1
Chapter 6 Integrated and Differentiated Services
6.0 Introduction
New additions to Internet increasing traffic
High volume client/server application
Web
Graphics
Real time voice and video
Need to manage traffic and control congestion
IEFT standards
Integrated services
Collective service to set of traffic demands in domain
Limit demand & reserve resources
Differentiated services
Classify traffic in groups
Different group traffic handled differently
2
6.1 Integrated Services Architecture (ISA)
IPv4 header fields for precedence and type of service usually
ignored
ATM only network designed to support TCP,UDP and real-time
traffic
May need new installation
Need to support Quality of Service (QoS) within TCP/IP
Add functionality to routers
Means of requesting QoS
3
6.1.1 Internet Traffic 1,Elastic
Can adjust to changes in delay and throughput
E.g,common TCP and UDP application
E-Mail – insensitive to delay changes
FTP – User expect delay proportional to file size
Sensitive to changes in throughput
SNMP – delay not a problem,except when caused by congestion
Web (HTTP),TELNET – sensitive to delay
Not per packet delay – total elapsed time
E.g,web page loading time
For small items,delay across internet dominates
For large items it is throughput over connection
Need some QoS control to match to demand
4
6.1.1 Internet Traffic 2,Inelastic
Does not easily adapt to changes in delay and throughput
Real time traffic
Throughput
Minimum may be required
Delay
E.g,stock trading
Jitter - Delay variation
More jitter requires a bigger buffer
E.g,teleconferencing requires reasonable upper bound
Packet loss
5
3,Inelastic Traffic Problems
Difficult to meet requirements on network with variable queuing
delays and congestion
Need preferential treatment
Applications need to state requirements
Ahead of time (preferably) or on the fly
Using fields in IP header
Resource reservation protocol
Must still support elastic traffic
Deny service requests that leave too few resources to handle
elastic traffic demands
6
6.1.2 ISA Approach
Provision of QoS over IP
Sharing available capacity when congested
Router mechanisms
Routing Algorithms
Select to minimize delay
Packet discard
Causes TCP sender to back off and reduce load
Enahnced by ISA
7
Flow
IP packet can be associated with a flow
Distinguishable stream of related IP packets
From single user activity
Requiring same QoS
E.g,one transport connection or one video stream
Unidirectional
Can be more than one recipient
Multicast
Membership of flow identified by source and
destination IP address,port numbers,protocol type
IPv6 header flow identifier can be used but isnot
necessarily equivalent to ISA flow
8
ISA Functions
Admission control
For QoS,reservation required for new flow
RSVP used
Routing algorithm
Base decision on QoS parameters
Queuing discipline
Take account of different flow requirements
Discard policy
Manage congestion
Meet QoS
9
6.1.3 ISA Implementation in Router
Background
Functions
Forwarding
functions
10
ISA Components – Background Functions
Reservation Protocol
RSVP
Admission control
Management agent
Can use agent to modify traffic control database and direct
admission control
Routing protocol
11
ISA Components – Forwarding
Classifier and route selection
Incoming packets mapped to classes
Single flow or set of flows with same QoS
E.g,all video flows
Based on IP header fields
Determines next hop
Packet scheduler
Manages one or more queues for each output
Order queued packets sent
Based on class,traffic control database,current and past
activity on outgoing port
Policing
12
6.1.4 ISA Services
Traffic specification (TSpec) defined as service for flow
On two levels
General categories of service
Guaranteed
Controlled load
Best effort (default)
Particular flow within category
TSpec is part of contract
13
Token Bucket
Many traffic sources can be defined by token bucket scheme
Provides concise description of load imposed by flow
Easy to determine resource requirements
Provides input parameters to policing function
14
Token Bucket Diagram
15
ISA Services –Guaranteed Service
Assured capacity level or data rate
Specific upper bound on queuing delay through network
Must be added to propagation delay or latency to get total delay
Set high to accommodate rare long queue delays
No queuing losses
I.e,no buffer overflow
E.g,Real time play back of incoming signal can use delay buffer for
incoming signal but will not tolerate packet loss
16
ISA Services –Controlled Load
Tightly approximates to best efforts under unloaded conditions
No upper bound on queuing delay
High percentage of packets do not experience delay over
minimum transit delay
Propagation plus router processing with no queuing delay
Very high percentage delivered
Almost no queuing loss
Adaptive real time applications
Receiver measures jitter and sets playback point
Video can drop a frame or delay output slightly
Voice can adjust silence periods
17
6.2 Queuing Discipline
Traditionally first in first out (FIFO) or first come first served
(FCFS) at each router port
No special treatment to high priority packets (flows)
Small packets held up by large packets ahead of them in queue
Larger average delay for smaller packets
Flows of larger packets get better service
Greedy TCP connection can crowd out altruistic connections
If one connection does not back off,others may back off more
18
6.2.1 Fair Queuing (FQ)
Multiple queues for each port
One for each source or flow
Queues services round robin
Each busy queue (flow) gets exactly one packet per cycle
Load balancing among flows
No advantage to being greedy
Your queue gets longer,increasing your delay
Short packets penalized as each queue sends one packet per
cycle
19
FIFO and FQ
20
6.2.2 Processor Sharing
Multiple queues as in FQ
Send one bit from each queue per round
Longer packets no longer get an advantage
Can work out virtual (number of cycles) start and finish time for a
given packe
However,we wish to send packets,not bits
21
6.2.3 Bit-Round Fair Queuing (BRFQ)
Compute virtual start and finish time as before
When a packet finished,the next packet sent is the one with the
earliest virtual finish time
Good approximation to performance of PS
Throughput and delay converge as time increases
22
Examples
of PS and
BRFQ
23
Comparison
of FIFO,FQ
and BRFQ
24
6.2.4 Generalized Processor Sharing (GPS)
BRFQ can not provide different capacities to different flows
Enhancement called Weighted fair queue (WFQ)
From PS,allocate weighting to each flow that determines how
many bots are sent during each round
If weighted 5,then 5 bits are sent per round
Gives means of responding to different service requests
Guarantees that delays do not exceed bounds
25
6.2.5 Weighted Fair Queue
Emulates bit by bit GPS
Same strategy as BRFQ
26
FIFO v
WFQ
27
Proactive Packet Discard
Congestion management by proactive packet discard
Before buffer full
Used on single FIFO queue or multiple queues for elastic traffic
E.g,Random Early Detection (RED)
28
6.3 Random Early Detection (RED)
6.3.1 Motivation
Surges fill buffers and cause discards
On TCP this is a signal to enter slow start phase,reducing load
Lost packets need to be resent
Adds to load and delay
Global synchronization
Traffic burst fills queues so packets lost
Many TCP connections enter slow start
Traffic drops so network under utilized
Connections leave slow start at same time causing burst
Bigger buffers do not help
Try to anticipate onset of congestion and tell one connection to
slow down
29
6.3.2 RED Design Goals
Congestion avoidance
Global synchronization avoidance
Current systems inform connections to back off implicitly by
dropping packets
Avoidance of bias to bursty traffic
Discard arriving packets will do this
Bound on average queue length
Hence control on average delay
30
6.3.3 RED Algorithm – Overview
Calculate average queue size avg
if avg < THmin
queue packet
else if THmin? avg? Thmax
calculate probability Pa
with probability Pa
discard packet
else with probability 1-Pa
queue packet
else if avg? THmax
discard packet
31
RED Buffer
32
RED Algorithm Detail
33
6.4 Differentiated Services (DS)
ISA and RSVP complex to deploy
May not scale well for large volumes of traffic
Maintenance of state information at routers
Amount of control signals
DS architecture designed to provide simple,easy to implement,
low overhead tool
Support range of network services
Differentiated on basis of performance
34
Characteristics of DS
Use IPv4 header Type of Service or IPv6 Traffic Class field
No change to IP
Service level agreement (SLA) established between provider
(internet domain) and customer prior to use of DS
DS mechanisms not needed in applications
Build in aggregation
All traffic with same DS field treated same
E.g,multiple voice connections
DS implemented in individual routers by queuing and
forwarding based on DS field
State information on flows not saved by routers
35
DS
Te
rm
ino
log
y
36
6.4.1 Services
Provided within DS domain
Contiguous portion of Internet over which consistent set of DS
policies administered
Typically under control of one administrative entity
Defined in SLA
Customer may be user organization or other DS domain
Packet class marked in DS field
Service provider configures forwarding policies routers
Ongoing measure of performance provided for each class
DS domain expected to provide agreed service internally
If destination in another domain,DS domain attempts to forward
packets through other domains
Appropriate service level requested from each domain
37
SLA Parameters
Detailed service performance parameters
Throughput,drop probability,latency
Constraints on ingress and egress points
Indicate scope of service
Traffic profiles to be adhered to
Token bucket
Disposition of traffic in excess of profile
38
Example Services
Qualitative
A,Low latency
B,Low loss
Quantitative
C,90% in-profile traffic delivered with no more than 50ms
latency
D,95% in-profile traffic delivered
Mixed
E,Twice bandwidth of F
F,Traffic with drop precedence X has higher delivery probability
than that with drop precedence Y
39
6.4.2 DS Field v IPv4 Type of Service
40
DS Field Detail
Leftmost 6 bits are DS codepoint
64 different classes available
3 pools
xxxxx0,reserved for standards
000000,default packet class
xxx000,reserved for backwards compatibility with IPv4
TOS
xxxx11,reserved for experimental or local use
xxxx01,reserved for experimental or local use but may be
allocated for future standards if needed
Rightmost 2 bits unused
41
6.4.3 Configuration Diagram
42
Configuration – Interior Routers
Domain consists of set of contiguous routers
Interpretation of DS codepoints within domain is consistent
Interior nodes (routers) have simple mechanisms to handle
packets based on codepoints
Queuing gives preferential treatment depending on codepoint
Per Hop behaviour (PHB)
Must be available to all routers
Typically the only part implemented in interior routers
Packet dropping rule dictated which to drop when buffer
saturated
43
Configuration – Boundary Routers
Include PHB rules
Also traffic conditioning to provide desired service
Classifier
Separate packets into classes
Meter
Measure traffic for conformance to profile
Marker
Policing by remarking codepoints if required
Shaper
Dropper
44
DS Traffic Conditioner
45
6.4.4 Per Hop Behaviour –Expedited forwarding
Premium service
Low loss,delay,jitter; assured bandwidth end-to-end service
through domains
Looks like point to point or leased line
Difficult to achieve
Configure nodes so traffic aggregate has well defined minimum
departure rate
EF PHB
Condition aggregate so arrival rate at any node is always less
that minimum departure rate
Boundary conditioners
46
6.4.4 Per Hop Behaviour –Explicit Allocation
Superior to best efforts
Does not require reservation of resources
Does not require detailed discrimination among flows
Users offered choice of number of classes
Monitored at boundary node
In or out depending on matching profile or not
Inside network all traffic treated as single pool of packets,
distinguished only as in or out
Drop out packets before in packets if necessary
Different levels of service because different number of in packets
for each user
47
6.4.4 PHB - Assured Forwarding
Four classes defined
Select one or more to meet requirements
Within class,packets marked by customer or provider with one of
three drop precedence values
Used to determine importance when dropping packets as result
of congestion
48
AF PHB Codepoints for
Chapter 6 Integrated and Differentiated Services
6.0 Introduction
New additions to Internet increasing traffic
High volume client/server application
Web
Graphics
Real time voice and video
Need to manage traffic and control congestion
IEFT standards
Integrated services
Collective service to set of traffic demands in domain
Limit demand & reserve resources
Differentiated services
Classify traffic in groups
Different group traffic handled differently
2
6.1 Integrated Services Architecture (ISA)
IPv4 header fields for precedence and type of service usually
ignored
ATM only network designed to support TCP,UDP and real-time
traffic
May need new installation
Need to support Quality of Service (QoS) within TCP/IP
Add functionality to routers
Means of requesting QoS
3
6.1.1 Internet Traffic 1,Elastic
Can adjust to changes in delay and throughput
E.g,common TCP and UDP application
E-Mail – insensitive to delay changes
FTP – User expect delay proportional to file size
Sensitive to changes in throughput
SNMP – delay not a problem,except when caused by congestion
Web (HTTP),TELNET – sensitive to delay
Not per packet delay – total elapsed time
E.g,web page loading time
For small items,delay across internet dominates
For large items it is throughput over connection
Need some QoS control to match to demand
4
6.1.1 Internet Traffic 2,Inelastic
Does not easily adapt to changes in delay and throughput
Real time traffic
Throughput
Minimum may be required
Delay
E.g,stock trading
Jitter - Delay variation
More jitter requires a bigger buffer
E.g,teleconferencing requires reasonable upper bound
Packet loss
5
3,Inelastic Traffic Problems
Difficult to meet requirements on network with variable queuing
delays and congestion
Need preferential treatment
Applications need to state requirements
Ahead of time (preferably) or on the fly
Using fields in IP header
Resource reservation protocol
Must still support elastic traffic
Deny service requests that leave too few resources to handle
elastic traffic demands
6
6.1.2 ISA Approach
Provision of QoS over IP
Sharing available capacity when congested
Router mechanisms
Routing Algorithms
Select to minimize delay
Packet discard
Causes TCP sender to back off and reduce load
Enahnced by ISA
7
Flow
IP packet can be associated with a flow
Distinguishable stream of related IP packets
From single user activity
Requiring same QoS
E.g,one transport connection or one video stream
Unidirectional
Can be more than one recipient
Multicast
Membership of flow identified by source and
destination IP address,port numbers,protocol type
IPv6 header flow identifier can be used but isnot
necessarily equivalent to ISA flow
8
ISA Functions
Admission control
For QoS,reservation required for new flow
RSVP used
Routing algorithm
Base decision on QoS parameters
Queuing discipline
Take account of different flow requirements
Discard policy
Manage congestion
Meet QoS
9
6.1.3 ISA Implementation in Router
Background
Functions
Forwarding
functions
10
ISA Components – Background Functions
Reservation Protocol
RSVP
Admission control
Management agent
Can use agent to modify traffic control database and direct
admission control
Routing protocol
11
ISA Components – Forwarding
Classifier and route selection
Incoming packets mapped to classes
Single flow or set of flows with same QoS
E.g,all video flows
Based on IP header fields
Determines next hop
Packet scheduler
Manages one or more queues for each output
Order queued packets sent
Based on class,traffic control database,current and past
activity on outgoing port
Policing
12
6.1.4 ISA Services
Traffic specification (TSpec) defined as service for flow
On two levels
General categories of service
Guaranteed
Controlled load
Best effort (default)
Particular flow within category
TSpec is part of contract
13
Token Bucket
Many traffic sources can be defined by token bucket scheme
Provides concise description of load imposed by flow
Easy to determine resource requirements
Provides input parameters to policing function
14
Token Bucket Diagram
15
ISA Services –Guaranteed Service
Assured capacity level or data rate
Specific upper bound on queuing delay through network
Must be added to propagation delay or latency to get total delay
Set high to accommodate rare long queue delays
No queuing losses
I.e,no buffer overflow
E.g,Real time play back of incoming signal can use delay buffer for
incoming signal but will not tolerate packet loss
16
ISA Services –Controlled Load
Tightly approximates to best efforts under unloaded conditions
No upper bound on queuing delay
High percentage of packets do not experience delay over
minimum transit delay
Propagation plus router processing with no queuing delay
Very high percentage delivered
Almost no queuing loss
Adaptive real time applications
Receiver measures jitter and sets playback point
Video can drop a frame or delay output slightly
Voice can adjust silence periods
17
6.2 Queuing Discipline
Traditionally first in first out (FIFO) or first come first served
(FCFS) at each router port
No special treatment to high priority packets (flows)
Small packets held up by large packets ahead of them in queue
Larger average delay for smaller packets
Flows of larger packets get better service
Greedy TCP connection can crowd out altruistic connections
If one connection does not back off,others may back off more
18
6.2.1 Fair Queuing (FQ)
Multiple queues for each port
One for each source or flow
Queues services round robin
Each busy queue (flow) gets exactly one packet per cycle
Load balancing among flows
No advantage to being greedy
Your queue gets longer,increasing your delay
Short packets penalized as each queue sends one packet per
cycle
19
FIFO and FQ
20
6.2.2 Processor Sharing
Multiple queues as in FQ
Send one bit from each queue per round
Longer packets no longer get an advantage
Can work out virtual (number of cycles) start and finish time for a
given packe
However,we wish to send packets,not bits
21
6.2.3 Bit-Round Fair Queuing (BRFQ)
Compute virtual start and finish time as before
When a packet finished,the next packet sent is the one with the
earliest virtual finish time
Good approximation to performance of PS
Throughput and delay converge as time increases
22
Examples
of PS and
BRFQ
23
Comparison
of FIFO,FQ
and BRFQ
24
6.2.4 Generalized Processor Sharing (GPS)
BRFQ can not provide different capacities to different flows
Enhancement called Weighted fair queue (WFQ)
From PS,allocate weighting to each flow that determines how
many bots are sent during each round
If weighted 5,then 5 bits are sent per round
Gives means of responding to different service requests
Guarantees that delays do not exceed bounds
25
6.2.5 Weighted Fair Queue
Emulates bit by bit GPS
Same strategy as BRFQ
26
FIFO v
WFQ
27
Proactive Packet Discard
Congestion management by proactive packet discard
Before buffer full
Used on single FIFO queue or multiple queues for elastic traffic
E.g,Random Early Detection (RED)
28
6.3 Random Early Detection (RED)
6.3.1 Motivation
Surges fill buffers and cause discards
On TCP this is a signal to enter slow start phase,reducing load
Lost packets need to be resent
Adds to load and delay
Global synchronization
Traffic burst fills queues so packets lost
Many TCP connections enter slow start
Traffic drops so network under utilized
Connections leave slow start at same time causing burst
Bigger buffers do not help
Try to anticipate onset of congestion and tell one connection to
slow down
29
6.3.2 RED Design Goals
Congestion avoidance
Global synchronization avoidance
Current systems inform connections to back off implicitly by
dropping packets
Avoidance of bias to bursty traffic
Discard arriving packets will do this
Bound on average queue length
Hence control on average delay
30
6.3.3 RED Algorithm – Overview
Calculate average queue size avg
if avg < THmin
queue packet
else if THmin? avg? Thmax
calculate probability Pa
with probability Pa
discard packet
else with probability 1-Pa
queue packet
else if avg? THmax
discard packet
31
RED Buffer
32
RED Algorithm Detail
33
6.4 Differentiated Services (DS)
ISA and RSVP complex to deploy
May not scale well for large volumes of traffic
Maintenance of state information at routers
Amount of control signals
DS architecture designed to provide simple,easy to implement,
low overhead tool
Support range of network services
Differentiated on basis of performance
34
Characteristics of DS
Use IPv4 header Type of Service or IPv6 Traffic Class field
No change to IP
Service level agreement (SLA) established between provider
(internet domain) and customer prior to use of DS
DS mechanisms not needed in applications
Build in aggregation
All traffic with same DS field treated same
E.g,multiple voice connections
DS implemented in individual routers by queuing and
forwarding based on DS field
State information on flows not saved by routers
35
DS
Te
rm
ino
log
y
36
6.4.1 Services
Provided within DS domain
Contiguous portion of Internet over which consistent set of DS
policies administered
Typically under control of one administrative entity
Defined in SLA
Customer may be user organization or other DS domain
Packet class marked in DS field
Service provider configures forwarding policies routers
Ongoing measure of performance provided for each class
DS domain expected to provide agreed service internally
If destination in another domain,DS domain attempts to forward
packets through other domains
Appropriate service level requested from each domain
37
SLA Parameters
Detailed service performance parameters
Throughput,drop probability,latency
Constraints on ingress and egress points
Indicate scope of service
Traffic profiles to be adhered to
Token bucket
Disposition of traffic in excess of profile
38
Example Services
Qualitative
A,Low latency
B,Low loss
Quantitative
C,90% in-profile traffic delivered with no more than 50ms
latency
D,95% in-profile traffic delivered
Mixed
E,Twice bandwidth of F
F,Traffic with drop precedence X has higher delivery probability
than that with drop precedence Y
39
6.4.2 DS Field v IPv4 Type of Service
40
DS Field Detail
Leftmost 6 bits are DS codepoint
64 different classes available
3 pools
xxxxx0,reserved for standards
000000,default packet class
xxx000,reserved for backwards compatibility with IPv4
TOS
xxxx11,reserved for experimental or local use
xxxx01,reserved for experimental or local use but may be
allocated for future standards if needed
Rightmost 2 bits unused
41
6.4.3 Configuration Diagram
42
Configuration – Interior Routers
Domain consists of set of contiguous routers
Interpretation of DS codepoints within domain is consistent
Interior nodes (routers) have simple mechanisms to handle
packets based on codepoints
Queuing gives preferential treatment depending on codepoint
Per Hop behaviour (PHB)
Must be available to all routers
Typically the only part implemented in interior routers
Packet dropping rule dictated which to drop when buffer
saturated
43
Configuration – Boundary Routers
Include PHB rules
Also traffic conditioning to provide desired service
Classifier
Separate packets into classes
Meter
Measure traffic for conformance to profile
Marker
Policing by remarking codepoints if required
Shaper
Dropper
44
DS Traffic Conditioner
45
6.4.4 Per Hop Behaviour –Expedited forwarding
Premium service
Low loss,delay,jitter; assured bandwidth end-to-end service
through domains
Looks like point to point or leased line
Difficult to achieve
Configure nodes so traffic aggregate has well defined minimum
departure rate
EF PHB
Condition aggregate so arrival rate at any node is always less
that minimum departure rate
Boundary conditioners
46
6.4.4 Per Hop Behaviour –Explicit Allocation
Superior to best efforts
Does not require reservation of resources
Does not require detailed discrimination among flows
Users offered choice of number of classes
Monitored at boundary node
In or out depending on matching profile or not
Inside network all traffic treated as single pool of packets,
distinguished only as in or out
Drop out packets before in packets if necessary
Different levels of service because different number of in packets
for each user
47
6.4.4 PHB - Assured Forwarding
Four classes defined
Select one or more to meet requirements
Within class,packets marked by customer or provider with one of
three drop precedence values
Used to determine importance when dropping packets as result
of congestion
48
AF PHB Codepoints for
