint on
organizational activity
managers navigate in the environmental
domination
power/dependence relations between the
network actors
power of environment is the result of the
need for resources
Organization-Environment
Relation
ORG
Capital inputs
(investors)
Raw material inputs
(suppliers)Knowledge andequipment inputs
(technology)
Outputs
(customers)
Labour inputs
(employees)
Resource dependence
analysis
Organization-Environment
Relation
Population ecology
same starting point as rdt,but looks organizations
from the perspective of the environment
the patterns of success and failure among all the
organizations that compete within a given
resource pool
environment have the power to select the ‘fittest’
competitors
environment is not the whole (as in Darwinism),
but instead a niche
niche,resource pool upon which a group of
competitors depends
Organization-Environment
Relation
Population ecology
organizational birth and death rates
forms and strategies that successful
organizations adopt
three evolutionary processes,variation
(adaptation of organization),selection
(fitness,serves the best the needs of
environment),retention (survival)
Organization-Environment
Relation
Institutional theory
environment can put not only technical and
economic demands on organization,but
also social and cultural demands
social and cultural demands,conforming
the values,rules,norms and beliefs of
society
Organization-Environment
Relation
Institutional theory
neo-institutionalists,processes by which
practices and organization become
institutionalized
institutionalization,the process by which
actions are repeated and given similar
meaning by self and others
social legitimacy,acceptance of the society
in which they operate
Organization-Environment
Relation
Institutional theory
explicit rules or laws (legal and political
influences); norms,values and
expectations (cultural influences); desire to
look like another institution (social
influences)
coercive institutional pressures; normative
institutional pressures; mimetic institutional
pressures
Organization-Environment
Relation
Postmodernism
uncertainty is exciting,not undesirable
to deconstruct or go beyond
deconstruction?
deconstruct hegemonic order (practice of
interpreting the interests of the ruling class
as universal)
beyond deconstruction,reconstruct
alternative (non modernist) social order
Organizational Social Structure
Organization charts present
organization’s hierarchy of authority
and the division of labour
Different types,simple structure,
functional structure,multi-divisional
structure,matrix structure
Organizational Social Structure
Owner-manager
Simple structure
Organizational Social Structure
General manager
Purchasing Engineering Manufacturing Sales Accounting
Functional structure
Organizational Social Structure
General manager
Division
A
Division
B
Division
C
ENG MFG Sales FIN
etc,etc.
Multi-divisional structure
Organizational Social Structure
Project
A
Project
B
Project
C
ENG MFG Sales ACCTG
General manager
Teams
Matrix structure
The Politics of Identity
Before modern times recognition of identities
was not a problem,because the identities of
the members of communities were
structurally determined
Identity was based on self-evident social
classifications
Constructed personal identity do not get the
recognition automatically
The recognition must be achieved in social
interaction and this project can also fail
The Politics of Identity
The new issue in the (post-) modern
times is not the need for recognition,
but the circumstances in which the
recognition cannot be achieved
During the pre-modern times people did
not speak about identity,not because
they did not have or needed it,but the
question of the recognition of identity
was unproblematic
The Politics of Identity
Equal recognition of identities of the
citizens is not only the base of healthy
democracy,but the failure of
recognition can cause serious damages
both in individual and collective level
Denial of recognition is a form of
discrimination
One’s own identity is constructed in a
dialogical relation to other people
Miniature essay #2
Team Management/Leadership
in Organizations
YTP 111
Basic Ideas of Management and
Leadership,cont.
Lecture 3
21th February,2005
Skills Approach
Definition,the ability to use one’s
knowledge and competencies to
accomplish a set of goals or objectives
Katz,the things,the people,the
concepts
Skills Model of Leadership
INDIVIDUAL
ATTRIBUTES
COMPETENCIES LEADERSHIP
OUTCOMES
General Cognitive
Abilities
Crystallized Cognitive
Abilities
Motivation
Personality
Problem Solving
Skills
Social Judgment
Skills
Knowledge
Effective
Problem Solving
and
Performance
Career Experiences
Environmental Influences
Skills Model of Leadership
General cognitive ability
perceptual processing,information
processing,general reasoning skills,
creative and divergent thinking capacities
and memory skills
intelligence,often linked to biology
Crystallized cognitive ability
intellectual ability that is learned or
acquired over time
Skills Model of Leadership
Motivation
must be willing and motivated to tackle
complex organizational problems
must be willing to express dominance
must be committed to the social good of
the organization
Personality
psychological trait theory vs,identity
Skills Model of Leadership
Problem solving skills
creative ability to solve new and unusual,
ill-defined organizational problems
Social judgment skills
capacity to understand people and social
systems
perspective taking,social perceptiveness,
behavioral flexibility,social performance
Skills Model of Leadership
Knowledge
accumulation of information and the
mental structures used to organize that
information
semantic innovation
Skills Model of Leadership
Effective problem solving
the originality and the quality of expressed
solutions to problem situations
Performance
the duties to which s/he has been assigned
Skills Model of Leadership
Career experiences
challenging job assignments,mentoring,
appropriate training,hands-on experience
in solving new and unusual problems
Environmental influences
the level of skill of subordinates
Style Approach
Emphasizes the behavior of leader
Two kinds of behavior,task behaviors
(help group members to achieve their
goals) and relationship behaviors (help
subordinates feel comfortable with
themselves,with each other,and with
the situation)
Style studies since late 1940’s
Style Approach,The
Leadership grid
Concern for Results
Concern for
People
Low
Low
High
High
Country Club
Management
Team
Management
Middle-of-the-Road
Management
Impoverished
Management
Authority-
Compliance
Management
Style Approach,The
Leadership grid
Authority-Compliance
people are tools for getting the job done
communication is for instructions
Country Club Management
personal and social needs of followers,
positive climate
Impoverished Management
no commitment,apathetic
Style Approach,The
Leadership grid
Middle-of-the-Road Management
compromisers,avoid conflicts,emphasize
moderate levels of production
Team Management
stimulate participation,acts determined,
makes priorities clear,behaves open-
mindedly
Paternalism/Maternalism
Opportunism
Situational Approach
Developed by Hersey & Blanchard 1969
Different situations demand different
kinds of leadership
Being an effective leader requires that
an individual adapt her/his style to the
demands of different situations
Directive and supportive dimension
Situational Leadership,Four
Styles
Supportive
Behaviour
’Relationships’
Directive Behaviour
’Task’
High
HighLow
Low
Delegating
Supporting Coaching
Directing
Situational Leadership,Four
Styles
Directing
communication focused on goal
achievement,careful supervising of
instructions
Coaching
encouragement and soliciting subordinate
input,leader makes the final decision
Situational Leadership,Four
Styles
Supporting
brings out the the employee’s skills around
the task,subordinates control for day-to-
day decisions
listening,praising,asking for input,giving
feedback
Delegating
low level of involvement in planning,
control of details,goal clarification
leaves the responsibility to subordinates
Development Level of
Followers
Developed Developing
High Moderate Low
D4 D3 D2 D1
Development Level of
Followers
D1,
low competence and high commitment
D2,
some competence but low commitment
D3,
moderate to high competence but may lack
commitment
D4:
high competence and high commitment
Development Level of
Followers
Effective leader is able to diagnose
where the subordinates are on the
developmental continuum and adapt
her/his style to it
Situational Leadership
Strengths
practical,easy to understand and apply
prescriptive,tells what to do or what to do
not in various situations
leader’s flexibility,employees and leading
styles differ from situation to situation
Criticisms
leader’s styles and employee’s
development level do not always match,
there exist other factors too
Management and Leadership
in Organizations
YTP 111
Organizations
Lecture 3
21th February,2005
Five Circles Model
ORGCulture
Social
structure
Physical
Structure
Technology
Environment
Three Phases of Industrialism
Phase I,From the use of machines to
the factory system
from subcontractors to foremen
first in British textile industry
maintenance workers and supervisors were
men,operative workers were women,
assisted by children
Three Phases of Industrialism
Phase II,Diffusion of factory system
began in the 1850’s
clothing and food manufacturing,engineering,and
chemical,iron and steel processing
complex production processes --> growth in
systems of social organization and bureaucracy
increasing number of managers and administrative
staff
improvements in transportation,communication,
freer trade,consumption
Weber and Marx,creation on new middle class of
managers
Three Phases of Industrialism
Phase III,It is just emerging…
enhanced sensitivity to consumer,new
techniques to stimulate consumption
internationalization
R & D
greater flexibility of organizations
participative style of organizing to ensure
the commitment of members of
organization
Industrialism and
Postindustrialism,Nature of Work
Industrial
routine
deskilled labor
functional
specialization of
tasks
Postindustrial
frenetic,complex
knowledge-based
skills
cross-functional
teamwork
greater emphasis on
learning
more outsourcing,
subcontracting,self-
employing,
teleworking
Classics of Organization
Theory
Adam Smith
The Wealth of Nations (1776)
Efficiency on division of labor? social
structure of organization
Needle factory
Classics of Organization
Theory
Karl Marx
physical needs + relation between humans
and their physical environment = labor
collective work is more productive than
individual work? social and cultural world
fundamental antagonism between the
interests of capital and labor
the conflict arises over how to divide the
surplus value
Classics of Organization
Theory
Karl Marx
necessity to ensure profitability?
organization and control of work activity
ownership of the means of production?
greater political power to design
organizational control systems
alienation= labor is defined as a cost of
production,not as a means to achieve
collective purposes
Classics of Organization
Theory
Emile Durkheim
the structural shift from agricultural to
industrial society
increasing specialization,hierarchy,
interdependence of work tasks
formal and informal aspects of organization
tension between economic and human
aspects
Classics of Organization
Theory
Max Weber
industrial societies,unavoidable increase in
bureaucracy
bureaucracy is objective and impersonal?
benefits of rationality (formal authority)
types of social action,formal rationality,
substantive rationality,affectional,
traditional
three types of legitimate ’Herrschaft’,
rational,traditional,charismatic
Classics of Organization
Theory
Fredrick Winslow Taylor
Scientific Management,method to discover
the most efficient working techniques for
manual forms of labor
Close supervision of highly specified
physical work
Managerial control
Offered differential pay for performance?
eroded worker solidarity
Promoter of rationalization
Classics of Organization
Theory
Henry Fayol
universal principles for the rational administration
of organizational activities
principles,span-of-control,exceptions,
departmentation,unity-of-command,hierarchy
esprit de corps,unity of sentiment and harmony
contribute to the functioning of an organization
functions of manager,planning,organizing,
command,coordination,control
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
General Systems Theory,Modernist
Ludwig von Bertalanffy,essential laws and
principles that would explain all systems
system,a thing with interrelated parts,
each affecting the others and each
depends upon the whole
subsystems which can be highly
differentiated --> benefits of specialization
--> need for organization
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
General Systems Theory,Modernist
Boulding’s hierarchy of systems
organized by levels of complexity and
comprehensiveness,from simple to complex
all lower level systems are embedded in systems
of higher order,but higher level systems have
unique features
theories of lower level can be applied to systems
of a higher order,but not vice versa --> theories
of natural sciences could be used to explain
organizations
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Boulding’s hierarchy of systems
dynamic systems,they have moving parts
and imply change of some sort
closed systems,have the capacity for
control due their ability to generate and
use feedback to corrects deviations from
predetermined desired states -->
cybernetic systems
open systems,depend on environment for
inputs to feed and support their existence
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Organization
Transformation
processInputs Outputs
Open system model
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
General Systems Theory,Modernist
hierarchy of systems (embeddedness),the
super system - the system itself - its
subsystems --> level of analysis
sources of confusion,what is defined as a
system in the particular analysis? what is
the hierarchical level?
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Concepts of Level
Systems level Level of analysis Hierarchical level
Supersystem
System
Subsystem
Environment
Organization
Unit or department
Top management
Middle management
Supervision
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
The Social construction of reality,Symbolic-
Interpretive
Karl Weick,Enactment theory,the use of concept
creates the phenomenon,the phenomenon is
made real by establishing a language for talking
about it,reification
Berger & Luckmann,The social construction of
reality,human social order is produced through
interpersonal negotiations,consensus about how
things are sustains social order,interpretation,
intersubjectivity
it is the analysis that forms the environment to
which the organization responds
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
The Social construction of reality,
Symbolic-Interpretive
Clifford Geertz,thin and thick
description
an eye-blink example
thin description,photograph-like
thick description,social phenomenon in its
cultural environment
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Postmodern organization theory
diversity,no core theory
relativistic,abandons notions of universal
truths and excellence,but not all standards
evolved out of the poststructuralist
movement in France
organization theory also applied linguistic,
semiotic and literary theory
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Postmodern organization theory
against modernism i.e,enlightenment
project to rationalize culture and society,
universal scientific principles and methods
Lyotard,grand narratives as efforts at
universal understanding
fragmentation,breakdown of family,
community,society and truth,and also
traditional concept of identity
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Postmodern organization theory
challenges the progress myth,unilinear
development,predictability
deconstruction
power
voice to silence,participation of
marginalized people in organization and
society
self-reflexivity
Perspectives of Organization
Theories
Differences in the Multiple Perspectives of Organization Theory
Perspective Subject/Focus Method Result
Classical
Modern
Symbolic-
Interactive
Postmodern
* the effects of
organization on
society
* management
of organization
* observation and
historical analysis
* personal reflection
on experience
* typologies and
theoretical frameworks
* prescriptions for
management practice
* the organization
through,objective”
measures
* the organization
through,subjective”
measures
* organization theory
and theorizing practices
* descriptive measures
* correlation among
standardized measures
* participant observation
* ethnographic interviewing
* deconstruction
*critique of theorizing
practices
* comparative studies
* multivariate statistical analyses
* narrative texts and organizational
ethnographies
* reflexivity and reflexive accounts
The Environment of
Organization
Modernism
influences organizational outcomes by imposing
constraints and demanding adaptation
uncertainty of the demand of the environment
Symbolic
as theoretical construct
have material consequences,but are primarily
symbolic
interpretation
The Environment of
Organization
Postmodern
problematize the distinction
boundaryless organization,network model
and virtual organization
critique of modernism,exploitation of
environment and silence on corporate
ethics
The Environment of
Organization
Three modernist elements of
environment
The interorganizational network
interaction with the other organizations to
acquire raw materials,hire employees,
secure capital,obtain knowledge,and
build,lease or buy facilities and equipment
interaction with the customers
The Environment of
Organization
The interorganizational network,the manager’s view
ORG
Unions
Customers
Suppliers
Partners
Regulatory
agencies
Competitors
Special
interests
The Environment of
Organization
ORG
A B
C
The interorganizational network,the network analysis
The Environment of
Organization
The general environment
have an influence on organization,but it is
more difficult to discern
The Environment of
Organization
ORG
Network
Legal
Physical
Economy
Technology
Social
Political
Culture
The General
Environment
The Environment of
Organization
International and global environment
United Nations,International Monetary
Fund,General Agreement on Trade and
Tariffs (GATT),Green Peace
The Environment of
Organization
Perlmutter’s (1969) four types of
internationalization
Ethnocentric
foreign subsidiaries have only a little of
autonomy
strategic decisions are made in domestic
headquarters
key positions in headquarters
subsidiaries are managed by expatriates
from home country
The Environment of
Organization
Polycentric
each subsidiary as a distinct national entity
with some decision-making autonomy
subsidiaries usually managed by local
nationals,but they are not promoted to
headquarters
home country nationals are seldom
transferred to foreign subsidiaries
The Environment of
Organization
Geocentric
worldwide approach to operations
both headquarters and subsidiaries form a
unique contribution and with its unique
competence
nationality is ignored in favour of ability
The Environment of
Organization
Regiocentric
reflects the geographic strategy and
structure of multinational
utilizes a wider pool of managers but in a
limited way
expatriates may move outside but only
within the particular geographic region
regional managers may not be promoted
to headquarters but they enjoy a degree of
regional autonomy in decision making
Organization-Environment
Relation
Contingency theory
stable or rapidly changing environment
stable,routine activities,authority,distinct
responsibility? mechanistic organization
rapidly changing,flexibility,fitting into
changing work patterns? organic
organization
actually organizations are combinations
functional relation to environment?
contingency
Organization-Environment
Relation
Resource dependence theory
environment is a powerful constraint on
organizational activity
managers navigate in the environmental
domination
power/dependence relations between the
network actors
power of environment is the result of the
need for resources
Organization-Environment
Relation
ORG
Capital inputs
(investors)
Raw material inputs
(suppliers)Knowledge andequipment inputs
(technology)
Outputs
(customers)
Labour inputs
(employees)
Resource dependence
analysis
Organization-Environment
Relation
Population ecology
same starting point as rdt,but looks organizations
from the perspective of the environment
the patterns of success and failure among all the
organizations that compete within a given
resource pool
environment have the power to select the ‘fittest’
competitors
environment is not the whole (as in Darwinism),
but instead a niche
niche,resource pool upon which a group of
competitors depends
Organization-Environment
Relation
Population ecology
organizational birth and death rates
forms and strategies that successful
organizations adopt
three evolutionary processes,variation
(adaptation of organization),selection
(fitness,serves the best the needs of
environment),retention (survival)
Organization-Environment
Relation
Institutional theory
environment can put not only technical and
economic demands on organization,but
also social and cultural demands
social and cultural demands,conforming
the values,rules,norms and beliefs of
society
Organization-Environment
Relation
Institutional theory
neo-institutionalists,processes by which
practices and organization become
institutionalized
institutionalization,the process by which
actions are repeated and given similar
meaning by self and others
social legitimacy,acceptance of the society
in which they operate
Organization-Environment
Relation
Institutional theory
explicit rules or laws (legal and political
influences); norms,values and
expectations (cultural influences); desire to
look like another institution (social
influences)
coercive institutional pressures; normative
institutional pressures; mimetic institutional
pressures
Organization-Environment
Relation
Postmodernism
uncertainty is exciting,not undesirable
to deconstruct or go beyond
deconstruction?
deconstruct hegemonic order (practice of
interpreting the interests of the ruling class
as universal)
beyond deconstruction,reconstruct
alternative (non modernist) social order
Organizational Social Structure
Organization charts present
organization’s hierarchy of authority
and the division of labour
Different types,simple structure,
functional structure,multi-divisional
structure,matrix structure
Organizational Social Structure
Owner-manager
Simple structure
Organizational Social Structure
General manager
Purchasing Engineering Manufacturing Sales Accounting
Functional structure
Organizational Social Structure
General manager
Division
A
Division
B
Division
C
ENG MFG Sales FIN
etc,etc.
Multi-divisional structure
Organizational Social Structure
Project
A
Project
B
Project
C
ENG MFG Sales ACCTG
General manager
Teams
Matrix structure
The Politics of Identity
Before modern times recognition of identities
was not a problem,because the identities of
the members of communities were
structurally determined
Identity was based on self-evident social
classifications
Constructed personal identity do not get the
recognition automatically
The recognition must be achieved in social
interaction and this project can also fail
The Politics of Identity
The new issue in the (post-) modern
times is not the need for recognition,
but the circumstances in which the
recognition cannot be achieved
During the pre-modern times people did
not speak about identity,not because
they did not have or needed it,but the
question of the recognition of identity
was unproblematic
The Politics of Identity
Equal recognition of identities of the
citizens is not only the base of healthy
democracy,but the failure of
recognition can cause serious damages
both in individual and collective level
Denial of recognition is a form of
discrimination
One’s own identity is constructed in a
dialogical relation to other people
Miniature essay #2
Team Management/Leadership
