污水处理厂设计规程（英文）：Criteria for Sewage Works Design

Criteria for Sewage Works Design Water Quality Program December 1998 Publication No. 98-37 WQ State of Washington Department of Ecology Olympia, Washington 98504 ii December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Contact Information To order printed copies of this manual, contact: Department of Ecology Publications Distribution P.O. Box 47600 Olympia, WA 98504-7600 Telephone (360) 407-7472 (Refer to Publication No. 98-37 WQ) For specific information about this manual, or to ? check for the latest revisions, ? download an electronic copy, ? request a copy on CD, or ? comment on its contents, click on the Department of Ecology’s Water Quality Program Criteria for Sewage Works Design (Orange Book) internet site (www.wa.gov/ecology/wq/orange). For special accommodation needs, or to receive this document in an alternative format, call: (360) 407-6400 (360) 407-6006 (TDD) Publication History Originally published 1978 (Pub. No. 78-5) Revised October 1985 Reprinted 1992 Revised December 1998 Dedicated in Fond Memory to James D. Krull June 3, 1941 to October 15, 1997 For Over Two Decades of Service and Friendship to the Department of Ecology Water Quality Program The Department of Ecology is an equal opportunity agency and does not discriminate on the basis of race, creed, color, disability, age, religion, national origin, sex, marital status, disabled veteran’s status, Vietnam era veteran’s status, or sexual orientation. December 1998 iii Contents Contact Information ............................................ii Publication History .............................................ii Contents............................................................. iii Purpose of Manual .............................................iv Acknowledgements............................................iv How to Use This Manual ................................ viii Figures................................................................ix Tables ..................................................................x Abbreviations and Acronyms.............................xi General Chapter G1 General Engineering Requirements Chapter G2 General Considerations Chapter G3 Special Considerations for Small Community Systems Collection SEWER Chapter C1 Sewers Chapter C2 Sewage Pump Stations OCS Chapter C3 Combined Sewer Overflows Treatment Chapter T1 Preliminary Treatment/ Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes Chapter T2 Primary Treatment Chapter T3 Biological Treatment Chapter T4 Chemical/Physical Treatment Chapter T5 Disinfection Effluent Chapter E1 Water Reclamation and Reuse Chapter E2 Effluent Disposal to Surface Water Chapter E3 Effluent Disposal to Ground Water Solids Chapter S Residual Solids Management iv December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Purpose of Manual This manual, often referred to as the “Orange Book,” serves as a guide for the design of sewage collection, treatment, and reclamation systems. The goals of the manual are: 1. To ensure that the design of sewage collection and treatment systems is consistent with public health and water quality objectives of the State of Washington. 2. To establish a basis for the design and review of plans and specifications for sewage treatment works and sewerage systems. 3. To establish the minimum requirements and limiting factors utilized by the Washington State Department of Ecology and the Washington State Department of Health for review of sewage treatment works and sewerage system plans and specifications. 4. To assist the owner or their authorized engineer in the preparation of plans, specifications, reports, and other data. 5. To guide departments in their determination of whether an approval, permit, and/or a certificate for a sewage treatment works or a sewerage system should be issued. Acknowledgements This manual was developed for the Washington State Department of Ecology with the generous assistance of many government agencies, sewer and water districts, consulting engineering firms, and wastewater treatment professionals. Editorial/Coordination Board members Louthain, Jerry (Project Manager) Berschauer, Doug Cole, Mark Foulk, Jamie Lowe, Susan Meriwether, Cam Nitz, Bill Olson, Karen Perry, Don Skillings, Tom Vivolo, Tony Chapter coordinators, leaders, and contributing authors Chapter G1, General Engineering Requirements Louthain, Jerry (Coordinator) Parry, Dave (Leader) Anderson, Darrel Cole, Mark Messman, Stew Moore, Bill Raysby, Lisa Strehler, Jennifer Vaughn, John Chapter G2, General Considerations Nitz, Bill (Coordinator) Bolinger, Al Bower, Bob Browne, Roger Faccone, Jim Finger, Dick Houck, Doug Kerker, Gary Morrice, Rob Serres, Bill December 1998 v Chapter G3, Special Considerations for Small Community Systems Meriwether, Cam (Coordinator) Milton, Jim (Leader) Alexander, Ken Arts, Chris Bergstrom, Eric Berschauer, Doug Johnstone, Charles Nichols, Don Nunnallee, David Riegert, Larry Riley, Dick Sherwood, Kim Skillings, Tom Tom, Andy Chapter C1, Sewers Chapter C2, Sewage Pump Stations Vivolo, Tony (Coordinator) Thetford, Tom (Leader) Bickel, Scott Brown, Lisa Browne, Roger Cardwell, Bruce Carlsen, Jim Chambers, Craig Davison, Eric Eliasson, John Gagnon, Richard Hammond, Bob Holland, Jon Houck, Doug Knott, Graham Koch, John Nickel, Ray Ollivant, Mike Ordonez, Robin Postma, Loren Rawls, Bruce Slifer, Scott Stiltz, Mark Sylvester, Bob VanDerAa, Bud Vigilia, Rudy Chapter C3, Combined Sewer Overflows Nitz, Bill (Coordinator) Fricke, Laura (Leader) Labib, Foroozan (Leader) Browne, Roger Houck, Doug Huber, Karen Jackson, Diana Merrill, Steve Pecha, Dan Scott, Barry Threlkeld, Vern Wharton, Laura Chapter T1, Preliminary Treatment/Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes Chapter T2, Primary Treatment Louthain, Jerry (Coordinator) McCoskey, Jim (Leader) Wilson, John (Leader) Ziebart, Ken (Leader) Baird, Carl Fernandes, Joe Hufford, Dave Labib, Foroozan Long, Tom Merchant, John Topolski, Brian Chapter T3, Biological Treatment Perry, Don (Coordinator) Bolinger, Al (Leader) Burke, Pat Endersby, Jeff Guttormsen, Chris Hartz, Ken Howard, Jeff Koch, Richard Merrill, Steve Parry, Dave Samstag, Randal vi December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Chapter T4, Chemical/Physical Treatment Louthain, Jerry (Coordinator) Hufford, Dave (Leader) Voigt, Dave (Leader) Bolinger, Al Burwell, Bill Butler, Rick Byde, Doug Ezzy, Jeff Gilbert, Steve Labib, Foroozan Reilly Jr., Bill Thayer, Dale Chapter T5, Disinfection Vivolo, Tony (Coordinator) Persich, Bill (Leader) Chambers, Craig Coleman, Tom Griffith, Art Hammond, Bob Houck, Doug Koch, John Pecha, Dan Swaim, Paul Sylvester, Bob Vigilia, Rudy Chapter E1, Water Reclamation and Reuse Skillings, Tom (Coordinator) Lundt, Mary (Leader) Pieritz, Glenn (Leader) Brodin, Pat Crummey, Doug Delzell, Debra Edwards, George Finger, Dick Fox, Tom Koch, Richard Larson, Milt Lenius, Diane Metzger, Roy Persich, Bill Poppe, John Riley, Craig Schlender, George Shields, Jon Sylvester, Bob Walther, Marty Wilbur, Shannon Chapter E2, Effluent Disposal to Surface Water Meriwether, Cam (Coordinator) Glenn, Norm (Leader) Cupps, Kathy Fox, Bill Graham, Gary McBride, David Chapter E3, Effluent Disposal to Ground Water Meriwether, Cam (Coordinator) Kimsey, Melanie (Leader) Garland, Dave Peterson, Wayne Raforth, Bob Chapter S, Residual Solids Management Perry, Don (Coordinator) Labib, Foroozan (Leader) Bateman, Larry Bullard, Daryl Dorsey, Kyle Finger, Dick Johnstone, Charles Thayer, Dale Wolstenholme, Philip December 1998 vii Peer review contributors Albertson, Orris Baird, Carl Barwin, Bob Berschauer, Doug Breithaupt, Steve Brown, Russ Chung, S.K. Cook, Kirk Custin, Alex Earle, George Fox, Tom Gleason, Dennis Harlan, Sue Hicks, Mark Hines, Michael Kmet, Nancy Larson, Brian Lin, Li-Yin Mann, David Messman, Stew Meyer, Chuck Moore, Bill Olivers, Clair Perry, Don Reid, Terry Shakhnovich, Boris Skaggs, Don Smyth, John Thompson, Randy Tom, Andy Vivolo, Tony Weaver, Brian Weber, Jim Whitby, Elliott Firms and organizations that provided support for this effort Aqua-Aerobics Systems, Inc. R W Beck Berryman & Henigar Brown & Caldwell CH2M Hill, Inc. City of Bellevue City of Bellingham City of Everett City of Kennewick City of Marysville City of Moses Lake City of Port Townsend City of Tacoma City of Vancouver City of Yakima Cosmopolitan Engineering CTE Engineers Department of Ecology Department of Health Duke Engineering & Services, Inc. Earth Tech ENSR Enviro Enterprises, Inc. Environment One Corporation Gray & Osborne, Inc. Hammond Collier Wade-Livingston Associates HDR Engineering, Inc. Island County KCM International Kennedy/Jenks Consultants King County Wastewater Treatment Division Kitsap County Lakehaven Utility District Montgomery Watson Northshore Utility District Oregon DEQ Parametrix, Inc. Phillips Driscopipe Pierce County Reid Middleton Skillings Connolly, Inc. Southeast Environmental Engineering, L.L.C. Spokane County Techtrade International, Inc. Treatment Equipment Company URS Consultants, Inc. Westin Engineering, Inc. Wm. H. Reilly & Co. Publishing Ecology extends appreciation to Technical Publications, King County Department of Natural Resources Wastewater Treatment Division, for publishing this manual. Foulk, Jamie (Project Lead) Lowe, Susan (Editor) Olson, Karen (Illustrator) viii December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design How to Use This Manual This manual is intended for use as general design criteria for domestic sewage collection and treatment systems. Criteria contained in this manual will be used by the Department of Ecology, Water Quality Program, in the review of documents submitted pursuant to Chapter 173-240 WAC. Additional design details are contained in the documents referenced in this manual. Disclaimer/Limits of Responsibility This manual is not intended to cover every possible situation. It is aimed primarily at a sewage works treating domestic sewage of normal influent strength. Definition of Terms The terms “sewage” and “sewerage” as used in this manual are considered synonymous with “municipal wastewater” and “domestic wastewater.” Unless otherwise specified, terms used in this manual are defined in accordance with the latest definitions issued by the Water Environment Federation (WEF). The following reference should be consulted for specific definitions of terms. ? Glossary?Water and Wastewater Control Engineering. Published by the American Public Health Association (APHA), American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), American Water Works Association (AWWA), and the Water Pollution Control Federation (now WEF). Third Edition, 1981. December 1998 ix Figures G1-1. Sequence of Planning, Design, and Construction ............................................. G1-11 G1-2. Example of a Process Flow Diagram ...... G1-29 C1-1. Ratio of Peak Hourly Flow to Design Average Flow..............................................C1-7 C1-2. Required Separation Between Water Lines and Sanitary Sewers, Parallel Construction ..............................................C1-21 C1-3. Required Separation Between Water Lines and Sanitary Sewers, Unusual Conditions Parallel Construction...............C1-21 C3-1. Rectangular Storage Tank Configuration .C3-17 C3-2. Schematic of the Swirl Concentrator........C3-19 T2-1. Typical Circular Primary Settling Tank......T2-3 T2-2. Typical Rectangular Primary Settling Tank ............................................................T2-4 T3-1. Hydraulic Profile for a Major Mechanical Treatment Plant ...........................................T3-6 T5-1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum ..................T5-5 T5-2. Relative Intensity of the Wavelengths Produced by the Low-Pressure Mercury Lamp .........................................................T5-15 T5-3. Relative Intensity of the Wavelengths Produced by the Medium-Pressure Mercury Lamp...........................................T5-15 E1-1. Backflow Prevention, Example One.........E1-22 E1-2. Backflow Prevention, Example Two........E1-23 x December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Tables G1-1. Requirements for Engineering Report and Facility Plan.............................................G1-18 G1-2. Explanation of Engineering Report Requirements............................................G1-20 G2-1. Design Basis for New Sewage Works.......G2-6 G2-2. Impact of Wastewater Characteristics on H 2 S Formation..........................................G2-20 G2-3. Foul Air Ventilation Requirements.........G2-28 G2-4. Biofilter Design Criteria..........................G2-29 G2-5. Carbon Adsorber Vessel Design CriteriaG2-32 G2-6. Guidelines for Classifying Sewerage Works.......................................................G2-64 G2-7. General Requirements for Each Reliability Classification..........................G2-65 G2-8. Minimum Capacity of the Backup Power Source for Each Reliability ClassificationG2-66 C1-1. Minimum Slope of Sewers, by Size (Assuming Full Flow).................................C1-9 C1-2. Factors to Consider When Planning a TV Inspection Project......................................C1-14 C1-3. Rehabilitation/Replacement Techniques for Sewer Mains........................................C1-18 C1-4. Water Main Standard Pipe Material.........C1-22 C3-1. Comparison of EPA and Ecology CSO Requirements...............................................C3-4 C3-2. Issues to Consider When Developing CSO Control Alternatives..................................C3-11 C3-3. Issues Affecting Evaluation of Final CSO Control Alternatives..................................C3-13 T1-1. Requirements for Aerated Grit Removal Chambers and Typical Results....................T1-8 T2-1. Special Treatment Functions Provided by Primary Settling Tanks................................T2-2 T2-2. Surface Overflow Rates for Primary Clarifiers......................................................T2-5 T3-1. Sample Worksheet Showing Input Data Requirements for Biological Systems.........T3-9 T3-2. Typical Process Design Values for Sedimentation Overflow Rate...................T3-14 T5-1. Classification of Water Hardness.............T5-11 T5-2. Chlorine Dosing Capacity Guidelines.......T5-29 T5-3. Mixing Energy Values..............................T5-31 E1-1. Treatment and Quality Requirements for Reclaimed Water Use..................................E1-8 E1-2. Staged Planning Program to Determine Feasibility of a Reclaimed Water System..E1-10 E1-3. Laws and Regulations That Apply to Reclaimed Water Projects.........................E1-11 E1-4. Reliability and Redundancy Requirements of Articles 10 and 11 of the Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards.............E1-14 E1-5. Cross-Connections Associated with Wastewater................................................E1-19 E1-6. Relative Level of Protection by Backflow Preventers..................................................E1-20 E1-7. Backflow Prevention for Reclaimed Water.........................................................E1-24 E1-8. Characteristics of the Four Classes of Reclaimed Water.......................................E1-26 E1-9. Representative Coagulant Dosing Rate.....E1-27 E1-10. Representative Filter Hydraulic Loading Rates..........................................................E1-28 E1-11. Disinfection Regulatory Requirements for Reclaimed Water.................................E1-30 E1-12. Identification Standards for Reclaimed Water Systems...........................................E1-32 E2-1. Types of Outfalls and Their Uses...............E2-8 E2-2. Types of Seasonal Discharges..................E2-12 E2-3. Required Oceanographic Data for Siting and Designing Marine and Ocean OutfallsE2-15 S-1. Rough Design Guidelines to Determine Solids Mass Loading.....................................S-6 S-2. Typical Dissolved Air Floatation Solids Loading Rates for Thickened Solids of 4 Percent or Higher.....................................S-12 S-3. Drying Bed Design Criteria..........................S-20 S-4. Summary of Wastewater Sludge Digestion Systems Design Criteria..............................S-25 December 1998 xi Abbreviations and Acronyms The abbreviations and acronyms listed below appear in this manual. In addition to those listed below, explanations of some infrequently used acronyms and abbreviations are given in the text where they appear. See the Water Environment Federation’s Operation of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants, Fifth Edition, Manual of Practice No. 11, Volume 3, pg. 1,247 for a comprehensive list of acronyms and symbols commonly used in wastewater engineering. AKART All known, available, and reasonable methods of prevention, control, and treatment ANSI American National Standards Institute APHA American Public Health Association APWA American Pubic Works Association ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers ASTM American Society of Testing and Materials AWWA American Water Works Association BOD biochemical oxygen demand CAA Comprehensive Alternatives Analysis CCP Composite Correction Plan CCWF Centennial Clean Water Fund CDBG Community Development Block Grant CFR Code of Federal Regulations CSO combined sewer overflow CTED State Department of Community, Trade and Economic Development DAF dissolved air flotation DNR Washington State Department of Natural Resources DOH Washington State Department of Health EPA US Environmental Protection Agency FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency GMA Growth Management Act HDPE high-density polyethylene pipe HPA Hydraulic Project Approval HVAC heating/ventilation/air conditioning I/I infiltration and inflow IAMPO International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials ICS Instrumentation and Control Systems IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers IES Illuminating Engineering Society IPCEA Insulated Power Conductor Engineering Association ISA Instrument Society of America L&I Washington State Department of Labor and Industries MSDS Material Safety Data Sheets NEC National Electrical Code NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association NEPA National Environmental Policy Act NESC National Electric Safety Code NFIP National Flood Insurance Program NFPA National Fire Protection Association NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health NOI Notice of Intent for Construction Activity NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Act P&ID process and instrumentation diagram/drawing RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act RCW Revised Code of Washington RGF/RSF recirculating gravel filter/recirculating sand filter RMP Risk Management Plan/Planning RO reverse osmosis SEPA State Environmental Policy Act SERP State Environmental Review Process SIZ Sediment Impact Zone SRF State Revolving Fund SS suspended solids SSO sanitary sewer overflow STEP Small Town Environment Program SWD State Waste Discharge xii December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design TSS total suspended solids UBC Uniform Building Code UFC Uniform Fire Code UL Underwriters Laboratories USDA US Department of Agriculture USGS US Geological Survey VOC volatile organic compound WAC Washington Administrative Code WDFW Washington State Department of Fisheries and Wildlife WEF Water Environment Federation (formerly WPCF) WISHA Washington Industrial Safety and Health Act WPCF Water Pollution Control Federation (now WEF) WSDOT Washington State Department of Transportation WWTP wastewater treatment plant December 1998 G1-1 G1 General Engineering Requirements This chapter describes Ecology’s engineering approval requirements, permitting requirements and the agencies involved, and the process and steps involved from planning through completion of construction for a domestic wastewater collection and treatment facility. General and site specific planning, design, construction, and operation and maintenance requirements are all addressed in Chapter G1. Exceptions and variations to the normal review and approval process are also discussed in this chapter. Except as delegated to local units of government (see G1-5.2), Ecology will review general sewer plans, engineering reports, plans and specifications, and operation and maintenance manuals for domestic wastewater facilities. The purpose of Ecology’s review is to ascertain that the proposed facilities will be designed, constructed, operated, and maintained to meet the effluent limitations and other wastewater discharge permit terms and conditions necessary to protect public health and the environment. The policies for providing this protection are established in Chapters 90.48, 90.52, and 90.54 RCW pertaining to the prevention and control of pollution to state waters. In cases where projects are funded through state and federal grant and/or loan programs, Ecology’s review will also consider the efficient and effective use of public resources. In addition, Ecology will review documents to ascertain that plans are consistent with the design standards and intentions established in this manual and with commonly accepted engineering practices. G1-1 Agreements with Other Agencies and Applicable Permitting Requirements.... 4 G1-1.1 Objective .......................................4 G1-1.2 General Information on Application and Permitting Activities .......................................4 G1-1.3 Federal Agencies..........................4 G1-1.3.1 Environmental Protection Agency ......... 4 G1-1.3.2 Federal Emergency Management Agency ........................................................... 4 G1-1.3.3 Corps of Engineers................................. 5 G1-1.3.4 Federal Executive Orders....................... 5 G1-1.4 State Agencies..............................5 G1-1.4.1 Department of Health............................. 5 A. Review of Proposals for Wastewater Facilities.................................................... 5 B. Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse............ 6 C. On-Site Sewage Systems............................. 6 D. Separation Between Water Lines and Sanitary Sewer Lines ................................ 6 G1-1.4.2 Department of Fish and Wildlife............ 7 G1-1.4.3 Parks and Recreation Commission......... 7 G1-1.4.4 Department of Natural Resources .......... 7 G1-1.4.5 Community, Trade, and Economic Development .................................................. 7 G1-1.4.6 Department of Ecology .......................... 8 A. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permit ....... 8 B. State Waste Discharge Permit ..................... 8 C. Water Quality Certification (401 Certification)............................................. 8 D. Stormwater Discharges from Construction Sites ..................................... 8 E. Dam Safety Evaluation of Lagoon Embankments............................................ 9 G1-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G1-1.5 Local Government Permits and Approvals...............................9 G1-1.5.1 On-Site Sewage Systems........................ 9 G1-1.5.2 Building Permits..................................... 9 G1-1.5.3 Shoreline Management Act Permit (Shoreline Permit) .......................................... 9 G1-1.5.4 Flood Plain Development Permit ........... 9 G1-1.5.5 Air Quality ............................................. 9 G1-1.6 Indian Tribes...............................10 G1-2 Overview of Applicable Planning Requirements .... 10 G1-2.1 Objective .....................................10 G1-2.2 Sequence of Planning ................10 G1-2.3 Growth Management Act Comprehensive Plans ................12 G1-2.4 General Sewer Plans ..................12 G1-2.5 Project Specific Planning, Design, and Construction ..........13 G1-2.5.1 Engineering Reports/Facility Plans.......13 G1-2.5.2 Plans and Specifications........................13 G1-2.5.3 Construction Quality Assurance Plans..............................................................13 G1-2.6 Environmental Review (SEPA, NEPA, SERP)...............................14 G1-2.7 Funding Eligibility ......................14 G1-3 General Sewer Plan ............ 15 G1-3.1 Objective .....................................15 G1-3.2 Content of General Sewer Plan .15 G1-3.3 Review and Approval .................16 G1-4 Project Specific Planning, Design, and Construction. 16 G1-4.1 Engineering Report/Facility Plan..............................................17 G1-4.1.1 Objective ...............................................17 G1-4.1.2 Projects Requiring Submittal ................17 G1-4.1.3 Content of Engineering Reports and Facility Plans.................................................17 G1-4.1.4 Review/Approval Procedure .................18 G1-4.1.5 Preliminary Engineering Conference ....19 G1-4.2 Plans and Specifications ...........25 G1-4.2.1 Objective ...............................................25 G1-4.2.2 Contents of Plans...................................25 A. General .......................................................25 B. Plans for Sewers .........................................27 C. Plans for Sewage Pump Stations ................27 D. Plans for Sewage Treatment Plants ............27 E. Plans for Sewage Treatment Plant Discharge Facilities..................................30 G1-4.2.3 Content of Specifications ......................30 G1-4.2.4 Review and Approval Procedure...........30 G1-4.3 Construction .............................. 30 G1-4.3.1 Objective ...............................................30 G1-4.3.2 Minimum Requirements of a Construction Quality Assurance Plan............31 A. Construction Schedule................................31 B. Policies and Procedures, Communication, and Duty and Responsibility Matrix...............................31 C. Construction Quality Control Testing ........31 D. Change Order Process ................................32 E. Construction Technical Records.................32 F. Construction Safety Plan.............................32 G. Construction Supervision ...........................32 H. Revisions to Approved Plans and Specifications...........................................32 I. Operation During Construction....................33 J. As-Built Documentation..............................33 G1-4.3.3 Declaration of Construction Completion....................................................33 G1-4.4 Operation and Maintenance Manual ........................................ 33 A. Objective ....................................................34 B. Content of Operation and Maintenance Manual .....................................................34 C. Review and Approval Procedure................34 G1-5 Exceptions to Normal Requirements..................... 34 G1-5.1 Objective .................................... 34 G1-5.2 Delegation of Engineering Approval Authority .................... 34 G1-5.3 On-Site Sewage Systems .......... 35 G1-5.4 Special Considerations ............. 35 G1-5.4.1 New or Developmental Technology......35 A. Definition ...................................................35 B. Submission of Data.....................................35 C. Plan Approval.............................................36 D. Provisional Approval..................................36 E. Approval to Operate ...................................37 G1-5.4.2 Facility Rerating Procedures .................37 A. Definition ...................................................37 B. Submission of Data.....................................37 C. Plan Approval.............................................38 D. Provisional Approval..................................38 E. Approval to Operate ...................................38 General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-3 F. Additional Considerations for Nonstandard Facility Rerating .................38 G1-6 References ......................... 39 Figures G1-1. Sequence of Planning, Design, and Construction....................................................11 G1-2. Example of a Process Flow Diagram.............29 Tables G1-1. Requirements for Engineering Report and Facility Plan ....................................................18 G1-2. Explanation of Engineering Report Requirements ..................................................20 G1-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G1-1 Agreements with Other Agencies and Applicable Permitting Requirements G1-1.1 Objective The objective of this section is to provide information on the most common permitting requirements and any agreements with other federal, state, or local agencies and Indian tribes that may relate to the construction of wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal facilities. The appropriate federal, state, or local agencies that have jurisdiction should be contacted for detailed requirements on specific projects. G1-1.2 General Information on Application and Permitting Activities Ecology Publication No. 90-29, “Permit Handbook—Commonly Required Environmental Permits for Washington State,” contains a list of, and general information about, the various permits that might be required for construction activities in Washington. The permits discussed in this publication will normally be applicable to construction of sewers, pump stations, and wastewater treatment facilities. Ecology provides permit application service at the Washington State Permit Assistance Center. This center, located in Ecology’s headquarters office in Lacey, is staffed by agency employees who can provide answers on permitting questions about various federal, state, and local requirements. G1-1.3 Federal Agencies This section provides information related to federal agencies that is applicable for planning, design, and construction of a domestic wastewater collection and treatment facility. G1-1.3.1 Environmental Protection Agency Responsibility for review and approval of facility plans was delegated from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to Ecology in 1980. Delegation of the review and approval authority for plans and specifications occurred in 1975. G1-1.3.2 Federal Emergency Management Agency The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is responsible for administering the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The NFIP is a voluntary program for local governments that allows property owners to purchase flood insurance if the local government adopts an ordinance containing certain minimum requirements for development in the identified one-hundred-year-frequency flood plain. Local governments participating in the NFIP are also required to administer a permit program for all proposed development in the FEMA-mapped flood plains within their jurisdiction. Any entity that plans for construction of wastewater collection, treatment, or disposal facilities that are within the mapped flood plain will be required to obtain a permit prior to construction from the responsible local government subject to any conditions required under the local government’s ordinance. See G1-1.5 for additional information about the local permitting requirements. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-5 G1-1.3.3 Corps of Engineers The US Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) is responsible for the issuance of Corps Section 404 of the Clean Water Act Permits for the Discharge of Dredge and Fill Material, and Corps Section 10 of the River and Harbor Act Permits for Work in Navigable Waters. A Corps Permit is required when locating a structure, excavating or discharging dredged or fill material in US waters, or transporting dredged material for the purpose of dumping it into ocean waters. US waters include all salt water bodies, wetlands, and rivers classified as navigable waters. Construction of wastewater treatment plants generally would not take place in areas subject to the Corps Permit requirements. However, construction of collection systems involving river crossings and effluent discharge lines into navigable rivers or salt water bodies will be subject to the Corps Permit requirements. G1-1.3.4 Federal Executive Orders The President has the authority to issue Federal Executive Orders at any time that may contain certain requirements for federal agencies that are not included in current federal statutes or regulations. These Executive Orders remain in effect until they are specifically repealed. An example of a Federal Executive Order that may apply to construction of wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal facilities in certain locations is Executive Order 11298, issued in 1977. This Executive Order requires federal agencies to take action to reduce the risk of flood damages by evaluating alternatives to the construction of federal facilities or federal expenditures within an identified 100-year-frequency flood plain. If there are no practical alternatives, agencies are required to modify designs to minimize potential flood damages. G1-1.4 State Agencies This section provides information related to state agencies that is applicable for planning, design, and construction of a domestic wastewater collection and treatment facility. G1-1.4.1 Department of Health Ecology and the Department of Health (DOH) have responsibilities for water quality and public health and share responsibilities for review and approval of documents related to water quality and public health. The agencies have developed agreements to clarify these working relationships as described below. A. Review of Proposals for Wastewater Facilities In 1972, the Department of Social and Health Services (now DOH) and Ecology signed a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) concerning review and approval procedures for domestic wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal facilities. Under the MOA, DOH concluded its independent review of plans and specifications, and continued its review of preliminary plans and engineering reports with comments forwarded to Ecology. G1-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design In reviewing plans and specifications, Ecology agreed to use the most recent editions of the following DOH design criteria for public health concerns: ? Public Health Concerns in the Review of Plans for New Sewage Works Construction. ? Special Sewage Works Design Considerations for Protection of Waters Used for Shellfish Harvest, Water Supplies, or Other Areas of Special Health Concern. ? Approved Cross-Connection Control Devices. B. Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse In May 1995, DOH and Ecology signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) relating to wastewater reclamation and reuse that implements Chapter 90.46 RCW, the Reclaimed Water Act. The intent of the MOU is to clarify the roles of DOH and Ecology in the development of standards for water reclamation and in the processing of permits for land application of reclaimed water, commercial and industrial reclaimed water, existing permitted land application systems, and new land treatment systems. See Chapter E1 for details on the water reclamation and reuse program. C. On-Site Sewage Systems Review and approval authority for domestic wastewater on-site sewage systems is divided among DOH, Ecology, and local health jurisdictions, based on the design flow capacities of these systems and the method of treatment. On-site sewage systems as defined and discussed in G1-5.3 are not subject to the provisions of this manual. Review and approval authority for these systems is described below. Review and approval authority for systems with design flows at any common point of less than 3,500 gpd is the responsibility of local health jurisdictions. Review and approval of systems with flows between 3,500 and 14,500 gpd at any common point, excluding mechanical treatment systems, is the responsibility of DOH. Mechanical treatment systems or lagoons followed by subsurface disposal exceeding 3,500 gpd at any common point, and systems exceeding 14,500 gpd at any common point, are considered domestic wastewater facilities according to WAC 173-240- 020 (5) and are the responsibility of Ecology. An exception to this approval authority exists for the Hanford Reservation, based on a 1992 MOU between DOH and Ecology. All on-site systems on the Hanford Reservation with design flows up to 14,500 gpd at any common point are reviewed and approved by DOH. D. Separation Between Water Lines and Sanitary Sewer Lines Basic separation requirements apply to sanitary sewer lines of 24-inch- diameter or less. Larger sewer lines may create special hazards because of flow volumes and joint types. The minimum separation requirements on a general basis are 10 feet of horizontal separation and 18 inches of vertical separation. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-7 See Chapter C1 for additional and more specific information relating to separation requirements between water mains and sanitary sewer lines. G1-1.4.2 Department of Fish and Wildlife Any form of work that uses, diverts, obstructs, or changes the natural flow or bed of any fresh water or salt water of the state requires a Hydraulic Project Approval (HPA) from the Department of Fish and Wildlife. Sewer lines that involve stream crossings and outfalls are typical activities related to the construction of wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal facilities that may require an HPA prior to construction. G1-1.4.3 Parks and Recreation Commission The Parks and Recreation Commission has approval authority for sewage pumpout facilities for boats at marinas. See C1-9.2 for specific information on these requirements. G1-1.4.4 Department of Natural Resources The Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has approval authority for the use of state-owned aquatic lands (beds of salt water bodies and beds of navigable rivers). The most typical situations related to construction of wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal facilities where this approval would be required are underwater pipeline crossings and outfalls. G1-1.4.5 Community, Trade, and Economic Development The Department of Community, Trade, and Economic Development (CTED) is the lead state agency involved in the development and implementation of the Growth Management Act (GMA). The GMA was established by the State Legislature in 1990 and is codified in Chapter 36.70A RCW. It requires all cities and counties to plan for future growth while protecting natural resources. All jurisdictions must classify and designate natural resource lands and critical areas and adopt development regulations to protect these areas. In addition, Washington’s fastest growing 29 counties and the cities within those counties, as well as those counties and cities that voluntarily agree to comply, must establish Urban Growth Areas, comprehensive plans, and development regulations consistent with these plans. Dates have been established by which local jurisdictions must have their development regulations and comprehensive plans adopted. If local jurisdictions fail to meet these deadlines they are considered out of compliance. Any local government not in compliance with the GMA is prohibited from receiving state grant or loan funding assistance for wastewater facilities. An amendment to the GMA was made during the 1997 legislative session that allows funding to be provided for wastewater facilities in noncomplying GMA jurisdictions if a project is intended to address a “public health need” and/or “substantial environmental degradation.” See Chapter 173-95A WAC. See G1-2.3 for additional information on GMA comprehensive planning and its relationship to planning requirements that specifically relate to wastewater facilities. G1-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G1-1.4.6 Department of Ecology Some of the more commonly required permits or approvals by Ecology that relate to construction of sewers, pump stations, or wastewater treatment facilities are described below. A. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permit The discharge of pollutants into the state’s surface waters is regulated through NPDES permits, under Chapter 173-220 WAC. Ecology issues NPDES permits under authority delegated by EPA to Ecology in 1973. Permits typically place limits on the quantity and concentration of pollutants that may be discharged, and in most cases have a five-year life span. NPDES permits are required for wastewater discharges to surface waters from a municipal sewage treatment plant. B. State Waste Discharge Permit State Waste Discharge (SWD) permits are issued according to Chapter 173-216 WAC and regulate the discharge or disposal of: ? Industrial, commercial, or municipal waste material into the state’s ground waters. ? The discharge of industrial or commercial wastes into municipal sanitary sewer systems. Permits place limits on the quantity and concentrations of contaminants that may be discharged. Instances where a SWD permit would be required for wastewater treatment plants are where the effluent is discharged into ground water or the effluent from the treatment plant is reused. C. Water Quality Certification (401 Certification) A 401 Certification is required for a federal license or permit to conduct any activity that may result in any discharge into surface waters. The federal agency is provided a certification from Ecology that the discharge complies with the discharge requirements of federal law and the aquatic protection requirements of state law. Certifications are provided in the same time frame and follow the same process as Corps Permits discussed in G1-1.3.3. Activities typically requiring a 401 Certification related to construction or wastewater facilities include underwater pipeline crossings and outfalls. D. Stormwater Discharges from Construction Sites A NPDES and State Waste Discharge Baseline General Permit for Stormwater Discharges is required for construction sites with an area of disturbed soil of five or more acres. Application for the permit is made by completing a form called a Notice of Intent for Construction Activity (NOI). Before the permit can be issued for construction sites, the applicant must have prepared a Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan and verify that the State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA) and public notice requirements have been met. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-9 E. Dam Safety Evaluation of Lagoon Embankments State dam safety regulations (Chapter 173-175 WAC) apply to embankments that can impound a maximum volume of 10 acre-feet or more of water of any quality, including untreated or partially-treated wastewater, settled sludge, treated effluent, or reclaimed water. Projects likely to include embankments subject to dam safety regulations include wastewater treatment lagoons, as described in Chapter G3, and reclaimed water storage ponds or quarantine ponds, as described in Chapter E1. G1-1.5 Local Government Permits and Approvals Some of the more common permits and approvals from local governments that may be required for construction of sewers, pump stations, or wastewater treatment facilities are described below. G1-1.5.1 On-Site Sewage Systems Local health jurisdictions have responsibility for the review and approval of small on-site sewage systems, as defined in G1-5.3, with a maximum design capacity of 3,500 gpd. DOH and Ecology have this responsibility for systems exceeding 3,500 gpd, as described in G1-1.4.1C. Local health jurisdictions may contract with DOH for the review and approval of large on-site systems (between 3,500 and 14,500 gpd). G1-1.5.2 Building Permits Counties and cities require permits to construct permanent buildings or additions to existing buildings. G1-1.5.3 Shoreline Management Act Permit (Shoreline Permit) A Shoreline Permit (also called a Substantial Development Permit) is required for any development or activity valued at $2,500 or more that is located on the water or shoreline area or any development which materially interferes with normal public use of the water. The area landward from the water where a shoreline permit is required varies, but in general means the area landward for 200 feet from the ordinary high-water mark and includes flood plains and wetlands. Ecology has oversight authority and certain approval authorities for this program, in accordance with Chapter 90.58 RCW and the state regulations adopted pursuant to this statute. G1-1.5.4 Flood Plain Development Permit Local governments participating in the NFIP are required to review proposed construction projects to determine if they are in identified flood plains as shown on the NFIP maps. If a project is located in a mapped flood plain, the local government must require that a development permit be obtained prior to construction. G1-1.5.5 Air Quality The local air authority or Ecology has review and approval authority for the construction of new sources or modifications to existing sources of air G1-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design pollution. If the proposal is in an area where an established local air authority has jurisdiction, then the local air authority has review and approval authority; otherwise Ecology has this authority. G1-1.6 Indian Tribes Any development activity, including construction of wastewater facilities, on tribal reservation land may be subject to specific tribal requirements that may not be included in this manual. The appropriate tribal planning office should be contacted prior to considering any construction on tribal reservation land. When a proposed project is being considered on nontribal lands and may affect treaty-reserved resources or areas of tribal significance, the project proponent should consult with the appropriate tribal governments during the project review process. G1-2 Overview of Applicable Planning Requirements According to RCW 90.48.110, all engineering reports, plans, and specifications for new construction, improvements, or extensions of existing sewerage systems, sewage treatment, or disposal plants or systems, shall be submitted to and be approved by Ecology before construction may begin. A 1994 revision to this section provides that Ecology may delegate this authority for review and approval of engineering reports, plans, and specifications to local governments requesting such delegation and meeting criteria established by the department. See G1-5.2 for additional information on delegation of engineering approval authority. G1-2.1 Objective The objective of this section is to briefly describe the three different levels of planning required for wastewater collection and treatment facilities in the State of Washington, GMA comprehensive planning, general sewer plans, and project specific planning. This section also explains the reasons for the different levels of planning, including the legal basis, as well as the relationships between the three principal levels of planning that are required. This section also includes a brief discussion of the requirements of the GMA related to the development of comprehensive plans. A more detailed discussion of the two other levels of planning, General Sewer Plan, and Project Specific Planning, Design, and Construction, is contained in G1-3 and G1-4, respectively. G1-2.2 Sequence of Planning Planning for wastewater collection and treatment facilities begins with the capital facilities plan element of the comprehensive land use plan (comprehensive plan) required for counties or cities that are required to, or choose to, plan under the GMA. Information in these plans provides the foundation for a general sewer plan. For non-GMA communities, the planning process begins with the development of a general sewer plan. After the approval of a general sewer plan, site specific planning begins with the development of an engineering report/facility plan that is prepared and submitted to Ecology for approval. Upon approval of the engineering report/facility plan, construction plans and specifications are developed and submitted for approval. See Figure G1-1 for a flow chart outlining this sequence. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-11 Capital Facility Plan WAC 365-195 and WAC 173-240-050 Ecology review/ issuance Permit issuance by end of construction Ecology review/ approval Plans and specifications WAC 173-240-070 Construction WAC 173-240-075, 080, 090, 095, 170, 180 Ecology compliance review Administrative order with schedule Ecology permit oversight Permit application State/NPDES Fail Ecology SERP review if necessary Ecology review/ approval Ecology review/ approval General Sewer Plan WAC 173-240-050 GMANon-GMA Non-wastewater projects GMA Growth Management Act NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System SERP State Environmental Review Process WAC Washington Administrative Code LEGEND Accept Start Wastewater facilities element Engineering Report/ Facility Plan WAC 173-240-060 Ecology equivalency review Figure G1-1. Sequence of Planning, Design, and Construction G1-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G1-2.3 Growth Management Act Comprehensive Plans The GMA was enacted by the 1990 Legislature and codified in Chapter 36.70A RCW. Administrative regulations were adopted by Ecology in 1992 and are contained in Chapter 365-195 WAC. The GMA and its regulations require that counties with specified populations and rates of growth, the cities within those counties, and other counties and the cities within those counties which choose to, must meet all the requirements of the GMA, which includes the development of comprehensive plans. Comprehensive plans must consist of a map or maps and descriptive text covering objectives, principles, and standards used to develop the comprehensive plan. The plan must be internally consistent and contain certain elements that are consistent with a future land use map. The comprehensive plan and any amendments to the plan must be adopted by the local government following a public participation process. One of the required elements of the comprehensive plan, which relates to the planning for and construction of wastewater collection and treatment facilities, is the capital facilities plan element. The capital facilities plan element must meet the requirements of RCW 36.70A.070 (3) and WAC 365-195-315. These requirements include: ? An inventory of existing capital facilities (which includes sanitary sewer systems) owned by public entities, including the locations and capacities of these facilities. ? A forecast of the future needs for the capital facilities. ? The proposed locations and capacities of expanded or new capital facilities. ? At least a six-year plan that will finance the capital facilities. ? A requirement to reassess the land use element if the probable funding falls short. G1-2.4 General Sewer Plans A general sewer plan is defined in WAC 173-240-020(7) as “a comprehensive plan for a system of sewers adopted by a local government entity.” General sewer plans are required of any governmental entity prior to providing sewer service, are considered as “plans” within the requirements of Chapter 90.48 RCW, and must be submitted to Ecology for review and approval. A further description of the required contents of a general sewer plan is contained in WAC 173-240-050. A detailed description of the requirements for and contents of a general sewer plan and the approval process is contained in G1-3. General sewer plans should include the general location and description of treatment and disposal facilities, trunk and interceptor sewers, pumping stations, monitoring and control facilities, and local service areas, and a general description of the collection system to serve those areas. The plan should also include preliminary engineering in sufficient detail to ensure technical feasibility, provide for the method of distributing the cost and expense of the sewer system, and indicate the financial feasibility of the plan implementation. The basic requirement for a general sewer plan is that it shall be sufficiently complete so that an engineering report/facility plan can be developed from it without substantial alterations of concept and basic considerations. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-13 G1-2.5 Project Specific Planning, Design, and Construction This section summarizes the process involved once a site-specific project is selected from the general sewer plan. See G1-4 for detailed information on project specific planning, design, and construction. G1-2.5.1 Engineering Reports/Facility Plans An engineering report/facility plan is defined in WAC 173-240-020(6) as “a document which thoroughly examines the engineering and administrative aspects of a particular domestic or industrial wastewater facility.” A “facility plan” is an engineering report that includes the additional elements required by the National Environmental Policy Act, other federal statutes, and planning requirements for the State Revolving Fund loan program. To be eligible for funding assistance through Ecology’s water quality program for specific project planning, design, or construction, the engineering report for the project must meet the additional requirements for a facility plan. A further description of the requirements of an engineering report is contained in WAC 173-240-060. A detailed description of the requirements for and contents of an engineering report and the approval process is contained in G1-4.1. Engineering reports must be sufficiently complete so that plans and specifications can be developed from it without substantial changes. G1-2.5.2 Plans and Specifications Plans and specifications are defined in WAC 173-240-020(11) as “the detailed drawings and specifications used in the construction or modification of domestic or industrial wastewater facilities.” The plans and specifications are the detailed construction documents by which the owner or their contractor bids and constructs the facility. Plans and specifications are to be submitted for approval after an engineering report is approved. Plans and specifications are further described in WAC 173-240-070, and a detailed description of what must be included in the plans and specifications and the approval process is contained in G1-4.2. G1-2.5.3 Construction Quality Assurance Plans A construction quality assurance plan is defined in WAC 173-240-020(2) as “a plan describing the methods by which the professional engineer in responsible charge of inspection of the project will determine that the facilities were constructed without significant change from the department-approved plans and specifications.” Construction quality assurance plans must be submitted to Ecology prior to construction and demonstrate how adequate and competent construction will be provided. The specific requirements for, and a description of what should be included in these plans, is contained in WAC 173-240-075. A detailed discussion on construction quality assurance plans is contained in G1-4.3. G1-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G1-2.6 Environmental Review (SEPA, NEPA, SERP) The environmental review process is triggered when an action is proposed by an agency. Actions can include adoption of plans, rules, or regulations, or approval of applications for specific projects. A local or state “lead” agency is designated for each action taken. When a local public entity is initiating an action such as planning, design, and construction of wastewater facilities, the local public entity is considered the lead agency. The State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA) was enacted in 1971, and is codified in Chapter 43.21C RCW. Administrative rules for the implementation of SEPA are contained in Chapter 197-11 WAC. SEPA is intended to ensure that environmental values are considered (in addition to technical and economic considerations) by state and local government officials when making decisions. SEPA contains specific policies and goals that apply to actions at all levels of government within the state, including cities and local sewer districts. SEPA was patterned after the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) which was enacted in 1969 and is codified in 40 CFR, Part 1500-1508. Federal agencies are required to comply with NEPA. Compliance with NEPA is required for planning or construction of projects where federal licenses or permits are to be issued and where federal funds are included in the sources of funds. Both SEPA and NEPA describe a tiered or phased approach to environmental review, where the action having the broadest effect is addressed first, followed by more specific review on narrower phases as they proceed toward implementation. Adoption or amendment of a general sewer plan and an engineering report/facility plan are both considered to be “actions,” and require SEPA compliance by the local government, prior to approval actions by Ecology. The State Environmental Review Process (SERP), developed by Ecology, is a process required if state and federal funds are used for the planning, design, or construction of wastewater collection and/or treatment facilities. WAC 173-98-100 provides the background for the SERP requirements. A detailed discussion of SERP is contained in the Water Quality Financial Assistance Programs Guidelines and Appendices. Both NEPA and SEPA are considered to be satisfied for SRF-funded projects if SERP is followed. G1-2.7 Funding Eligibility Local entities considering requesting funding assistance from Ecology for the planning, design, and ultimately construction of domestic wastewater facilities are advised to contact Ecology for information on timing application submittals and current funding eligibility requirements. Guidelines for Water Quality Financial Assistance Programs are updated on an annual basis prior to the next funding cycle, which begins with the open period for submitting applications, usually beginning in January. To be eligible for funding assistance from Ecology for planning, design, and construction of domestic wastewater facilities, applicants must proceed according to a systematic process known as the “Step Process” for planning, design, and construction. Before a local government is eligible to apply for funds, program requirements for all previous steps must be satisfied. Information on water quality financial assistance programs, additional information on the Step Process, and specific information on eligibility is in the current edition of the Water Quality Financial Assistance Program guidelines. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-15 Ecology administers two primary programs for which funding for planning, design, and construction of domestic wastewater facilities is available: the Centennial Clean Water Fund Program (Centennial) and the Washington State Water Pollution Control Revolving Fund Program (SRF). Programs, eligibility, and funding percentages are subject to change. Check with Ecology for current program guidelines. G1-3 General Sewer Plan This section describes the content of and approval process for general sewer plans. General sewer plans are also commonly referred to as “comprehensive sewer plans” and are “a comprehensive system of sewers adopted by a local government entity.” See WAC 173-240-020(7). G1-3.1 Objective The objective of this section is to provide an explanation of the requirements for a general sewer plan and the procedures involved in the submittal of general sewer plans to Ecology for review and approval. General sewer plans should include a general description of the following: ? The existing conditions of the sewer system, including the location and description of treatment and conveyance facilities, pumping stations, monitoring and control facilities, discharges, and overflow locations. ? The capacity and compliance status of the facilities, any known problems with the facilities or potential future problems pertaining to adequate operation, and protection of human health and water quality status of these facilities. ? Anticipated needs for future facilities and services, compliance with existing or new regulations, population growth, water quality problems, etc. ? The descriptions of future facilities, timing, cost of construction, financing, and how the entity will adjust its plans based on uncertainties at the time of plan adoption. The general sewer plan should include preliminary engineering information in sufficient detail to ensure technical and financial feasibility for implementation, and to provide reviewers of subsequent engineering reports with enough information to assess whether or not these plans and projects fall within the scope of the general sewer plan. General sewer plans are to be sufficiently complete so that engineering reports/facility plans can be developed from them without substantial alterations to the concept and basic considerations. G1-3.2 Content of General Sewer Plan The minimum information to be included in a general sewer plan (described in more detail in WAC 173-240-050(3)) is as follows: (1) The purpose and need for the proposed plan. (2) Discussion of who will own, operate, and maintain the system. (3) The existing and proposed service boundaries. G1-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design (4) A layout map, including the following: ? Boundary lines of municipality or district, and vicinity. ? Existing sewers and areas served by each. ? Proposed sewers and areas proposed to be served by each. ? Existing and proposed pump stations and force mains. ? Topography and elevations of existing and proposed ground. ? Information on streams, lakes, other bodies of water, and discharges. ? Information on water systems. (5) Population trends and methods used to determine those trends. (6) Information on existing wastewater facilities in the area. (7) Discussion of infiltration and inflow problems. (8) Discussion on the provisions for treatment, discharge, and reuse. (9) Information on facilities producing industrial wastewater. (10) Information on existing wells or other water supply sources. (11) Discussion of alternatives evaluated and alternative chosen. (12) Information on existing and proposed cost per service. (13) Statement regarding compliance with water quality management plans. (14) Statement regarding compliance with SEPA and, if applicable, NEPA. G1-3.3 Review and Approval Review and approval of general sewer plans is performed at Ecology’s regional offices. One copy of a draft plan must be submitted to the appropriate regional office for preliminary review. Two copies of the final plan must be submitted for review and approval. One approved copy will be returned to the local jurisdiction developing the plan. All general sewer plans must be prepared under the supervision of a professional engineer licensed in the state of Washington and shall bear the engineer’s seal and signature prescribed by the Board of Registration for Professional Engineers and Land Surveyors. Review standards for general sewer plans, engineering reports, plans and specifications, and operation and maintenance manuals are contained in WAC 173-240-040. In general, the review is intended to ensure that the proposed facilities to be designed, constructed, operated, and maintained will meet the applicable state requirements to prevent and/or control pollution of state waters. G1-4 Project Specific Planning, Design, and Construction This section addresses the process involved once a site-specific project is selected from the general sewer plan for planning, design, and construction. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-17 G1-4.1 Engineering Report/Facility Plan This section describes engineering reports/facility plans, contents, and approval requirements. G1-4.1.1 Objective This section is designed to give a detailed explanation of what information is required for submittal of documents for Ecology’s review and approval per WAC 173-240-060. The report will allow Ecology to determine whether the proposed project meets the applicable minimum guidelines and regulations. For treatment plants, it will determine if a discharge permit can be issued. The report will also serve as a comprehensive guide to the project proposer in the decision to adopt the project. G1-4.1.2 Projects Requiring Submittal Construction of all structures, equipment, or processes that collect, carry away, treat, reclaim, or dispose of domestic wastewater (WAC 173-240-020(5)) are considered projects subject to Ecology’s submittal regulations, including all projects involving discharges to “waters of the state.” For projects involving subsurface treatment and disposal systems, an engineering report will be required for the following: ? A septic tank system with ultimate design capacity exceeding 14,500 gpd at any common point. (Note: Systems designed with capacity from 3,500 gpd to 14,500 gpd require DOH approval. Systems designed below 3,500 gpd capacity require local county health department approval.) ? A mechanical treatment system or lagoon with an ultimate design capacity exceeding 3,500 gpd at any common point. ? Any system funded by federal or state programs, regardless of size. An engineering report is not required for an extension of existing sewer systems within a service area identified in an approved general sewer plan, with approved sewer system design criteria [WAC 173-240-030(5)]. However, approval is necessary for proposed sewers or pump stations that include installation of overflows, bypasses, or discharges to an overloaded treatment plant or collection system. G1-4.1.3 Content of Engineering Reports and Facility Plans Engineering reports prepared in anticipation of or with federal or state financial assistance funds must follow EPA facility plan guidelines. Use EPA’s publication, “Guidance for Preparing a Facility Plan” (MCD-46), and indicate how the special requirements contained in 40 CFR 35.719-1 will be met. Ecology encourages applicants to prepare facility plans because engineering reports do not satisfy all of the eligibility requirements for grant and loan programs administered by Ecology or other state and federal agencies. See Table G1-1, which displays additional requirements for a facility plan, and Table G1-2, which contains explanation of quoted portions of WAC 173-240- 060. G1-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G1-4.1.4 Review/Approval Procedure Review and approval of all reports, including those for financial assistance projects, is done at Ecology’s regional offices. One copy of a draft report must be submitted to the appropriate regional office for preliminary review. Two copies of the final report must be submitted for review and approval; one approved copy will be returned to the project proposer. All engineering reports shall be prepared under the supervision of a professional engineer licensed in the state of Washington and shall bear the engineer’s seal and signature prescribed by the Board of Registration for Professional Engineers and Land Surveyors. Table G1-1. Requirements for Engineering Report and Facility Plan Requirements Element Engineering Report Facility Plan Site Description, Problem Identification, and Map Well documented. Same as engineering report. Description of Discharge Standards Well documented. Same as engineering report. Background Information Existing Environment ? Water, air, sensitive areas: ? Flood plains ? Shorelands ? Wetlands ? Endangered species/habitats ? Public health Existing Environment Same as engineering report, plus identification of: ? Prime or unique farmland ? Archaeological and historical sites ? Any federally recognized “wild and scenic rivers” ? Threatened species Demographics and Land Use ? Current population ? Present wastewater treatment ? AWT need evaluated ? I/I studies ? CSOs ? Sanitary surveys for unsewered areas Demographics and Land Use Same as engineering report, plus specific determinations that I/I is not excessive (that is, not less expensive to remove it than treat it at plant). Future Conditions Demographics and Land Use Projected population levels ? Appropriateness of population date source, zoning changes ? Future domestic and industrial flows, and flow reduction options ? Future flows and coding ? Reserved capacity ? Future environment without project Same as engineering report, plus discussion of whether recreation and open space alternatives could be incorporated. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-19 Requirements Element Engineering Report Facility Plan Alternatives ? List specific alternative categories, including no action ? Collection system alternatives ? Sludge management/use alternatives ? Flow reduction ? Costs ? Environmental impacts ? Public acceptability ? Rank order ? Recommended alternative Same as engineering report, plus description of innovative and alternative technologies [that is, those saving energy and nonconventional treatment (land application, etc.)]. Final Recommended Alternative ? Site layout ? Flow diagram ? Sizing ? Environmental impacts ? Design life ? Sludge management ? Ability to expand ? O&M/staffing needs ? Design parameters ? Feasibility of implementation Same as engineering report. Financial Analysis ? Costs ? User charges ? Financial capability ? Capital financing plan ? Implementation plan Same as engineering report. Other ? Water quality management plan conformance ? SEPA approval ? List required permits Same as engineering report, plus state- approved SERP compliance, including: ? Environmental issues analysis ? Documentation that the project is identified in a sewer general plan ? Capital improvement plan ? Documentation of adequate public involvement process G1-4.1.5 Preliminary Engineering Conference Ecology highly recommends that project proposers and their consultants meet with Ecology’s regional office engineers as early as possible in the project planning process. This conference is especially critical for treatment plants. Discussions should cover critical factors important to the success of the project such as finance, reliability, communication strategy, timelines, permitting (including other federal and state agencies), and project objectives. G1-20 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Table G1-2. Explanation of Engineering Report Requirements Text from WAC 173-240-060 Explanation 060(1) Planning Requirements The engineering report for a domestic wastewater facility shall include each appropriate (as determined by Ecology) item required in WAC 173-240-050 for general sewer plans unless an up-to-date general sewer plan is on file with Ecology. Normally, an engineering report is not required for sewer line extensions or pump stations. See WAC 173-240-020(13) and 173-240-030(5). The facility plan described in 40 CFR 35 is an “engineering report.” The report must comply with an up-to-date general sewer plan (WAC 173- 240-050) that is on file with Ecology. The community must certify that its general sewer plan adequately addresses the current conditions and service area. If no adequate, up-to-date, existing general sewer plan is available, Ecology will identify those portions of Section 050 that are appropriate to include in the engineering report. Where there is no general sewer plan and an engineering report is needed for a wastewater project, or the general sewer plan needs to be updated, the engineering report may be expanded to meet the requirements for a general sewer plan, including local approval requirements in Chapters 35.63, 36.70, 36.94, and 56.08 RCW. An engineering report is not normally needed for sewer line extensions or pump stations that conform with an Ecology- approved general sewer plan where no Ecology financial assistance is provided. 060(2) Sufficiently Complete The engineering report shall be sufficiently complete so that plans and specifications can be developed from it without substantial changes. “Sufficiently complete” as used in the regulations is defined to mean the report shall contain enough design information that an engineer who was not involved in writing the report can produce construction drawings that will result in the construction of the facility envisioned by the report writer without any need for process change or more than minor unit-sizing modifications. “Substantial change” means a change in the selected treatment process, facility size, design criteria, performance standards, or environmental impacts, or an increase in total project cost. A substantial change will require an amendment to the approved engineering report. “Adequate detail” means that there is suitable attention given in the report to the individual elements and components that make up the whole proposed project. 060(3) Minimum Information Required The engineering report shall include the following information, together with any other relevant data as requested by Ecology: (a) The name, address, and telephone number of the owner of the proposed facilities, and their authorized representative. The name, address, and telephone number of the owner and the owner's representative must be included. This is the person or position empowered to sign contracts relating to this project. The owner's representative can be the mayor, chair of the city council sewer committee, city manager, public works director, etc. A specific project contact person other than the legal representative may also be indicated. (b) A project description including a location map and a map of the present and proposed service area. The project description includes the where, what, and why of the report. Include documentation of the need for the proposed project. There must be a location map of the project area, along with a map showing the current and proposed sewer service area. The map(s) must be scaled so that at least one map shows the complete, current, and proposed service areas along with the relationship of this service area to adjacent service areas. There should be a map that shows the existing collection system changes and what land applications of wastewater are proposed. A current zoning map for the service area is needed to support the population and waste load projection process. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-21 Text from WAC 173-240-060 Explanation (c) A statement of the present and expected future quantity and quality of wastewater, including any industrial wastes which may be present or expected in the sewer system. This includes an analysis of the current waste load (flow, BOD, TSS, etc.) received by the treatment plant, its sources (the percentages of domestic, commercial, and industrial dischargers), the characteristics of industrial discharges/pretreatment, the current I/I flows, CSOs as defined in Chapter 173-245 WAC, diurnal flow and loading variations, and seasonal load and flow variations. As much wastewater loading and flow data as possible is needed. At least one year of current data is the ideal. RCW 90.48.495 requires water conservation measures be considered in sewer plans. Include a discussion of water conservation measures considered or under way and their anticipated impact on public sewer service. Laboratory data should be from an Ecology-certified laboratory, or at least have been corroborated by a certified laboratory by way of split samples or other acceptable means. Treatment plant flow meters must be checked for accuracy. The location of influent and effluent sampling, the type of samples taken, and the locations of treatment process return streams shall also be included. The future (normally 20 years from the date of the report) waste load and sources of wastewater including the above items must be estimated. The estimates are based on the present (or known future) zoning pattern, council of governments’ population forecasts, historical population trends, existing industrial users, and anticipated future industrial wastewater sources. (d) The degree of treatment required based upon applicable permits and regulations, the receiving water, the amount and strength of wastewater to be treated, and other influencing factors. A copy of the current discharge permit and any compliance orders must be part of the engineering report. For new discharges, a draft permit should be included. The evaluation results of Sections 3(e), (h), and (l) must be used to estimate the degree of treatment needed in lieu of the existence of a current permit or a draft permit prepared by Ecology. At a minimum, the engineering report must contain an evaluation of the WWTP discharge compliance with water quality criteria (Chapter 173-201A WAC). For municipal WWTPs, this means an analysis of NH 3 and Cl that may indicate the need for nitrification or dechlorination. Additionally, the report must evaluate the effects of industrial discharges to the collection system on the final effluent, including the potential for toxic materials to pass through the treatment facility to the final effluent or sludge. G1-22 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Text from WAC 173-240-060 Explanation (e) A description of the receiving water, applicable water quality standards, and how water quality standards will be met at the boundary of any applicable dilution zone. (173-201A-10Q WAC) The name, location (river mile, latitude/longitude, waterway segment number, township/range, etc.), and water quality classification of the proposed receiving water shall be given. Any existing receiving water data (monitoring stations reporting to STORET, CRMS, USGS reports, NOAA reports, FERC license reports, data collected for this report, etc.) must be summarized. Data collected for this report shall be included in an appendix to the report. For fresh water streams and rivers, the 7Q10 (seven-day, ten-year recurrence low flow) flow must be determined and given in the report. This is the flow used for calculating dilution zone sizing in streams and rivers. For salt water and estuaries, current velocity, appropriate salinity, density, and temperature profile conditions must be determined and given in the report. This is then used to design and evaluate the size and shape of allowable dilution zones. There must be an evaluation of toxic chemicals (toxic pollutant scan may be required) that may be in the effluent. This includes an evaluation of their effects on migratory fish (i.e., barrier to fish migration). The applicable numerical Water Quality Criteria (EPA) must be evaluated along with a decision of which criteria are limiting for this discharge (see Ecology’s “Permit Writer’s Manual”). The NPDES permit may contain requirements for whole effluent toxicity testing and limits (WET rule, Chapter 173-205 WAC). Identification of the various chemicals that may be present in the discharge and the species present in the receiving water may affect the need or frequency of biomonitoring WET testing. In salt water, not only must the effects of chemical discharges be evaluated, but the impact of bacterial discharges on shellfish beds (certification or decertification) must be evaluated. Refer to the criteria and information in the DOH documents “Special Sewage Works Design Consideration for Protection of Waters Used for Shellfish Harvest,” “ Water Supplies or Other Areas of Special Public Health Concern,” and “Shellfish and Domestic Wastewater Discharge Outfall Projects,” Oct. 1995 (interagency permit streamline). For ground water discharges, the minimum requirements of the hydrogeologic study must be addressed. These requirements are listed in E3-4 and are fully described in the “Implementation Guidance for Ground Water Quality Standards” (Ecology, 1996). (f) The type of treatment process proposed, based upon the character of the wastewater to be handled, the method of disposal, the degree of treatment required, and a discussion of the alternatives evaluated and the reasons they are unacceptable. At least one of each of the following wastewater treatment categories and options should be among the preliminary alternatives considered: fixed growth processes, suspended growth processes, land treatment processes, lagoons, innovative treatment processes, nonstructural alternatives (operational changes), and no action. The no action alternative must be considered. The alternatives considered must be ranked (with their reasons) according to their ability to meet the receiving water quality standards, costs, and other objectives of the engineering report. From this group of ranked alternatives, a top group of three to five distinct, final alternatives that meet the report's objectives must be selected to be further developed and evaluated. Further evaluation includes environmental impact, applicability to available site(s), cost effectiveness (capital cost and present worth cost), ease of operation, and other criteria deemed important by the community. Costs are to be based on EPA cost curves, CAPDET analysis, or any other cost estimating method acceptable to Ecology. A final alternate recommended for implementation should rank as first in this further evaluation. The selection of the recommended alternate includes a discussion of why the other alternates were not selected. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-23 Text from WAC 173-240-060 Explanation (g) The basic design data and sizing calculations of each unit of the treatment works. Expected efficiencies of each unit, the entire plant, and character of effluent anticipated. This must be done for all of the final alternates as part of the ranking process and to estimate construction and operation and maintenance costs for cost comparisons as required in 3(p) below. The detailed sizing calculations and design criteria used for sizing the selected alternative treatment systems shall agree with the appropriate chapters of this manual or other authoritative reference. Any deviation from the design criteria in this manual must be thoroughly justified. The basic hydraulic and pollutant loading data to be used for sizing the treatment systems is included in 3(c) above. The age, capacities, and adequacy of all existing treatment units used in the upgraded facilities must be described. (h) Discussion of the various sites available and the advantages and disadvantages of the site(s) recommended. The proximity of residences or developed areas to any treatment works. The relationship of a 25-year and 100-year flood to the treatment plant site and the various plant units. This is part of the alternative evaluation process (c) through (f). When multiple potential treatment plant sites are evaluated, their topography, flood potential, impacts to existing wetlands, soils suitability for construction, zoning, and proximity to residential areas must be evaluated. Flood analysis should not be limited to determining whether or not a site is included within a flood plain mapped on a FEMA Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM). The flooding potential of any drainage way passing through or near the site must be evaluated for site flooding potential. The existence of wetlands on a proposed site must be shown on the site map. Mapping the extent of wetlands may require the use of a wetlands specialist. During the planning stage, there should be enough soils analyses done at the final alternate sites so that the ability of the soils to structurally support the proposed structures or provide the wastewater treatment required is known to a reasonable level of security (that is, enough soils analyses need to be done so that during design or construction a “changed site condition” clause does not have to be invoked because the soils are unable to perform as required). (i) A flow diagram showing general layout of the various units, the location of the effluent discharge, and a hydraulic profile of the system that is the subject of the engineering report and any hydraulically related portions. The flow diagram for each of the final alternates considered must be both a schematic flow diagram showing all wastewater liquid and solids flow paths and a scaled site layout (showing the site topography) that shows that the proposed treatment units will actually fit on the land available. The needed hydraulic profile(s) must be developed in detail for the selected alternate. The hydraulic profile must be done for at least the high plant flow and high receiving water flow/elevation and low plant flow conditions. Hydraulic profiles for other critical flow conditions should also be included. (j) A discussion of infiltration and inflow problems, overflows and bypasses, and proposed corrections and controls. There must be an evaluation of the existing treatment plant flows showing the degree of I/I in the collection system. Evaluation of the existing flows includes reviewing the age and characteristics of the existing sewerage system and flow monitoring in the system and finding sewer lines with high I/I. A complete evaluation of I/I in a system will involve at least one year of testing to establish the baseline flows and conditions for further evaluation. Sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs) and combined sewer overflows (CSOs) must be identified on a map and a discussion of their current frequency of overflow and impact to receiving water must be included. A recommendation of how to eliminate SSOs and minimize CSOs and their effect on the receiving water must be included in the engineering report. If the sewer system contains any CSOs, the municipality must submit the CSO reduction plan required in Chapter 173-245 WAC. The final project recommended for implementation must include an I/I reduction and SSO elimination plan, and refer to a CSO control plan that conforms to Chapter 173-245 WAC. (k) A discussion of any special provisions for treating industrial wastes, including any pretreatment requirements for significant industrial sources. If there are any industrial wastes that require special handling by the treatment plant, the wastes and methods for handling them must be identified. A treatability study may be appropriate for some industrial wastewaters during the treatment alternatives development stage. The need for pretreatment of industrial wastewater must be identified. G1-24 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Text from WAC 173-240-060 Explanation (l) Detailed outfall analysis or other disposal method selected. See 3(e) above. A detailed outfall analysis is a determination of the optimum location and diffuser design required to meet the water quality standards, including acute and chronic criteria as defined in Chapter 173-245 WAC at the boundaries of a permitted dilution zone. This should be accomplished by the use of a computer analysis using the most appropriate model(s) applicable to the situation. Field data shall be collected as necessary to calibrate the model and to develop site specific data (such as eddy diffusivity) that cannot be reasonably assumed. The analyses should be made of all conceivable critical situations. The low flow to be used shall be the 7Q10 flow or other regulated low flow. The outfall and diffuser shall be considered a basic unit of the treatment system and included in the data for 3(g) above. For land application of wastewater, see (4) below. (m) A discussion of the method of final sludge disposal and any alternatives considered. A sludge management plan that includes an evaluation of sludge quantities generated and potential disposal or utilization options, including regional sludge disposal and utilization options, must be included in or appended to the engineering report. The sludge management plan includes evaluating sludge treatment options at the plant and relating these sludge treatment options to the sludge disposal or utilization options considered; compliance with applicable laws and regulations (40 CFR 503 and 258); and Ecology’s Minimal Functional Standards, local permits, etc. Guidance on the content of a sludge management plan is available from other sources. A solids mass balance for the treatment plant is a part of the process of developing and comparing both the sludge treatment and wastewater treatment alternatives. A ranking of the various sludge handling alternatives considered and selection of the best alternative must be made. The reasons for not selecting the other alternatives must be given. A listing of the actions necessary to implement the selected sludge handling alternative must be given. The selection of a sludge treatment and disposal process is part of the alternatives analysis referred to in 3(f) and (g) above. (n) Provision for future needs. This relates to the potential to expand a treatment plant on a given site, construct a new plant on an alternate site, locations to construct a new facility, and the ability to extend the sewerage system. The population, industrial, and commercial growth of the service area must be considered. The time frame for this evaluation may range from five years for a phased project to 20 years for complete buildout of the service area. It is recommended that 20 years of treatment capacity be included in each project. (o) Staffing and testing requirements for the facilities. The staffing needs of each final treatment alternate considered must be made in order to properly compare the costs of the alternates. EPA’s document “Estimating Staffing for Municipal Wastewater Facilities” is an acceptable estimating tool. During design, the facility will be evaluated for facility classification under Chapter 173-230 WAC. An operator of this classification must be provided for in the staffing plan. The selected alternative should be in adequate detail for evaluating the facility classification. (p) An estimate of the costs and expenses of the proposed facilities and the method of assessing costs and expenses. The total amount shall include both capital costs and also operation and maintenance costs for the life of the project, and shall be presented in terms of total annual cost and present worth. The cost estimate given here shall be the engineer's best opinion of probable final costs based on an intermixed estimate of quantities and costs. If financial assistance from Ecology for construction is anticipated, there shall be a project financing (user charge) evaluation that includes the anticipated Ecology grant or loan funding and one that does not include any Ecology grant or loan funding. A present worth analysis that includes O&M costs must be done for each of the final alternates as part of the ranking process. (q) A statement regarding compliance with any applicable state or local water quality management plan or any such plan adopted pursuant to the federal Water Pollution Control Act as amended. This need only be a brief paragraph stating which plan is being followed. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-25 Text from WAC 173-240-060 Explanation (r) A statement regarding compliance with SEPA and NEPA, if applicable. This is best accomplished by including a copy of the SEPA checklist, a reference to an applicable FEIS, and the final SEPA declarations in the engineering report. The action taken that requires SEPA is the adoption of the engineering report and its recommended project. If NEPA is required (for federally funded projects), an environmental assessment or reference to an applicable FEIS and final NEPA action must be appended in the engineering report. A final SEPA declaration by local government must be made prior to approval of the engineering report. If the project anticipates SRF loan funding, it must also pass through the SERP process. This process is in addition to the SEPA process, but can be replaced by NEPA. See G1-2.6 for more information about SERP. 060(4) Land Application Discharges The engineering report for projects utilizing land application, including seepage lagoons, irrigation, and subsurface disposal, shall include information on the following together with appropriate parts of subsection C(3) of this table, as determined by Ecology: (a) Soils and their permeability. (b) Geohydrologic evaluation of such factors as: (i) Depth to ground and ground water movement during different times of the year. (ii) Water balance analysis of the proposed discharge area. (iii) Overall effects of the proposed facility upon the ground water in conjunction with any other land application facilities that may be present. (c) Availability of public sewers. (d) Reserve areas for additional subsurface disposal. (4)(c) refers to the availability of public sewers connected to a conventional treatment facility. One criteria (especially for grant/loan considerations) for determining if conveyance and treatment of sewage at a WWTP in lieu of treatment on-site is on a 20-year present worth basis. If it is of equal or lower cost (present worth basis) to convey wastewater to a larger, conventional facility than it is to treat it in an approved on-site wastewater treatment facility, then conveyance and treatment should be considered as the chosen alternative. If it is less costly to use an approved on-site treatment process, and site soils are suitable and other environmental and local concerns are also addressed, the on-site treatment should be the alternative selected. The selection process is related to long-term reliability of the treatment and disposal process. (4)(d) means that there should be at least enough separate area for 100-percent replacement of the drain field if subsurface disposal is the chosen treatment and disposal process (see DOH’s ”Design Standards for Large On-Site Sewage Systems”). See Chapter E3 for determining the ground water quality criteria for land application process. NOTE: WAC 173-240-035 restricts the use of subsurface wastewater disposal systems if other methods are available. Satisfying the above requirements will satisfy the reasonability test (WAC 173-240-035). G1-4.2 Plans and Specifications This section describes contents and approval requirements for plans and specifications. G1-4.2.1 Objective The objective of this section is to describe documentation by means of plans, specifications, and other materials incident to design that adequately represent the design engineer’s intent and are used as instruments to facilitate the construction of the project. Plans and specifications are defined in WAC 173- 240-020(2). The requirements for plans and specifications are found in WAC 173-240-070. G1-4.2.2 Contents of Plans A. General The design should be consistent with federal, state, and local requirements. The design plan, together with the specifications and other appropriate G1-26 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design supplemental documents, shall constitute the contract documents. They shall be sufficiently clear that a third party can interpret and construct the facilities without excessive clarification from the design engineer. Plan sets, in general, shall be comprised of a title sheet and plan sheets, plan and profile sheets, and others as may be appropriate to sufficiently detail and outline the facilities being designed. Plan sheets shall be consecutively numbered and consist of plan views, elevations, sections, profiles, general layouts, and supplemental views used to adequately represent the intended design. Plans should be clear, legible, and drawn to a scale which permits all necessary information to be shown plainly. Numerical units should be expressed consistently throughout the plan set. Plan sets shall be of a common engineering drawing size (30 inches by 42 inches maximum) and contain relevant information including, but not limited to, the following: (1) Project title; owner’s name; date; seal and signature of design engineer with date of license expiration. (2) Index to sheets and vicinity map with project site location. (3) Master site plan and/or general layout map. (4) List of abbreviations, definitions, and symbols used within the plans. (5) Each sheet shall contain a general designation indicating the project title, an appropriate sheet title, date, north arrow, and a scale as well as a graphical bar. (6) Plans for sewers, sewage pump stations, sewage treatment plants, and their discharge facilities shall all include the following information: ? The plan view should be drawn at a horizontal scale no greater than 1 inch equaling 100 feet. Profile view should be drawn at vertical scale no greater than 1 inch equaling 10 feet, with the horizontal scale corresponding with the plan view. ? Show existing and proposed topography with contours and/or spot elevations as well as indicate all significant natural or manmade features such as streams, lakes, streets, buildings, etc. Indicate the basis of all horizontal and vertical datum control. ? Indicate normal stream flow and 100-year flood elevations and/or high and low tidal elevations, as may be applicable. ? Show ownership lines indicating properties, district, or municipal boundaries, and the service area boundary proposed to be served by the project. ? Show location of all known structures or possible obstructions, both above and below ground, which potentially may interfere with proposed construction, particularly utility lines such as gas, water, power, telephone, storm sewer, etc. (7) Any additional information which may be helpful in understanding the designer’s intent or that provides further project clarity. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-27 Plans for sewers, sewage pump stations, sewage treatment plants, and discharge facilities shall also include information outlined in B, C, D, and E, below. B. Plans for Sewers See Chapter C1 for design information and requirements. In addition to the requirements outlined in G1-4.2.2A, sewer plans shall include the following information: (1) Forms of land use (commercial, residential, agricultural, etc.), existing or proposed within 50 feet of either side of the center line of the pipeline’s center line. (2) Location of any domestic wells within the vicinity. (3) Location, size, type, and flow direction of all existing and proposed sewer lines in the project area. (4) Manholes should be numbered and labeled in both the plan and profile. Indicate a station, size, and type, as well as the invert and surface elevation of each. (5) Locations and details for all special details such as inverted siphons, stream crossings, concrete encasements, elevated sewers, special joints or connections, and so on. (6) Details of all sewer appurtenances such as manholes, cleanouts, etc. (7) Elevation and location of building basement floors. If basements are to be served, they should be plotted in profile in those areas where the sewer depth may be questionable, and/or the elevation of the lowest serviceable floor elevation should be indicated. C. Plans for Sewage Pump Stations See Chapter C2 for design information and requirements. In addition to requirements outlined in G1-4.2.2A, sewage pump station plans shall include the following information: (1) Details and elevation views of the completed pump station from suction pump (wetwell) to discharge piping, including all isolation, check, and gate valves. Plans should be submitted for projects involving construction of a new station or substantial modification of an existing station. (2) Location and details of an existing and proposed pump station, including provisions for installation of future pumps or ejectors. (3) Elevation of high water at the site, maximum elevation of sewage in the collection system, and location where sewage would overflow in the event of a power failure. (4) Maximum hydraulic gradient in a downstream gravity sewer when all installed pumps are in operation. (5) Test borings and ground water elevations. D. Plans for Sewage Treatment Plants See Chapters T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 for design information and requirements for sewage treatment plants. In addition to the requirements G1-28 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design outlined in G1-4.2.2A, plans for sewage treatment plants shall include the following information: (1) Show the treatment plant in relation to the remainder of the system. Sufficient topographic features should be included to indicate the plant’s location in relation to streams, point of discharge of treated effluent, and existing buildings and their types within 700 feet of the plant site property. (2) Size and location of plant structures. (3) Schematic process flow diagrams showing the flow through various plant units, and showing utility systems serving the plant processes. An example of a process flow diagram is shown in Figure G1-2, which shows many of the possible treatment components. See Chapter T3 for details on the content of a process flow diagram. (4) All design data and hydraulic profiles. A mass balance should be submitted for all sewage treatment plants of 1 mgd or larger, plants receiving a significant industrial loading, and plants with unusually complex processes. The mass balances should include loadings to each unit process and operation, including all recycle flows. Mass balances should include the following initial and design operating conditions: maximum, minimum, and average flow; BOD and suspended solids loadings; and maximum, minimum, and average nutrient loadings. (5) Piping, including any arrangements for bypassing individual units (materials handled and direction of flow through pipes shall be shown). (6) Minimum, average, and maximum hydraulic profiles showing flow of sewage, supernatant liquor, and sludge. (7) Test borings and ground water elevations. (8) Location, dimensions, and elevations of all existing and proposed plant facilities. (9) Pertinent data concerning the rated capacity of all pumps, blowers, motors, and other mechanical devices. All or part of such data can be included in the specifications if the equipment is identified on the plans. (10) Minimum, average, and maximum hydraulic flow in profile. (11) Adequate description of any features not otherwise covered by the specifications or engineering report. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-29 Blended sludge bypass Primary sludge LEGEND Major flow stream Recycle stream Alternate flow stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Liquid Solids 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 10 12 Bar screens Raw sewage pumps To screenings disposal Primary sedimentation tanks Primary scum Flow diversion structure Aeration tanks W aste activated sludge Intermediate pumps Chlorine contact tanks Ef fluent pumps Secondary scum To outfall Raw sludge blend tank Gravity belt thickeners Thickened sludge blend tank Digesters Storage blend digester To reuse T o digester gas utilization Return activated sludge T o grit disposal Dechlorination Secondary sedimentation tanks From Influent control structure Preliminary/Primary T reatment Raw sewage Primary sludge Primary ef fluent Secondary T reatment Mixed liquor Return activated sludge W aste activated sludge Secondary ef fluent Final ef fluent Solids Handling/Dewatering Gravity belt thickener feed Gravity belt thickener filtrate Gravity belt thickeners sludge Digester feed Dewatering feed Dewatering centrifuge centrate Dewatered cake Recuperative thickening centrifuge centrate Recuperative thickening centrifuge sludge Secondary diversion Dewatering feed loop Preaeration tanks 15 16 17 18 1913 14 Anaerobic Digestion Digester gas Digested sludge Dewatering centrifuges Recycle returns to influent control structure or flow diversion structure Primary sludge bypass Recuperative thickening centrifuges 18 19 19 13 17 15 16 14 Figure G1-2. Example of a Process Flow Diagram G1-30 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E. Plans for Sewage Treatment Plant Discharge Facilities See Chapters E1, E2, and E3 for design information and requirements regarding effluent. In addition to requirements outlined in G1-4.2.2A, sewage treatment plant discharge facilities plans shall include the following additional information: ? Location, size, type, and flow direction of all existing and proposed outfall sewers. ? Structures should be numbered and labeled in both the plan and profile. Indicate a station, size, and type, as well as the invert and surface elevation of each. ? Location and details for all special piping, appurtenances, and structures, both onshore and within the receiving waters. G1-4.2.3 Content of Specifications Specifications must include all construction information not shown on the drawings and which is necessary to inform the builder in detail of the design requirements, including the quality and type of materials and equipment to be used, requirements for all mechanical and electrical components, instructions for complete testing of materials and equipment, and operating performance tests. Each specification section should clearly identify the information required in the submittal for the construction manager to properly review the contractor’s proposal (such as equipment, pipe type, site work facilities, measures to mitigate construction activities regarding noise, traffic, stormwater, etc.). G1-4.2.4 Review and Approval Procedure Review and approval of plans and specifications is done at Ecology’s regional offices. One copy of draft plans and specifications shall be submitted to the appropriate regional office for preliminary review. Two copies of the final plans and specifications shall be submitted for review and approval; one approved copy will be returned to the project proposer. All plans and specifications shall be prepared under the supervision of a professional engineer licensed in the state of Washington and shall bear the engineer’s seal and signature prescribed by the Board of Registration for Professional Engineers and Land Surveyors. G1-4.3 Construction This section describes the requirements related to construction of a project. G1-4.3.1 Objective The primary objective of this section is to describe adequate construction management to be provided by the owner during the construction phase of the project. More specifically this section will also expand and clarify what is required to be documented in a construction quality assurance plan (CQAP). Adequate quality assurance and control is vital to the successful completion of any construction project. The CQAP is intended to ensure project construction according to approved plans and specifications and change orders, and to General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-31 require a high level of performance from engineers and contractors during construction. The CQAP is defined in WAC 173-240-020 (2) as “a plan describing the methods by which the professional engineer in responsible charge of inspection of the project will determine that the facilities were constructed without significant change from the department-approved plans and specifications.” A detailed CQAP must be submitted to Ecology at least 30 days prior to the start of construction. Written approval of the plan should be received from Ecology prior to the start of construction. Any significant changes to the approved CQAP must be submitted to Ecology in a timely manner for approval. G1-4.3.2 Minimum Requirements of a Construction Quality Assurance Plan The CQAP, at a minimum, shall contain the following: A. Construction Schedule Since the CQAP must be submitted prior to construction, this schedule initially will be the engineer’s planning schedule, showing planned construction elements and their sequencing interrelations and durations. For modifications to existing operating facilities, the interrelation of new construction to existing operating facilities must be shown. Any construction contractual relationships must also be shown. Once a construction contractor is retained, its detailed, sequenced planning schedule should be incorporated by reference into the CQAP. The contractor’s schedule should be much more detailed than the engineer’s planning schedule. It shall be checked to ensure compliance with contractual and operational requirements. B. Policies and Procedures, Communication, and Duty and Responsibility Matrix Provide a matrix outlining the following: (1) Construction management (CM) organization policies and procedures. (2) Lines of communications within the organization to the design engineer and to the construction contractor’s organization. (3) Duties and responsibilities of each member of the CM organization. In addition, the authority level of each CM staff to carry out its responsibilities should be described. Policy and procedures might also include document control/filing, submittal processing, schedule and cost control, change order processing, payment procedures, and emergency/contingency procedures. See G1-4.3.2C to G1-4.3.2J and G1-4.3.3 for additional CM staff reporting requirements. C. Construction Quality Control Testing Provide a description of the quality control testing to be performed on the construction. This should include those tests required by contract as well G1-32 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design as those required by policy or good practice and those for the specific project. The description should include who will perform the tests, their qualifications, and how the test data will be recorded and filed. There should be an advance plan for resolution of deficiencies. D. Change Order Process Provide a description of the change order process, including who initiates change orders, who reviews and approves change orders, and who negotiates cost and schedule impacts. The description should include the level of documentation required, the role of Ecology/EPA as appropriate, and the sequence or timing of their involvement. E. Construction Technical Records Provide a description of how the construction technical records will be kept for documentation and future reference. Technical records include contract documentation, clarifications issued, change order modifications, submittal information, and as-built plans and contract specifications. The description should include who is responsible for various records, the process for documentation, and the location of the working and final documentation. F. Construction Safety Plan Provide a detailed construction safety plan or a summary with reference to a detailed safety plan. The plan should identify general safety laws and regulations as well as specific safety issues and precautions for the specific project. The safety information should reference the safety plans of each party involved in the construction, including the owner and contractor, as well as a program for informing visitors on how to comply with safety precautions for the project. Emergency contacts, telephone and contact numbers, and locations of nearby hospitals should be included. G. Construction Supervision The CQAP should describe the administrative, contractual, and other relationships between various parties and persons involved in the project. These would include the owner, contractor, design engineer, and other consultants under contract, as well as federal, state, and local agencies which may control, regulate, or impact the project. The plan should identify the responsible person(s) within each organization and their duties, authority, and responsibilities. The process and supervision of all the phases or elements of the construction project should be clear. These elements include contract bidding and awards, construction planning, construction, design clarifications, submittal review, revisions to the design or contract, safety, inspection, startup and commissioning, acceptance, and warranty. H. Revisions to Approved Plans and Specifications Describe the process and review requirements among the owner, the design engineer, and Ecology for those plans and specifications that have been approved by Ecology. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-33 Include the timing and sequencing of the review process. Define the appropriate authority within the organization responsible for submitting changes to Ecology and clarify the Ecology official responsible for the review. I. Operation During Construction When the construction project will impact an operating wastewater facility, the CQAP should contain a section that clearly describes how the facility conveyance or treatment functions will continue to operate during construction without negatively impacting public health or water quality. This section should explain the roles and responsibilities of all persons or parties in the sewerage agency (or owner). Contractual and other obligations of the construction contractor should be clearly stated. The process for approvals, reporting, and monitoring of any planned variance in the operating system should be detailed. Emergency and standby plans should be developed and described. The procedure for reporting outages or spills should also be described. J. As-Built Documentation Describe the process for obtaining as-built information during construction and for recording and maintaining that information. Describe who will obtain the data, in what format, and when; who will permanently record the data, in what format, and when; who will review the data for accuracy and when; and who is responsible for keeping and maintaining the permanent as-built records. Describe the level of detail of information required to be obtained, recorded, and maintained. List the responsibilities of the owner, the design engineer, and the construction contractor. G1-4.3.3 Declaration of Construction Completion WAC 173-240-090 requires that, within 30 days following acceptance by the owner of the construction or modification of a domestic wastewater facility, the professional engineer in responsible charge of inspection must submit the following: (1) One complete set of record drawings or as-builts. (2) A declaration stating the facilities were completed in accordance with the CQAP and without significant change from the Ecology-approved plans and specifications. Sewer line extensions performed under an approved general sewer plan and design criteria may be excepted from this declaration. The declaration should be furnished to Ecology in the format specified in WAC 173-240-095. The CQAP should detail who the responsible professional engineer is and the process for documenting and submitting the form. G1-4.4 Operation and Maintenance Manual This section describes the requirements for and the contents of an operation and maintenance manual (O&M manual). G1-34 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design A. Objective The operation and maintenance manual presents technical guidance and regulatory requirements to operate and maintain a wastewater treatment facility or pump station under normal and emergency conditions. B. Content of Operation and Maintenance Manual The manual is prepared as a brief reference document that is tailored to the system size, type, and level of training needed to operate and maintain the facility. EPA- and Ecology-funded projects should conform to EPA’s publication, “Considerations for Preparation of Operation and Maintenance Manuals.” A discussion of operation and maintenance manuals and the complete requirements to be included in the manuals is contained in WAC 173-240- 080. C. Review and Approval Procedure O&M manuals are to be submitted for review and approval by Ecology. G1-5 Exceptions to Normal Requirements This section describes general engineering requirements that are not specifically addressed in the normal permitting or approval requirements. Topics covered in this section are: ? Delegation of engineering approval authority. ? On-site sewage systems. ? New or developmental technology. ? Facility rerating procedures. ? Additional requirements for projects receiving financial assistance. G1-5.1 Objective The purpose of this section is to describe general engineering requirements that are outside of the normal permitting or approval requirements. G1-5.2 Delegation of Engineering Approval Authority RCW 90.48.110 provides that “all engineering reports, plans and specifications for the construction of new sewerage systems, sewage treatment or disposal plants or systems, or for improvements or extensions to existing sewerage systems or sewage treatment or disposal plants, and the proposed method of future operation and maintenance of said facility or facilities, shall be submitted to and be approved by the department, before construction thereof may begin.” Changes in the law in 1994 allowed Ecology to delegate this engineering approval authority to local units of government who request this authority and meet criteria established by the department. In response to this legislation, Ecology established a pilot program for the delegation of specific areas of engineering review and approval authority. These changes allow General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-35 Ecology to delegate specific engineering review and approval activities to “local units of government.” Since several regulations involving permitting, pretreatment, and engineering review were impacted by this legislation, the pilot delegation program was established to test the delegation of engineering review and approval responsibilities before the formal delegation program and regulatory changes are implemented. Where appropriate and necessary, changes to administrative rules and policies would be made following completion of the pilot program. G1-5.3 On-Site Sewage Systems Small on-site sewage systems for the subsurface treatment and disposal of domestic wastes only are not subject to Ecology review and approval requirements. See G1-1.4.1C for additional information on on-site sewage systems. A small on-site sewage system is defined as: ? A septic tank with subsurface sewage treatment and disposal and an ultimate design capacity of less than 14,500 gpd at any common point; or ? A mechanical treatment system or lagoon followed by subsurface disposal with an ultimate design capacity of less than 3,500 gpd at any common point. G1-5.4 Special Considerations New or developmental technology and rerating of existing facilities each require special considerations as described in this section. G1-5.4.1 New or Developmental Technology New or developmental technology as described below is subject to the normal review and approval authority described in this chapter, including engineering reports and plans and specifications, plus the additional requirements of this section. A. Definition New or developmental technology is defined as any method, process, or equipment proposed to treat or convey sewage and is not discussed in this manual. This definition of “new” or “developmental” does not include innovative technology as defined by EPA. B. Submission of Data (1) Any new or developmental technology shall be thoroughly tested in a full-scale or representative pilot installation (or similar installation) before approval can be given. The results of this testing must be submitted to Ecology. The testing required for developmental technology will generally follow these guidelines. To the extent that existing data, test results, or third-party certification meets the objectives outlined here, that information may be submitted to satisfy the data submission requirements. (2) All procedures used in validating the process shall be conducted under the supervision of a registered professional engineer experienced in sanitary engineering. G1-36 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design (3) Samples shall be collected and analyzed in a manner that would demonstrate effectiveness and efficiency under minimum and maximum design conditions and over extended periods of time in the area of the proposed installation. A sampling and analysis program acceptable to Ecology shall be used to test the process under investigation. (4) The data shall be from continuous operation of a full-scale or pilot installation that treats or conveys the type and strength of sewage to be handled. (5) Automatic indicating, recording, and totaling flow measuring equipment shall be provided. Total flow and other process control measurements shall be taken and recorded daily or at a frequency required to verify the operation of the proposed developmental technology. (6) All analyses shall be made in accordance with the latest version of the “Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis of Pollutants” contained in 40 CFR Part 136, or “Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater” (American Public Health Association), unless otherwise approved by Ecology. All monitoring data except flow, temperature, settleable solids, conductivity, and pH shall be prepared by a laboratory registered or accredited under the provisions of Chapter 173-50 WAC. C. Plan Approval After reviewing the plans and testing data, Ecology will approve the plans for construction if it is satisfied that the method, process, and equipment will efficiently and reliably operate and meet the sewage collection and treatment requirements established for the facility. D. Provisional Approval Upon completion of construction or modification, provisional approval to operate for a definite period of time will be issued for the operation of new or developmental technology. Ecology may grant provisional approval through either (1) explicit conditions within a wastewater discharge permit, or (2) by judicial or administrative order. The provisional approval to operate will require an evaluation period. The evaluation period will be a minimum of 12 months and should not last longer than 18 months unless a longer period is determined to be necessary by Ecology. Ecology may also require additional monitoring and testing to ensure and demonstrate the performance of the developmental or new technology. The project proponent shall submit reports during the evaluation period as required. The reports shall be prepared by a registered professional engineer experienced in sanitary engineering. An evaluation shall be made of the impact on the operation and maintenance of the facility. This evaluation should, at a minimum, include the impact on treatment plant operators, including level of certification needed, and the need for additional process control(s) and monitoring. General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-37 E. Approval to Operate Ecology will give approval to operate upon the conclusion of the provisional approval period if, on the basis of testing during the evaluation period, Ecology finds the developmental or new technology complies with provisions in this manual and/or the required treatment or performance standards. If these conditions are not met, an order will be issued requiring the owner to alter the sewage treatment works or sewage collection system to enable those conditions to be met. G1-5.4.2 Facility Rerating Procedures Facility rerating, as described below, is subject to the normal review and approval authority described in this chapter, including engineering reports and plans and specifications, plus the additional requirements of this section. A. Definition Facility rerating is the practice of evaluating a facility or unit treatment process to determine if it is possible to operate the facility at a higher capacity than the original design capacity. There are two classifications of facility rerating: ? Standard Facility Rerating is a rerating that would result in a capacity rating for the unit process or facility, and is within standard engineering practice as defined by the standards contained in this manual or other generally accepted manuals of practice. ? Nonstandard Facility Rerating is a rerating that would result in a capacity rating for the unit process or facility, and is outside accepted engineering practice as defined by the standards contained in this manual or other generally accepted manuals of practice. B. Submission of Data ? All procedures used in validating the process shall be conducted under the supervision of a registered professional engineer experienced in sanitary engineering. ? The data shall be from continuous operation of a full-scale installation treating or conveying the type and strength of sewage to be handled. ? Automatic indicating, recording, and totaling flow-measuring equipment shall be provided. Total flow and other process control measurements shall be taken and recorded daily or at a frequency required to verify the operation of the facility or unit process at the proposed rerated capacity. ? Samples shall be collected and analyzed in a way that demonstrates effectiveness and efficiency under minimum and maximum design conditions and over extended periods of time in the area of the proposed installation. A sampling and analysis program acceptable to Ecology shall be used to test the process under investigation. G1-38 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ? All analyses shall be made in accordance with the latest version of the “Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis of Pollutants” contained in 40 CFR Part 136, or “Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater” (APHA) unless otherwise approved by Ecology. All monitoring data except flow, temperature, settleable solids, conductivity, and pH, shall be prepared by a laboratory registered or accredited under the provisions of Chapter 173-50 WAC. C. Plan Approval The project proponent shall submit to Ecology an engineering report that evaluates the technical feasibility of rerating the facility. The engineering report shall include, at a minimum, the technical basis for the proposed rerating; an evaluation of the proposed rerating on each treatment process in the facilities treatment train; and the evaluation and monitoring proposed to demonstrate performance and reliability of the facility at the rerated capacity. After review of the engineering report, Ecology will provisionally approve the facility rerating for testing purposes, provided Ecology is satisfied the rerated facility will reliably operate and meet the sewage collection and treatment requirements established for the facility without undue threat to public health, safety, or the environment. D. Provisional Approval Upon approval of the engineering report and completion of any construction or modifications necessary for rerating, provisional approval to operate for a definite period of time will be issued to evaluate the facility performance at the rerated capacity. Ecology may grant provisional approval through either (1) explicit conditions within a wastewater discharge permit, or (2) by judicial or administrative order. The evaluation period will be a minimum of 12 months and must include an evaluation of both wet and dry weather performance. Ecology may also require additional monitoring and testing to ensure and demonstrate the performance of the rerated facility. The project proponent shall submit reports during the evaluation period as required. The reports shall be prepared by a registered professional engineer experienced in sanitary engineering. E. Approval to Operate Ecology will give approval to operate upon the conclusion of the provisional approval period if, on the basis of testing during the evaluation period, Ecology determines the facility is able to consistently and reliably operate in compliance with permitted requirements. F. Additional Considerations for Nonstandard Facility Rerating Nonstandard facility rerating is considered a variance from generally accepted engineering practice. As a result, the project proponent is responsible for demonstrating to Ecology’s satisfaction the facility or unit process proposed for rerating can and will be reliably and consistently operated at the new higher design capacity. The use of nonstandard facility General Engineering Requirements December 1998 G1-39 rerating should not be a replacement for planning to meet the long-term capacity needs for the facility. Requests to approve nonstandard facility rerating will only be considered if it is possible to provide full-scale performance data for the unit processes that are intended to be operated beyond the generally accepted design standard. Facilities should have multiple parallel treatment trains so that full-scale stress testing of the treatment system is possible to document facility performance at the nonstandard rating without adverse environmental effects. In addition the following specific elements must be addressed in all proposals for nonstandard facility rerating: ? Impacts of the proposed change on the facility’s ability to reliably and consistently comply with wastewater permit terms and conditions. ? An evaluation of the potential for facility treatment system upset, bypass, or permit violations. There should also be an evaluation of the environmental and public health consequences of an upset, bypass, or permit violation. ? An evaluation of the impact of rerating the facility versus upgrading the facility on the capacity to accommodate new growth. The community’s historical and anticipated rate of growth should be considered. ? An evaluation of the impact of rerating the facility on operation and maintenance of the facility. This evaluation should, at a minimum, include the impact on treatment plant operators, including level of certification needed, and the need for additional process control(s) and monitoring. G1-6 References US Environmental Protection Agency. Considerations for Preparation of Operation and Maintenance Manuals. EPA-430/9-74-001. US Environmental Protection Agency. Guidance for Preparing a Facility Plan. 430/9-81-002. 1981. Washington State Department of Ecology. Guidelines: State One-Year Certification Program for Wastewater Treatment Projects. Publication No. 91-11. 1991. Washington State Department of Ecology. Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards. Publication No. 96-02. 1996. Washington State Department of Ecology. Permit Handbook—Commonly Required Environmental Permits for Washington State. Publication No. 90-29. 1994. Washington State Department of Ecology. Permit Writer's Manual. Publication No. 92-109. 1998 update. December 1998 G2-1 G2 General Considerations This chapter describes general design considerations related to the construction, operation, and maintenance of municipal wastewater facilities. Topics covered in this chapter include general design criteria; flow measurement; odor control; mechanical, electrical, instrumentation, and control systems; safety; reliability classifications; and laboratory, personnel, and maintenance facilities. G2-1 Design Criteria ...................... 5 G2-1.1 Treatment Regulations.................5 G2-1.2 Design Loading, Treatment Plants.............................................5 G2-1.2.1 Hydraulic Loading ................................. 5 G2-1.2.2 Organic Loading..................................... 5 G2-1.2.3 Existing Systems .................................... 5 G2-1.2.4 New Systems.......................................... 5 G2-1.3 In-Plant Piping and Channels ......6 G2-1.4 Design Flows, Collection Systems.........................................7 G2-1.5 Plant Location...............................7 G2-1.5.1 General................................................... 7 G2-1.5.2 Flood Protection..................................... 7 G2-1.5.3 Separation from Public Water Supplies.......................................................... 7 G2-1.5.4 Access and Transportation Considerations................................................ 7 G2-2 Essential Components......... 7 G2-2.1 Multiple Units................................7 G2-2.2 Water Supply ................................8 G2-2.2.1 Potable Supply Connection .................... 8 G2-2.2.2 Recycling, Reuse Water ......................... 8 G2-2.3 Utility and Other Support Systems.........................................8 G2-2.4 Laboratory, Personnel, and Maintenance Facilities..................8 G2-2.5 Sewage Flow Measurement .........8 G2-2.6 Sampling .......................................9 G2-2.7 Preliminary Treatment..................9 G2-2.8 Plant Details..................................9 G2-2.8.1 Arrangement of Units and Access.......... 9 G2-2.8.2 Provisions for Flushing, Cleaning, and Draining................................................... 9 G2-2.8.3 Pipe Identification .................................10 G2-2.8.4 Corrosion...............................................10 G2-2.8.5 Grading and Landscaping......................10 G2-3 Siting Considerations and Impacts ............................... 10 G2-3.1 General ....................................... 10 G2-3.2 Noise (Offsite Impacts).............. 11 G2-3.3 Visual Aesthetics....................... 11 G2-3.4 Odor/Air Quality......................... 11 G2-3.5 Bird and Animal Control............ 11 G2-3.6 Buffer Zones .............................. 11 G2-3.6.1 New Sewage Treatment Plants..............11 G2-3.6.2 Existing Sewage Treatment Plants........11 G2-4 Flow Measurement, Sampling, and Splitting..... 12 G2-4.1 Treatment Plant Flow Measurement.............................. 12 G2-4.1.1 Purpose..................................................12 G2-4.1.2 Flow Measurement................................12 A. General .......................................................12 B. Flow Meter Selection..................................12 G2-4.1.3 Miscellaneous Design Considerations...............................................13 A. Parshall Flumes ..........................................13 B. Other Flumes ..............................................13 C. Measuring Weirs ........................................14 D. Venturi and Modified Flow Tube Meters ......................................................14 E. Magnetic Flow Meters................................15 F. Sonic Flow Meters ......................................15 G. Other Flow Metering Devices ....................15 G2-4.1.4 Sampling ...............................................15 A. Sample Devices..........................................15 B. Sampler Design Considerations..................15 C. Automatic Sampling Equipment.................15 D. Manual Sampling .......................................16 G2-4.2 Collection System Flow Measurement.............................. 16 G2-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G2-4.3 Flow Splitting..............................16 G2-4.3.1 Purpose..................................................16 G2-4.3.2 Types of Flow Splitting Devices and Their Application ..........................................17 A. Flumes........................................................17 B. Weirs ..........................................................17 C. Control Valves............................................17 D. Symmetry ...................................................17 G2-4.3.3 Problems with Flow Splitting................18 A. Upstream Conditions..................................18 B. Inadequate Head/Pressure...........................18 C. Approach Conditions..................................18 D. Downstream Conditions.............................18 E. Submerged Flow.........................................18 F. Improper Sizing of Primary Device ............19 1. Too Large................................................19 2. Too Small................................................19 G2-5 Odor Prevention and Treatment ........................... 19 G2-5.1 General Design Considerations............................19 G2-5.1.1 Estimating/Modeling Potential Odors ...19 A. Hydrogen Sulfide Generation and Corrosion Potential ..................................20 B. Odor Dispersion..........................................20 1. Increasing Atmospheric Turbulence .......21 2. Increasing the Travel Distance................21 3. Elevating the Emission Source ...............21 G2-5.1.2 Collection System Design .....................22 G2-5.2 Odor Prevention .........................22 G2-5.2.1 Chemical Addition ................................22 A. Chemical Oxidation....................................22 1. Chlorine ..................................................22 2. Hydrogen Peroxide .................................23 3. Potassium Permanganate ........................23 4. Iron Salts.................................................24 5. Anthraquinone ........................................24 6. Caustic Slug Dosing................................24 7. Nitrate Addition ......................................25 G2-5.2.2 Reaeration/Oxidation ............................25 A. Oxygen Addition/Injection.........................25 B. Air Injection................................................26 C. Ozone..........................................................26 G2-5.2.3 Operational Procedures .........................26 G2-5.2.4 Containment ..........................................26 G2-5.3 Odor Treatment...........................27 G2-5.3.1 Tank Covers ..........................................27 G2-5.3.2 Ductwork...............................................28 G2-5.3.3 Fans .......................................................28 G2-5.3.4 Biofilters................................................29 G2-5.3.5 Chemical Scrubbers ..............................29 A. Packed-Bed Wet Scrubbers ........................30 B. Mist Scrubbers............................................30 G2-5.3.6 Carbon Adsorbers..................................31 G2-6 Plant and Collection System Details ................... 32 G2-6.1 General ....................................... 33 G2-6.1.1 Arrangement of Units and Access.........33 G2-6.1.2 Provisions for Flushing, Cleaning, and Draining..................................................33 G2-6.1.3 Pipe Identification .................................33 G2-6.1.4 Corrosion...............................................33 G2-6.1.5 Operating Equipment ............................33 G2-6.1.6 Facility and Equipment Size and Scale Issues ...................................................34 A. Throttling Valves........................................34 B. RAS Pumps for Small Plants......................34 C. Aeration Basin Length-to-Width Ratios.....34 G2-6.2 Mechanical Systems.................. 34 G2-6.3 Electrical Systems..................... 34 G2-6.3.1 General..................................................34 A. Governmental Codes and Regulations .......34 B. Manufacturer and Technical Society Recommendations....................................35 C. Plan Requirements......................................35 G2-6.3.2 Electric Power Sources..........................35 A. Reliability...................................................35 B. Primary Power Source................................35 1. General....................................................35 2. Service Voltage.......................................36 C. Standby Power Source................................36 G2-6.3.3 Power Distribution Within the Plant .....36 G2-6.3.4 Coordination..........................................36 G2-6.3.5 Reliability and Maintenance Considerations...............................................37 A. General .......................................................37 B. Lighting Systems........................................38 C. Engine Generators ......................................38 1. Phase Alignment .....................................38 2. Muffling..................................................38 3. Louvers ...................................................38 4. Fuel System.............................................38 5. Starting....................................................39 6. Switchgear ..............................................39 7. System Expansion...................................39 8. Starting Current.......................................39 D. Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) ......39 E. Ground Fault...............................................40 1. Ground Fault Sensors..............................40 2. Switching Equipment..............................40 3. Grounding Circuits..................................40 4. Grounding Dual-Fed Services.................40 General Considerations December 1998 G2-3 F. Parts ............................................................40 1. Standard Parts .........................................40 2. Replacement Parts...................................40 G. Flooding .....................................................40 1. Equipment...............................................40 2. Conduits..................................................40 H. Miscellaneous.............................................41 1. Oil-Insulated Equipment.........................41 2. Equipment Protection..............................41 3. Restart.....................................................41 4. Temperature Detectors............................41 5. Aluminum Conductor Substitution .........41 6. Space Requirements................................41 7. Utility Outlets .........................................42 G2-6.4 Instrumentation and Control Systems.......................................42 G2-6.4.1 General Requirements...........................42 A. Governmental Codes and Regulations .......42 B. Manufacturer and Technical Society Recommendations....................................42 C. Plan Requirements......................................42 G2-6.4.2 Instrument and Control System Reliability Requirements...............................43 A. General .......................................................43 B. Design Considerations................................43 G2-6.4.3 Coordination..........................................43 G2-6.4.4 Maintainability—Control Systems........44 A. Section Summary .......................................44 B. Identifying the Required Documents..........44 C. Smart Instrumentation ................................45 D. PLC Documentation Software....................45 E. Reliability and Maintenance Considerations..........................................45 G2-6.4.5 Flexibility—Control Systems................46 A. Flexibility Issues ........................................46 B. Plant Expansion..........................................46 G2-6.4.6 Technologies—Control Systems (DCS/SCADA) Design .................................46 A. Define the Functional Requirements ..........46 B. Key Functional Requirements ....................46 C. Coordinated and Integrated Software Functions..................................................47 D. Historical Database Management...............47 E. The Operator/Management Interface..........47 F. Moving Data to Other Systems...................47 G2-6.4.7 Coordination with Process Design ........47 A. Section Summary .......................................47 B. Design Coordination...................................47 C. The Role of P&IDs.....................................48 D. Typical P&ID .............................................48 G2-7 Safety................................... 48 G2-7.1 Safety Regulations .................... 48 G2-7.1.1 Federal Regulations...............................48 G2-7.1.2 Washington State Safety Regulations ...48 G2-7.2 Engineering, Design, and Construction Safety................... 49 G2-7.2.1 Contracts ...............................................49 G2-7.2.2 Prebid Specifications.............................49 G2-7.2.3 Preconstruction Meetings......................50 G2-7.3 General Wastewater Safety Hazards....................................... 50 G2-7.4 Hazardous Materials and Chemical Handling..................... 51 G2-7.5 Walking and Working Surfaces...................................... 53 G2-7.6 Working Spaces......................... 55 G2-7.7 Fall Protection and Prevention Systems...................................... 57 G2-7.8 Confined Spaces........................ 60 G2-7.9 Fire Control and Protection Systems...................................... 60 G2-7.10 Electrical Safety....................... 61 G2-7.11 Process Safety Management and Risk Management Planning...................................... 62 G2-7.11.1 Process Safety Management................62 G2-7.11.2 Risk Management Planning ................62 G2-8 Reliability Classification .... 63 G2-8.1 Definitions.................................. 63 G2-8.2 Reliability Components............. 64 G2-8.3 Electrical Power Sources .......... 65 G2-9 Laboratory, Personnel, and Maintenance Facilities ............................. 66 G2-9.1 General ....................................... 66 G2-9.2 Laboratory Facilities.................. 66 G2-9.2.1 General..................................................66 G2-9.2.2 Space Requirements ..............................66 G2-9.2.3 Design ...................................................66 A. Location......................................................67 B. Layout.........................................................67 1. General....................................................67 2. Storage and Cabinets...............................68 3. Sinks .......................................................68 G2-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 4. Benches and Tables.................................69 5. Air Handling ...........................................69 6. Safety ......................................................69 G2-9.3 Personnel Facilities....................69 G2-9.4 Maintenance Facilities................70 G2-9.4.1 Maintenance Shop.................................70 G2-9.4.2 Vehicle Requirements ...........................70 G2-9.4.3 Storage Requirements ...........................71 G2-9.4.4 Yard Requirements................................71 G2-10 References ........................ 71 Tables G2-1. Design Basis for New Sewage Works ............ 6 G2-2. Impact of Wastewater Characteristics on H 2 S Formation........................................................20 G2-3. Foul Air Ventilation Requirements................28 G2-4. Biofilter Design Criteria ................................29 G2-5. Carbon Adsorber Vessel Design Criteria.......32 G2-6. Guidelines for Classifying Sewerage Works .64 G2-7. General Requirements for Each Reliability Classification...................................................65 G2-8. Minimum Capacity of the Backup Power Source for Each Reliability Classification ......66 General Considerations December 1998 G2-5 G2-1 Design Criteria This section contains general design criteria related to wastewater collection systems and treatment plants. Specific design criteria related to the collection, treatment, and disposal elements of the process are included in other chapters in this manual. G2-1.1 Treatment Regulations The wastewater treatment system shall produce an effluent that complies with the requirements of Ecology, state water quality standards, and federal law. The minimum standard shall be secondary treatment as defined in EPA regulation 40 CFR 133, as amended. The state water quality standards for ground waters are in Chapter 173-200 WAC and for surface waters in Chapter 173-201A WAC. The state wastewater discharge standards and effluent limitations are contained in Chapter 173-221A WAC. G2-1.2 Design Loading, Treatment Plants G2-1.2.1 Hydraulic Loading The hydraulic capacity of the treatment works should be based on the maximum expected flow. The process design of treatment units should be based on either the average design flow or the peak design flow, whichever is controlling. The following items should be determined from the observed rate of flow during the significant period of discharge. Items to be considered in determining design flows are as follows: ? Peak flow rates continuing over a length of time sufficient to adversely affect the detention time of treatment units or the flow characteristics in conduits. ? Applicable data from similar municipalities. ? Wet weather flows. ? Recirculation and inplant recycle flows. G2-1.2.2 Organic Loading The design organic loading should be computed in the same manner used in determining design flow. G2-1.2.3 Existing Systems Treatment plants designed to serve existing sewerage systems should be designed on the basis of characteristics of sewage obtained from the operating records of the treatment works. The design engineer or owner shall provide a plan acceptable to Ecology for eliminating or handling excessive inflow/infiltration (I/I) so that there will be no discharge of inadequately treated wastewaters or impairment of the treatment process. G2-1.2.4 New Systems Sewage treatment plants to serve new sewerage systems should be designed on the basis of information in Table G2-1. Numbers of persons per dwelling G2-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design should be based on planning projections derived from an official source. Any deviations should be based on sound engineering judgment substantiated in the engineering report. Table G2-1. Design Basis for New Sewage Works Discharge Facility Design Units Flow* (gpd) BOD (lb/day) SS (lb/day) Flow Duration (hr) Dwellings per person 100 0.2 0.2 24 Schools with showers and cafeteria per person 16 .04 .04 8 Schools without showers and with cafeteria per person 10 .025 .025 8 Boarding schools per person 75 0.2 0.2 16 Motels at 65 gal/person (rooms only) per room 130 0.26 0.26 24 Trailer courts at 3 persons/trailer per trailer 300 0.6 0.6 24 Restaurants per seat 50 0.2 0.2 16 Interstate or through-highway restaurants per seat 180 0.7 0.7 16 Interstate rest areas per person 5 0.01 0.01 24 Service stations per vehicle serviced 10 0.01 0.01 16 Factories per person per 8-hr shift 15-35 0.03-0.07 0.03-0.07 Operating period Shopping centers per 1,000 sq ft of ultimate floor space 200-300 0.01 0.01 12 Hospitals per bed 300 0.6 0.6 24 Nursing homes per bed 200 0.3 0.3 24 Homes for the aged per bed 100 0.2 0.2 24 Doctor’s office in medical center per 1,000 sq ft 500 0.1 0.1 12 Laundromats, 9 to 12 machines per machine 500 0.3 0.3 16 Community colleges per student and faculty 15 0.03 0.03 12 Swimming pools per swimmer 10 0.001 0.001 12 Theaters, drive-in type per car 5 0.01 0.01 4 Theaters, auditorium type per seat 5 0.01 0.01 12 Picnic areas per person 5 0.01 0.01 12 Resort camps, day and night, with limited plumbing per campsite 50 0.05 0.05 24 Luxury camps with flush toilets per campsite 100 0.1 0.1 24 *Includes normal infiltration G2-1.3 In-Plant Piping and Channels All piping and channels should be designed to carry the maximum expected flows. The incoming sewer should be designed for free discharge. Bottom corners of the channels should be filleted and pockets and corners where solids can accumulate should be eliminated. Isolation gates should be placed in channels to seal off unused sections where sewage solids might accumulate. General Considerations December 1998 G2-7 G2-1.4 Design Flows, Collection Systems See C1-3 and Table G2-1. G2-1.5 Plant Location G2-1.5.1 General Treatment plant sites should be located as far as practicable from any existing commercial or residential area or any area that will probably be developed within the plant’s design life. The plant site should be separated from adjacent uses by a buffer zone and provided with ample area for any foreseeable future expansion. Plant outfalls shall be placed so as to minimize impacts on commercial and recreational shellfish harvesting, and public water supply intakes. See Chapter E2 for surface water effluent criteria. G2-1.5.2 Flood Protection The plant unit processes shall be located at an elevation which is not subject to the 100-year flood/wave action, or shall otherwise be adequately protected against 100-year flood/wave action damage. Newly constructed plants should remain fully operational during a 100-year flood/wave action. G2-1.5.3 Separation from Public Water Supplies Treatment plants, collection lines, and pump stations shall be a minimum of 100 feet away from wells providing public drinking water supplies. Greater separation may be required for lagoons depending upon the liner design. G2-1.5.4 Access and Transportation Considerations Year-round access to the plant shall be provided. Access to the plant site shall be capable of being secured. Entrance and service roads shall have adequate width and turning radii to permit bulk chemical deliveries if required by the process. Loading docks or other means of accessing and unloading delivery vehicles shall be provided. Adequate parking shall be provided. G2-2 Essential Components This section describes the essential components of a domestic wastewater treatment plant. G2-2.1 Multiple Units Multiple treatment units and properly located and arranged diversion piping should be provided so that any unit of the plant can be removed from service independently for inspection, maintenance, and repairs. Redundancy of critical conveyance equipment is included in this category. G2-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G2-2.2 Water Supply G2-2.2.1 Potable Supply Connection An adequate supply of potable water under pressure shall be provided for use in the laboratory and at various locations around the plant for use by the staff. No piping or other connection that might cause contamination of potable water supply shall exist in any part of the treatment plant. See E1-3.4 for a discussion of cross-connection control and backflow prevention. To facilitate cleaning wetwells, tanks, and basins, water should be supplied at these points by means of a pressurized water system with hydrants or hose bibbs having minimum outlets of 1 inch. The water supplied may be from a nonpotable water system or the plant effluent. All piping and outlets containing nonpotable water shall be clearly identified. Any use of nonpotable water at the treatment plant shall meet DOH requirements. G2-2.2.2 Recycling, Reuse Water Water supply is a critical resource. Use of nonpotable, treated effluent is encouraged for landscaping, flushing, and similar purposes where public contact is minimal and potable water is not required. See Chapter E1 for more information about water reclamation and reuse. G2-2.3 Utility and Other Support Systems Reliable power is required for most treatment and nongravity conveyance of sewage. Failure of such systems generally implies overflow and exposure to the public. Dual-feed power is recommended for all such facilities, and required for treatment plants. Control systems are similarly recommended for redundancy, extending to gates, weirs, and remote operation of pumping facilities. G2-2.4 Laboratory, Personnel, and Maintenance Facilities See G2-9. G2-2.5 Sewage Flow Measurement Facilities for measuring sewage flows shall be provided at all treatment works. Plants with a capacity equal to or less than 50,000 gallons per day (gpd) should be equipped, and plants having a capacity of greater than 50,000 gpd shall be equipped, with indicating, recording, and totalizing equipment. This equipment should use strip or circular charts with flow charts for periods of either one or seven days, or a comparable means of documenting flows. The chart size should be sufficient to accurately record and depict the flow measured. Flows passed through the plant and flows bypassed shall be measured in a manner which will allow them to be distinguished and separately reported. Measuring equipment shall be provided which accurately measures flow under all expected flow conditions (minimum initial flow and maximum expected flow). General Considerations December 1998 G2-9 G2-2.6 Sampling All treatment plant designs shall provide sampling points sufficient for both process control and regulatory needs. Provision shall be made to sample influent, effluent, and internal recycle flows, and any samples as required to operate the plant and to meet testing requirements. G2-4 contains more detailed requirements. G2-2.7 Preliminary Treatment The purpose of preliminary treatment is to protect the operation of the wastewater treatment plant by removing any constituents that can clog or damage pumps or interfere with subsequent treatment processes from the wastewater. For example, removal of inorganic nonbiodegradable materials is essential for proper operation of biological wastewater treatment systems. Preliminary treatment devices include bar racks, grit removal, and coarse screens. See Chapter T1 for detailed information on preliminary treatment. G2-2.8 Plant Details G2-2.8.1 Arrangement of Units and Access Plant components should be arranged for greatest operating flexibility, economy, and convenience in installing future units. Adequate access and removal space should be provided around all components to permit easy maintenance and/or removal and replacement without interfering with the operation of other equipment. Consideration should be given to the need for lifting and handling equipment used in the maintenance and replacement of all components. In addition, the placement of structures and devices such as eyes and hooks used to handle heavy and large components should be included in the design. Lines feeding chemicals or process air to basins, wetwells, and tanks should be designed to enable repair or replacement without drainage of the basins, wetwells, or tanks. G2-2.8.2 Provisions for Flushing, Cleaning, and Draining Provisions should be made for flushing all scum lines, sludge lines, lime feed and lime sludge lines, and all other lines which are subject to clogging. Flushing can be accomplished using cold water, hot water, steam, and/or air, as appropriate. All piping subject to accumulation of compacted solids shall be arranged to facilitate mechanical cleaning and flushing without causing a violation of effluent limitations and without cross-connecting to the potable water system. Provisions shall be made for dewatering each unit. The dewatering system should be sized to permit removal of basin contents within 24 hours. Drain lines shall discharge to points within the system so that adequate treatment is provided for the contents of the drained unit. Consideration should be given to the possible need for hydrostatic pressure relief devices. Provision should be made to prevent tank flotation following dewatering. Dewatering pipes should not be less than 4 inches in diameter. G2-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Piping should be sloped and/or have drains (drain plug or valve) at the low points to permit complete draining. Piping should not be installed with isolated pockets which cannot be drained. G2-2.8.3 Pipe Identification To permit ready identification at any location, pipes should be color coded in the following standard convention: Color Indicates Orange Dangerous parts of machines or energized equipment and flammable gas lines. Blue Potable water. Yellow Chlorine. Black Raw sludge. Brown Treated sludge. Purple Reclaimed water. Green Compressed air. Jade green Nonpotable process or flushing water. Gray Wastewater. Orange with blue letters Steam. White Traffic and housekeeping operations. Red Fire protection equipment. G2-2.8.4 Corrosion Concrete, metals, control and operating equipment, and safety devices should be designed to withstand corrosion. G2-2.8.5 Grading and Landscaping Concrete or gravel walkways should be provided for access to all units. Where possible, steep slopes should be avoided to prevent erosion. Surface water should not be permitted to drain into any treatment units or the sanitary sewer except for runoff from grit removal, screenings, and sludge hauling facilities. G2-3 Siting Considerations and Impacts Most environmental impact mitigation will fall into the categories listed in this section. Effects on existing land use, or land character (such as wetlands and wildlife habitats), may require construction of mitigation measures that are not strictly required for treatment operation. G2-3.1 General Sewage treatment plant siting is discussed in G2-1. Care is required to select a site that minimizes impacts to the public and the environment. This section addresses likely General Considerations December 1998 G2-11 adverse impacts which should be mitigated. An evaluation of the site for potential development is essential to selecting appropriate mitigation measures. G2-3.2 Noise (Offsite Impacts) Mitigate noisy equipment, notably air handling, high speed pumps, compressors, engine- driven generators, and so on. Transportation of goods to, and end products from, treatment facilities may also be a target for mitigation. G2-3.3 Visual Aesthetics Treatment facilities located near commercial and residential zones should consider screening and other techniques to blend the plant into its surroundings. See G2-3.6. G2-3.4 Odor/Air Quality Emissions of any sort, but notably odors, should be controlled to avoid impacts. Onsite treatment is generally required, unless prevailing winds dilute and disperse odors over permanently nonpopulated areas. G2-3.5 Bird and Animal Control Where bird or animal infestation of treatment plant equipment causes housekeeping and sanitation problems, consideration should be given to the installation of devices to discourage or control the infestations. Wires, screens, or other barriers should be installed to keep birds and animals away from the equipment. These barriers should not obstruct access to the unit for operation and maintenance. G2-3.6 Buffer Zones G2-3.6.1 New Sewage Treatment Plants All new sewage treatment plants should be designed with buffer zones. Buffer zones are areas of controlled or limited use within which residential uses, high- density human activities, or activities involving food preparation are prohibited. Minimum buffer zone widths and site screens will be established on a case-by-case basis, considering the process topography, prevailing wind directions, provision of covered units, and use of effective windbreaks in the overall plant design. The prevailing wind direction should be determined by on-site data. Local weather station records may be used if they are demonstrated to be applicable. Attention should be paid to both moderate and high-velocity winds because high-velocity winds often have a different prevailing direction than moderate winds. G2-3.6.2 Existing Sewage Treatment Plants The upgrading of existing sewage treatment plants should include provisions for as large a buffer zone as possible under the specific existing conditions at each plant site. Wherever a demonstrated nuisance does exist, corrective action such as installation of windbreaks or odor control measures should be under- taken. G2-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G2-4 Flow Measurement, Sampling, and Splitting Flow measurement and sampling at the treatment plant are discussed in this section in detail because of the importance of accurately measuring and sampling flows throughout the treatment plant. Some of these flow measurement and sampling methods are also applicable for flows in the collection system and are not addressed in detail in this section. Critical tankage (such as digesters, influent wetwells, and points that may overflow) should have level measurement. Some tanks may just need a high-level alarm while others will need a level indicator to show how much space is left in the tank. All measurements should be relayed to the control center for monitoring by an operator. Flow splitting in general is addressed in this section, and is also discussed in Chapters T2 and T3 as it relates to topics in those chapters. G2-4.1 Treatment Plant Flow Measurement G2-4.1.1 Purpose There are four reasons to measure plant flows and sample various waste streams in the treatment plant, as follows: (1) To assist in process control and operation of the treatment facility. (2) To help minimize the cost of operation and maintenance. (3) To provide a historical record of wastewater characteristics, flows, and process performance on which to base future plant expansions and modifications. (4) To meet the monitoring requirements of regulatory agencies. These requirements are usually contained in the treatment plant discharge permit. G2-4.1.2 Flow Measurement A. General Metering devices within a sewage works should be located so that recycle flow streams do not inadvertently affect the flow measurement. All plants, regardless of size, should provide measurement of flow. See G2-2. B. Flow Meter Selection Factors to be considered in selecting the method of flow measurement are as follows: ? Probable flow range. ? Acceptable head loss. ? Required accuracy. ? Fouling ability of wastewater. General Considerations December 1998 G2-13 G2-4.1.3 Miscellaneous Design Considerations A. Parshall Flumes Parshall flumes can be considered to measure raw sewage or primary effluent because of their freedom from clogging problems. Requirements to be observed when designing a Parshall flume installation are as follows: ? The crest shall have a smooth, definite edge. If a liner is used, all screws and bolts shall be countersunk. ? The pressure tap to the stilling well or float pipe should be made at a point two-thirds of the wall length of the converging section upstream from the crest. ? The pressure tap should be at right angles to the wall of the converging section. ? The invert (i.e., inside bottom) of the pressure tap should be at the same elevation as the crest. ? The tap should be flush with the flume side wall and have square, sharp corners free from burrs or other projections. ? The tap pipe should be 2 inches in size and be horizontal or slope downward to the stilling well (never upward). ? Downstream elevations should be low enough to maintain free-flow discharge conditions and prevent excessive “backing up” in the diverging section, or provisions must be made to correct the measurement for submergence. ? The volume of the float well should be influenced by the conditions of flow. For rapidly varying rates of flow, the volume should be small so that the instrument float can respond quickly to changes in rate. For relatively steady flows, a large-volume, integral stilling chamber can be used. ? Suitable drain and shutoff valves should be provided to empty and flush out the float well. ? Means should be provided for accurately maintaining a level in the float well at the same elevation as the crest in the flume, to permit adjusting the instrument at zero flow conditions. ? Proper location of the flume is very important for accuracy. The flume should not be installed too close to turbulent flow, surging or unbalanced flow, or a poorly distributed velocity pattern. It should be located in a straight section of a channel without bends, immediately upstream of the flume. The flume should be readily accessible for both installation and maintenance purposes. B. Other Flumes Other types of flumes are also available for measuring plant flows. Manufacturers’ instructions should be followed. G2-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C. Measuring Weirs Weirs are appropriate for measuring effluent flows. For installation of weirs, the following criteria should be met. (Weirs included in these guidelines are V-notch, rectangular with end contractions, and Cipolletti.) ? The upstream face of the bulkhead should be smooth and in a vertical plane, perpendicular to the axis of the channel. ? The entire crest of a horizontal weir should be a level, plane surface which forms a sharp, right-angled edge where it intersects with the upstream face. ? The upstream corners of the notch must be sharp. They should be machined or filed perpendicular to the upstream face, free of burrs or scratches. ? The distance of the crest from the bottom of the approach channel (weir pool) should be not less than twice the depth of water above the crest. ? The water overflowing the weir should touch only the upstream edges of the crest and sides. ? The measurement of head on the weir should be taken as the difference in elevation between the crest and the water surface, at a point upstream from the weir a distance of four times the maximum head on the crest. ? The cross-sectional area of the approach channel should be at least six times that of the crest for a distance upstream from 15 to 20 times the upstream head on the weir. ? The head on the weir should have at least 3 inches of free fall at the maximum downstream water surface to ensure free fall and aeration of the nape. D. Venturi and Modified Flow Tube Meters Requirements to be observed for application of Venturi meters are as follows: ? The range of flows, hydraulic gradient, and space available for installation must be suitable for a Venturi meter and are very important in selecting the mode of transmission to the indicator, recorder, or totalizer. ? Venturi meters should not be used where the range of flows is too great or where the liquid may not be under a positive head at all times. ? Cleanouts or hand holes are desirable, particularly on units handling raw sewage or sludge. ? Units used to measure air delivered by positive-displacement blowers should be located as far as possible from the blowers, or means should be provided to dampen blower pulsations. ? The velocity and direction of the flow in the pipe ahead of the meter can have a detrimental effect on accuracy. There should be no bends or other fittings for five pipe diameters upstream of the General Considerations December 1998 G2-15 Venturi meter, unless treated effluent is being measured when straightening vanes are provided. ? Other design guidelines as provided by manufacturers of Venturi meters should also be considered. E. Magnetic Flow Meters Magnetic flow meters are appropriate for measuring influent, effluent, and process flows. They must be installed in a straight run of pipe at least four pipe diameters away from the nearest bend or pipe appurtenance. They should also be installed away from pump vibration and according to manufacturers’ instructions. The pipe should flow full at all times. F. Sonic Flow Meters Sonic flow meters can be used on sludge process lines. They are subject to the same installation requirements as noted in G2-4.1.3C. G. Other Flow Metering Devices Flow meters, such as propeller meters, orifice meters, pitot tubes, and other devices should only be used in accordance with the manufacturers’ recommendations and design guidelines. The plant design shall include a section of open channel flow where electronic flow meters can be verified. G2-4.1.4 Sampling A. Sample Devices Sampling devices must meet the requirements of the utility’s NPDES permit, which generally cites Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater and either an EPA (40 CFR Part 136) or Ecology regulation. The type of sampler and sample container used depends on what will be tested in the flow sample. Sample devices include dippers, vacuum lifts, and pumps (peristaltic, positive displacement, and centrifugal). The amount of lift should be a design consideration. Some wastewater plants may want to consider a discrete sampler to look at hourly loading over a 24-hour period. Some samplers have the capability of composite or discrete sampling. B. Sampler Design Considerations Samplers must maintain a sampling velocity which will keep the solids in the sample from settling. Composite samplers should be flow proportional and capable of sampling flow over a 24-hour period. Sampling lines should be large enough to carry suspended matter. A sampler should have a purge cycle to exhaust any material left in the sample line from the previous sampling. To comply with sample preservation, most samplers will need a means of refrigeration for the sample. Do not pump sample flow a long distance, because the sample lines develop growths which contaminate the sample. All sample lines should be cleanable. C. Automatic Sampling Equipment General guidelines to be used for automatic samplers include the following: G2-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ? Automatic samplers should be used where composite sampling is necessary. ? The sampling device should be located near the source being sampled, to prevent sample degradation in the line. ? Sampling transmission lines shall be avoided. ? If sampling transmission lines are used, they should be large enough to prevent plugging, yet have velocities sufficient to prevent sedimentation. Provisions shall be included to make sample lines removable and easily cleanable. Minimum velocities in sample lines should be 3 ft/sec under all operating conditions. ? Samples shall be refrigerated unless the samples will not be affected by biological degradation. ? Sampler inlet lines shall be located where the flow stream is well mixed and representative of the total flow. ? Sampling access points shall be provided for return and recycle lines, wastewater inflows, and waste sludge lines. D. Manual Sampling Because grab samples are manually obtained, access to sampling sites should be provided in the design of treatment facilities. G2-4.2 Collection System Flow Measurement Today, with many utilities facing inflow and infiltration problems in the collection system, meters are being installed in pump stations so a history of flow can be established. All meters should have a data output to a data-collecting apparatus (such as a computer). There is a wide variety of devices to measure flows in pipes. These meters must be installed in a straight run of pipe at least four pipe diameters away from the nearest bend or pipe appurtenance. They should also be installed away from pump vibration and according to manufacturer’s instructions. The pipe must have full flow at all times. Magnetic flow meters are used for measuring influent, effluent, and process flows. Sonic flow meters can be used on sludge process lines. Designers should contact manufacturers for proper applications. Portable flow monitoring equipment can be used to provide flow data at many points in the collection system. Fixed and portable flow meters need to be maintained, kept clean, and in proper operating condition to ensure that accurate readings are achieved at all times. G2-4.3 Flow Splitting G2-4.3.1 Purpose Flow splitting refers to dividing a flow stream into two or more smaller streams of a predetermined proportional size. Flow splitting allows unit processes such as aeration basins or secondary clarifiers to be used in parallel fashion. The flow is typically divided equally, although there are circumstances where this is not the case. For example, if the parallel unit General Considerations December 1998 G2-17 processes do not have equal capacity then the percentage of total flow feeding that unit might be equal to the capacity of that unit relative to the total capacity of all the parallel units. Flow splitting applies mainly to liquid streams but can also be an issue in sludge streams. G2-4.3.2 Types of Flow Splitting Devices and Their Application See “Isco Open Channel Flow Measurement Handbook” (Grant, 1995) for additional details on open channel flow splitting devices. A. Flumes Flumes are open channel structures and/or devices that produce a headwater (upstream) elevation related mathematically to the flow going through the structure as long as the flumes are operating in a nonsubmerged condition. The higher the flow, the higher the headwater elevation. Two or more identical flumes will pass the same flow with the same upstream head. If two or more identical flumes share the same headwater such as in a splitter box, they will effectively split the flow evenly among the flumes. One advantage in using flumes to split the flow is they can operate accurately with very little available head. Flumes are not recommended if the flow needs to be split unevenly because the flow is not linearly related to the throat width of the flume. B. Weirs Weirs are flat plates set in a channel which, like the flumes, produce an upstream head proportional to the flow going over the weir. Their main advantage is that they are fairly compact and inexpensive. Their main disadvantage is that they need a lot of head to operate properly. If the flow is to be split unevenly, suppressed weirs, circular weirs (glory holes), or Cipolletti weirs need to be used. C. Control Valves Control valves are used to split the flow when little or no head is available or space constraints prohibit the use of a splitter box. There are several valves suitable to control flow splitting. Butterfly valves can be used in large-flow situations where the chance of plugging with stringy materials is low. Pinch valves are ideally suited for flow control since there is nothing in the fluid to catch debris. Plug valves, ball valves, and other valves which do not plug are appropriate for flow splitting control. It is best if the valves are automatic and controlled by a flow signal from all the individual flow paths. In this way, the flow can be instantaneously totaled and portioned out in a predetermined way. D. Symmetry Symmetry has been relied on to split flows, with mixed results. Symmetrical flow splitting relies on the symmetry of the inlet structures to the upstream flow that is being split. One problem with reliance on this type of flow scheme is maintaining complete dynamic symmetry throughout the actual design flow range. Small variations in approach velocity, channel and pipe roughness, and downstream head losses can have a major impact on the accuracy of the flow split. G2-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G2-4.3.3 Problems with Flow Splitting A. Upstream Conditions If the upstream flow velocity is above about 1 fps, significant velocity head can develop. If the flow is not perfectly symmetrical in relation to the splitting devices, the velocity head can develop uneven pressure head on the different flow splitting devices. This causes an uneven or unintended flow split. A sufficient amount of head has to be available upstream of the splitting devices so as not to cause flooding of the upstream processes. B. Inadequate Head/Pressure If there is insufficient elevation difference between the upstream process and the downstream tanks, the flow splitting devices will not function properly. Submergence of the splitting device can occur. When a device is submerged, the tailwater depth prevents free fall and an aerated nappe from occurring through the device. The head on the device is no longer related in a consistent way with the flow going through the device. If one or more of the devices are submerged, but have the same headwater, the devices cannot reliably split the flow in a given proportion. The results are unpredictable and inconsistent. C. Approach Conditions The flow conditions approaching the splitting devices are critical to the success of the flow splitting effort. The flow velocity in the headwater area should be 1 fps or less to minimize any potential velocity head, which is described by the equation V 2 /2g. The additional velocity head could turn into pressure head and/or head loss in an uneven fashion among the splitting devices, destroying the flow split. An uneven approach velocity distribution can also produce an unacceptable flow split. D. Downstream Conditions Downstream conditions can seriously affect the flow splitting capability of splitting weirs. Sufficient head must be available between process units to allow the proper functioning of the splitting devices. In particular, the splitting device needs sufficient free fall to the tailwater for it to work properly. One method of determining the downstream conditions of a weir to ensure an aerated nappe is given in “Open Channel Hydraulics” (Chow, 1959). E. Submerged Flow Submerged flow occurs when the tailwater depth is too high to allow free fall through the splitting device. Without free fall, the splitting device will not work properly. Certain devices such as flumes can tolerate a degree of submergence and still function. Weirs need at least 1 foot or so of free fall to allow for an aerated nappe. If a device is overly submerged, the flow through the device is affected by the tailwater depth, which destroys flow splitting. General Considerations December 1998 G2-19 F. Improper Sizing of Primary Device For satisfactory results, the size of the primary flow splitting device needs to match the amount of flow being divided. 1. Too Large If the primary flow splitting device is too large, it will not function properly. A minimum amount of head loss has to be generated through the device. For small flows, at least one-half foot of head loss needs to be generated. For larger flows, more head loss is required to split the flow. If the flow over a weir is insufficient, it may result in the spillover running down the face of the weir. Because the nappe is no longer considered aerated, it acts as though it were a submerged flow. This can result in a pulsing of the flow over the weir as the nappe hugs and then releases from the weir. Results are unpredictable. 2. Too Small If the primary splitting device is too small, it will generate too large of head to be accurate. It will also generate excessive head loss which may not be acceptable. Finally, the device would need a higher free fall to function. G2-5 Odor Prevention and Treatment This section describes the issues associated with odor prevention and treatment in wastewater collection and treatment facilities. G2-5.1 General Design Considerations The presence of odors associated with wastewater collection and treatment facilities can be a major source of public complaint. Odors are normally associated with anaerobic conditions in the transport and treatment processes, but can also occur because of industrial discharges. Even under the best conditions, wastewater can have odors which, if released to the atmosphere, would be considered objectionable to the public. Work has been done to model the production of odors in the collection system and atmospheric dispersion models have been developed to help predict odor release impacts to the surrounding area. General approaches to odor control include prevention of production through facility design, facility operation or chemical/biological inhibition, containment, and collection and treatment. Hydrogen sulfide corrosion concerns must be addressed in addition to the issues associated with odor control whenever containment is utilized. G2-5.1.1 Estimating/Modeling Potential Odors Odor production in the collection system has been studied extensively and materials are available for estimating the rate of hydrogen sulfide production. Once odor levels are known or estimated, dispersion models can be utilized to predict the potential range and magnitude of these odors. G2-20 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design A. Hydrogen Sulfide Generation and Corrosion Potential A complete model for sulfide generation in a force main and for sulfide generation and corrosion in gravity sewers is presented in ASCE Manual No. 69. In order for this model to be utilized, specific information needed includes the following: ? Concentrations of organic material and nutrients (BOD). ? Dissolved oxygen and/or nitrate. ? pH. ? Temperature. ? Stream velocity. ? Surface area of the pipe. ? Detention time. The impacts of variations in the characteristics of the wastewater flow on H 2 S and odor generation and the anticipated range of values of these characteristics for the force main flow are shown in Table G2-2. Table G2-2. Impact of Wastewater Characteristics on H 2 S Formation Parameter Impact of H 2 S Formation Anticipated Range in Force Main BOD Increase in BOD increases the potential for H 2 S formation. 200 to 350 mg/L pH Decrease in the pH increases the potential for release of H 2 S gas. 6.8 to 7.2 Temperature Increase in temperature increases the potential of H 2 S formation. 62 to 72 ° F Detention Time Increased detention time in the force main under anaerobic conditions increases the potential for H 2 S formation. 9 to 34 hours B. Odor Dispersion There are a number of atmospheric dispersion models which can be used to predict odor concentrations surrounding a release point. One such model is presented in the WEF Manual of Practice No. 22. As with the previous model, data collection is required in order to utilize this model. Specific information needed includes: ? Plume height. ? Emission rate. ? Wind speed at point of emission. ? Height of receptor. ? Position of receptor with respect to wind direction. ? Downwind distance of receptor from source. ? Stability class, which affects vertical and horizontal dispersion. While it is possible to utilize tables contained in the WEF manual to obtain estimates of the odor dispersion, it is often more efficient to contract with a General Considerations December 1998 G2-21 firm having specific expertise in running these types of models. The use of dispersion models coupled with hydrogen sulfide generation models to estimate concentrations can be used to estimate the level of treatment required to prevent odor complaints. Design of gas discharge stacks and vents is important in maximizing dispersion of odor in the atmosphere. Also, layout and site vegetation can play an important role in minimizing odor. Odor regulations are generally aimed at reducing odor impacts to nearby receptors rather than reducing discharge mass or quantities of specific odor-producing compounds. As a result, dispersion and dilution of odor emissions is generally considered an acceptable means of reducing odor impacts. Dilution is ordinarily accomplished at wastewater treatment facilities by increasing atmospheric turbulence, increasing distance between odor source and receptors, or elevating the emission source by means of a tall stack. 1. Increasing Atmospheric Turbulence Turbulence in the atmosphere helps disperse and dilute odors. Turbulence is generally a function of atmospheric conditions in the vicinity of the discharge. An increase in atmospheric turbulence can be produced by several mechanical means, including adding structures and/or vegetation. This might be accomplished by adding a band of trees around the facility perimeter. Trees would tend to increase turbulence by forcing the odor plume upward over the trees, allowing mixing with air to occur as the plume settles back toward the ground. Vegetation can also work as a filter by adsorbing some of the odorous compounds onto the foliage. Vegetation is not always effective, however, particularly if the vegetation is not sufficiently dense. In such cases, constructed barriers and mechanical fans can be added to promote dispersion. 2. Increasing the Travel Distance A buffer zone between the odor source and nearby receptors allows dispersion. If the width of the buffer zone can be increased, then odor impacts outside the buffer zone will be reduced. Care should be exercised, however, in siting plant facilities to make sure odor- emitting structures are kept as far from the property boundary as possible. Selecting site locations near the site perimeter may necessitate the use of more active odor-control measures. 3. Elevating the Emission Source Increasing the elevation of the emission by means of adding a stack generally results in lower downwind impacts. The stack allows greater atmospheric dispersion and increased dilution before the plume reaches downwind ground-level receptors. Stack effectiveness depends in large part on temperature and moisture content of the gases being emitted. Warmer, drier gases stay aloft longer, allowing more dilution and dispersion. Elevation of atmospheric discharges may increase their visibility. For these reasons, an elevated stack alone is not likely to provide a satisfactory means of resolving an odor emission problem. G2-22 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G2-5.1.2 Collection System Design Design of gravity interceptors, tunnels, force mains, siphons, wetwells, and related facilities needs to include features to minimize the generation of sulfide and other odorous compounds formed by anaerobic biological activity. The design of the collection system will have an effect on the production and release of odors. Factors to be considered are as follows: ? Pipe slope. ? Transition structures. ? Manholes. ? Proximity to receptors. ? Inverted siphons and force mains. G2-5.2 Odor Prevention Odors can be prevented by chemically or biologically inhibiting their production. Operating strategies can be modified to create conditions which are less conducive to odor generation or release. Finally, containing foul air beneath a cover or in an enclosed space, ventilating the enclosed space, and treating the foul air with some kind of treatment system will reduce odor impacts. See C1-9.6 for odor control related to collection systems. G2-5.2.1 Chemical Addition Chemicals can be added to various points within the collection system to control odors. Control approaches include chemical oxidation, biological interference, precipitation of sulfides, and biological inhibition. Chemical addition to wastewater streams is used to control the concentration of contaminants, generally sulfides, in the liquid phase. Chemical addition is used when liquid treatment is more cost-effective than allowing the contaminants to become airborne and employing gas-phase treatment of the same contaminants. Liquid-phase treatment rarely eliminates the need for gas-phase treatment, but rather supplements gas-phase treatment. Gas-phase treatment can be reduced by liquid phase treatment to a level at which, for instance, biofiltration can be employed or the life of gas-phase carbon adsorbers can be extended. In practice, liquid-stream chemical addition is used to reduce relatively high liquid-stream contaminant concentrations. In most cases, the techniques discussed below are most effective in force main situations, where sulfide generation is most commonly found. They are less commonly applied to gravity flow systems which have an air-liquid interface since oxygen transfer will tend to keep the flow aerobic. They may still be useful in situations where there are upstream sources of sulfide; however, care must be taken to avoid turbulence and subsequent release of the H 2 S to the gas phase. A. Chemical Oxidation 1. Chlorine Chlorine is a powerful and relatively cheap chemical oxidant. The reactive component of any chlorine application in water is the hypochlorite ion, regardless of whether chlorine gas or a sodium hypochlorite solution is used. Because chlorine is very reactive it reacts with many compounds found in wastewater including H 2 S. This General Considerations December 1998 G2-23 high reactivity can also be a disadvantage, however, because chlorine indiscriminately oxidizes any reduced compound in wastewater. The competing side reactions require an overfeeding of chlorine to ensure sulfide oxidation. It has been shown that between five and 15 parts by weight of chlorine are required to oxidize one part sulfide. For applications requiring less than approximately 140 kg/d Cl 2 , hypochlorite solution feed equipment is often the most economical. For applications requiring greater amounts of Cl 2 , chlorine gas is required. Using chlorine gas requires greater maintenance and safety costs. Best results are achieved when the chlorine solution is mixed rapidly and thoroughly with the entire wastewater flow. Direct injection of gas is dangerous because it may cause downstream fuming with the potential to release dangerous chlorine gas. Chlorine also acts as a bactericide. Depending on the point of application and dose, it can kill or inactivate many odor-causing bacteria. On the other hand, since it is nonselective, it may also kill organisms beneficial to wastewater treatment. Chlorine is a hazardous material, and any use of chlorine must include consideration of health and safety. 2. Hydrogen Peroxide Hydrogen peroxide is a commonly used oxidant that oxidizes H 2 S to elemental sulfur or sulfate depending upon the pH of the wastewater. It is normally delivered as a 50-percent active solution. Typical applications require one to three parts hydrogen peroxide per one part sulfide. The reaction takes place quickly and most of the hydrogen peroxide is consumed soon after dosing. Several advantages of hydrogen peroxide are: reactions with sulfide and other odor causing compounds yield harmless byproducts; decomposition of excess hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen increases the DO concentration of the wastewater and produces no chemical residue; and feeding equipment is relatively easy to operate and maintain if safety procedures are followed closely. Hydrogen peroxide can only control odors for a short retention time, thus it is best suited for control of a point source by dosing just upstream of the source of odors. Under normal conditions, injection must occur at a point at least 15 minutes ahead of potential release points to ensure complete reaction. Because hydrogen peroxide is very reactive with organic materials, the maintenance and operation of such a system requires special training, procedures, and safety practices. 3. Potassium Permanganate Potassium permanganate is a strong chemical oxidant that oxidizes H 2 S to elemental sulfur or potassium sulfate. Studies have shown that approximately six to seven parts potassium permanganate are required for each part sulfide oxidized. Potassium permanganate is expensive and can be explosive if contaminated with acids or organics. For these G2-24 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design reasons is not widely used as an odor control oxidant in the US. It also produces an insoluble chemical floc (manganese dioxide). Some success has been encountered in dewatering operations where the permanganate helps to reduce odor and concurrently improves dewaterability. 4. Iron Salts Aqueous salts of iron form a very insoluble precipitate, FeS, with H 2 S. This is in contrast to other odor control chemicals which oxidize the H 2 S gas. Either ferrous or ferric salts are used. Some studies have found that a combination of both ferrous and ferric salts work better for H 2 S control than either alone, but such a blend is not commercially available. The oxidation/reduction status of the sewer plays a large role in determining which species will be more effective. In reduced conditions Fe(III) is better at reducing H 2 S levels than Fe(II). However, a little O 2 greatly improves the effectiveness of Fe(II). Thus, Fe(II) is a more effective additive to a freely flowing sewer, where some O 2 is always present. The iron sulfide precipitate is the size of talc particles and turns the sewage black. It is a flocculant that increases the rate that other solids settle out. The characteristics of the wastewater determine whether or not it is a problem at the treatment plant. Iron addition is commonly used in anaerobic digesters to reduce odors associated with dewatering and digester gas. Since the system is anaerobic, Fe(III), which is less expensive, is commonly used. Iron salts are acidic, so care must be exercised to avoid excessive alkalinity reduction in the digester. 5. Anthraquinone Anthraquinone is a chemical that blocks bacteria from using sulfate in its metabolic processes. It is only slightly soluble and must settle into the slime layer to become effective. When contacted by anthraquinone, the bacteria in the slime layer are inactivated for a period of several days up to six weeks. After this time, the bacteria start sulfide production again if not retreated. Because of the low solubility, it is only partially effective in force main application and fast gravity main flows. 6. Caustic Slug Dosing Sodium hydroxide is a strong caustic solution. It controls H 2 S by shifting the sulfide equilibrium from the H 2 S form to the dissolved hydrosulfide HS- forms. The continuous addition of sodium hydroxide would prevent the release of H 2 S, but is not a cost-effective solution. Periodic slug dosing with sodium hydroxide, however, can be effective in a sewer system. It works not by shifting the chemical equilibrium, but by inactivating or killing the biological slime layer, which is responsible for the generation of H 2 S. The slime layer will regrow, but it will take several days or weeks for it to resume full sulfide production. General Considerations December 1998 G2-25 For such a system large quantities of caustic are needed and the slugging can have adverse effects on nearby treatment plants. Treatment facilities must have equalization facilities to deal with the elevated pH levels or they must neutralize the wastewater with acid before treatment. These procedures add to the cost of a slug dosing operation and may be prohibitive. Normal operation requires that the pH in the line be raised to greater than 11 for at least 15 minutes. Higher dosages and or longer dosage periods may initially be required to remove the accumulated slime layer. Caustic slug dosing is most effective for force mains. 7. Nitrate Addition Facultative and obligate anaerobic bacteria, which are responsible for sulfide production, prefer nitrate to sulfate as an oxygen source. This results in the production of nitrogen gas and other nitrogenous compounds rather than hydrogen sulfides. Nitrate can be obtained in a variety of liquid and dry forms, mostly as sodium or calcium nitrate. It has several advantages over other control options. It is consumed more slowly than dissolved oxygen in wastewater systems; it is nonflammable and nonhazardous, requiring no special containment or safety devices; and it produces only minor flocculants to increase solids production. Nitrate functions as an alternate source of oxygen and thus inhibits the production of H 2 S. It also has been found to be effective at reducing the existing concentration of H 2 S in collection systems by enabling biological oxidation of the H 2 S back to sulfate. Dosage rates are dependent upon the length of time in the conveyance system, with higher dosages being required for longer detention times and where H 2 S is already present. Dosage has been experimentally determined to be 2,400g nitrate-oxygen per kilogram sulfide (2.41lb/lb). Bioxide is a commercially available form of calcium nitrate sold for use in wastewater treatment. G2-5.2.2 Reaeration/Oxidation A. Oxygen Addition/Injection Because most odors are produced by anaerobic conditions in the sewage system, the addition of oxygen to the system can decrease odors from the sewage. The addition of oxygen can either directly oxidize the odor- causing compounds or create the aerobic conditions necessary for aerobic bacteria to carry out this function through metabolic processes. The addition of oxygen to the system by creating aerobic conditions can also prevent the formation of odorous compounds by allowing aerobic bacteria to dominate anaerobic bacteria in competition for available food in the sewage. The addition of pure oxygen gas accomplishes the same thing as the addition of air, but only one-fifth as much is added to achieve the same dissolved oxygen concentration. This means that a smaller volume of gas is needed to achieve the same oxygen transfer to the wastewater. Oxygen can either be generated on-site or purchased commercially. It has the further advantage of not containing nitrogen and thus it significantly G2-26 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design reduces the potential for air binding. It also allows treatment of longer detention-time force mains. B. Air Injection Air is a readily available source of oxygen. Air injection may also cause turbulence since it is four-fifths other gasses, which will result in the release of odoriferous gasses. It has proven to be successful when injected at the head of short- to moderate-length force mains. Problems have been encountered in force mains that have high points since there is the potential for “air” binding and reduced flow capacity. C. Ozone Ozone is an extremely powerful oxidant that can oxidize H 2 S to elemental sulfur. Ozone is unstable and must be generated on-site. Ozone is a disinfectant. It is also toxic to humans at concentrations over 1 ppm. Although it has been shown to reduce odors in air, effectiveness in reducing odiferous compounds in sewage has not been documented. Since it is generated from air, the problems associated with air injection into sewage apply to ozone injection. It also requires fairly sophisticated equipment, which is not readily utilized at unstaffed sites. G2-5.2.3 Operational Procedures There are a number of operational procedures which can be utilized to limit the production or release of odors. Probably the most important is good housekeeping. Routine hosing and debris removal at pump station wetwells and within the treatment plant can significantly reduce odor production. Operation of wetwells is also an important factor. While it may be more energy efficient to operate at higher wetwell levels, this increases detention times and the potential for the development of anaerobic conditions and H 2 S production. Fill and draw pump stations should consider more frequent pumping while level set points on variable speed pump stations should be lowered where odor is an issue. Odor containment prior to treatment is often used as discussed in G2-5.2.4. This often creates problems for operations personnel because of inconvenience. Containment is only effective if it is not compromised by leaving hatches or doors open or otherwise compromising the containment. It requires an ongoing education program to ensure that odor control procedures and design intentions are maintained. G2-5.2.4 Containment The first step in any foul air treatment system is containment of the odorous air. If fugitive emissions under normal operation are not eliminated, the whole odor control strategy is negated. This applies both to covered process tanks and channels and to occupied spaces. Collection of foul air from covered tanks and channels has traditionally been based on air exchange rates. A moderate exchange rate may be required to reduce condensation and corrosion, or a higher exchange rate may be needed to allow utilization of the enclosed space above a clarifier or CSO tank, for example. General Considerations December 1998 G2-27 Collection of foul air for prevention of air leakage through cracks, leaks, and other penetrations in a cover primarily depends on establishing a negative pressure within the enclosed headspace. The negative pressure is established by exhausting air from the enclosed headspace, which draws air into the headspace through the various openings in the cover. The negative pressure is a function of the air velocity through those openings. Factors to be considered in type and location of covers are: ? Permanency (fixed, removable). ? Ease of removal (by crane, manually). ? Accessibility/visibility (hatches, clear panels). ? Aesthetics (sun reflection, camouflage). ? Sealing (gasketed, permanently sealed). As discussed above, containment will only be effective if it is not compromised. While containment will increase the difficulty associated with operating covered units, it is important that every effort be made to minimize the inconvenience and maximize worker safety. As an example, hatches which need to be opened to observe internal equipment should be readily accessible and easily opened (e.g., not blocked by railings or too heavy to lift). G2-5.3 Odor Treatment Odorous air removed from collection systems and treatment units can be treated to destroy odorous compounds before release. As indicated previously, the level of treatment required can be determined through the use of dispersion modeling. The following equipment items are likely to be used for odor facilities. G2-5.3.1 Tank Covers Tank covers may be concrete, aluminum, plastic, or fiberglass. Use of covers may require that the area under the cover be ventilated for corrosion protection. Ventilation requirements will depend on the use of the area being ventilated. Ventilation of structures is used to provide an environment suitable for human occupancy by purging the structure of odorous, toxic, and hazardous gases with outside fresh air; extend the life of an enclosure and/or its equipment by purging the area of corrosive gases; create a negative pressure within the structure to prevent the escape of fugitive emissions; or any combination of the above. The air-exchange-rate principle must be used for occupied spaces such as free entry wetwells and screen rooms. The negative pressure principle is typically used for covered tanks and channels. The ventilation requirements for situations typically encountered in wastewater facilities are shown in Table G2-3. G2-28 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Table G2-3. Foul Air Ventilation Requirements Ventilation Needs Requirement Areas where operator access is frequently required (wetwells, screen rooms, domed tank covers). 15 air changes per hour continuously in occupied space. Potentially corrosive areas where operator access is treated as confined space entry (submersible pump wetwell). 6 air changes per hour continuously to reduce corrosion. Confined space entry if occupied. Foul air withdrawal rate to create a negative pressure (flat covers over channels and tankage). 0.5 to 1.5 cfm/sq ft of cover area, depending on cover leak- tightness. Canopy hoods over equipment or tanks. 400 fpm velocity through perimeter space. Negative pressure inside covered areas. 0.05 to 0.1 inch of water column. Handrailing around the tank must be provided if removable covers are installed on otherwise open tanks. The handrailing may be the permanent type, or a method of temporarily installing handrailing must be provided. Hand railing around the tank must be provided if removable covers are used. Covers may be removed by hoist, crane, or manually; if manually, the maximum cover weight must meet OSHA standards. Consideration should be given to issues of fall protection where covers must be removed manually. Staff also need to be aware of confined space requirements associated with covered units, and design consideration should be given to this issue. G2-5.3.2 Ductwork Ductwork may be constructed of galvanized steel, aluminum, stainless steel, fiberglass, or polyethylene materials. The choice will depend primarily on the corrosiveness of the conveyed air and of the external environment. The most cost-effective ductwork that meets the corrosion demands should be used. Duct sizing would be based on velocity (to reduce noise) and air friction loss (to conserve fan energy). G2-5.3.3 Fans Fans to exhaust or transfer foul air and to blow the foul air through the treatment system are normally constructed of aluminum or fiberglass reinforced plastic material. They would likely be the same material as the associated ductwork. They should be centrifugal, with the bearings located outside the air stream. These fans or blowers are widely available in sizes up to 60,000 cfm. In areas where space is limited (particularly for transfer fans), in- line centrifugal duct fans may be used but are not recommended because of their more difficult maintenance requirements, including removal from the ductwork. The overall foul air system should be designed such that building space exhaust fans would develop sufficient pressure to deliver the foul air stream into the ductwork exiting the building. From that point, the odor control treatment system fan would power the air stream. If the odor control system is nonoperational, the building space exhaust fan should bypass and exhaust to the atmosphere. This type of fan should be AMCA certified. Redundant fans are not recommended. General Considerations December 1998 G2-29 G2-5.3.4 Biofilters Biofilters are a simple and inexpensive method of biological treatment for odor control. The main component of this system is a bed of compost, tree bark, peat, or soil, about 3 feet deep, through which the fouled air is blown. The material in the bed of the filter provides an environment for a diverse culture of microorganisms. The organisms eat the gaseous pollutants as they pass through and are trapped by the filter bed. Maintaining the right temperature and humidity in the filter bed is important. The microorganisms must be sustained so they can eat the pollutants. Without the microorganisms, the filter will perform like an adsorption filter which will quickly reach its maximum adsorption capacity. Such a filtering system can work very well if care is taken to ensure proper operating conditions. Cost effectiveness is the greatest advantage of this system. It requires a substantial amount of real estate to operate correctly. The system is also environmentally friendly as few if any chemicals are necessary for operation. The main disadvantage of a biofilter for control of H 2 S is that the acids generated by the degradation of H 2 S eventually destroy the organic media. They also require a fairly low surface velocity so dilution and dispersion of any remaining odors is limited. Biofilters may be open or closed bed, depending on space constraints and aesthetics. Biofilter media would be an appropriate combination of organic and porous materials. Design criteria for biofilters are provided in Table G2-4. Table G2-4. Biofilter Design Criteria Parameter Criteria Media properties pH Particle size Pore volume ≈ 7 ≤ 0.75 inch 60 percent (minimum) Pressure drop ≤ 3 inches of water column per foot of media depth Foul air Moisture Temperature drop Inlet H 2 S concentration Add moisture to provide 100-percent RH in the inlet foul air to biofilter 46 to 105 ° F Less than 25 ppm (volumetric measure) Media depth Open bed Closed bed 3 to 4 feet 5 feet (maximum) Foul air residence time 60 seconds (minimum) Surface loading 2 to 4 cfm/sq ft G2-5.3.5 Chemical Scrubbers Chemical scrubbers work on the principle of absorption of the contaminant from a gas stream by dissolving it in a selective liquid solvent. In addition, chemicals are generally added to the scrubbing liquid to oxidize the constituents after they have been absorbed. Odor removal by gas scrubbers is limited in that components in odorous gas streams may be insoluble in water. Substitution of a suitable, solvent- scrubbing liquid is then required to cause the physical transfer of the G2-30 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design contaminants to the liquid phase. The removal of extremely small quantities of odorous air contaminants is also troublesome. Low concentrations of organic vapors often require a long contact time and the use of large quantities of solvent. The economics for absorption of organic compounds are, therefore, unfavorable unless the solvent can be regenerated or used as another process makeup stream. Chemical scrubbers are available in two basic configurations—packed-bed towers and mist towers. A. Packed-Bed Wet Scrubbers The most common chemical scrubber is the packed-bed wet scrubber. Scrubbing liquid is sprayed over packing through which the odorous gases pass. The foul air is passed through the gas-liquid contacting packed bed, then through a mist eliminator and exhausted to the atmosphere. The purpose of the packing is to promote turbulent mixing of liquid and gas and, hence, increase the gas-liquid mass transfer rate. The scrubbing liquid is collected in the bottom of the vessel and recirculated. Fresh chemicals are added to the system, and a small amount of spent solution is bled off to drains. Generally, packed-bed scrubbers operate with relatively weak circulating solutions to avoid too much chemical loss in the scrubber blowdown. When contaminants (such as hydrogen sulfide) are readily absorbed and oxidized in aqueous solutions, packed-bed scrubbers can perform with reasonable efficiency. However, organic sulfur compounds that are not absorbed efficiently at the elevated pH required for H 2 S absorption usually are not controlled to a great extent in packed bed scrubbers. In addition, other odorous organic compounds, such as amines and aldehydes, may not be absorbed efficiently at elevated pH levels. As a result, exhaust gases can exhibit low hydrogen sulfide concentrations but have high odor levels. It is possible to customize the odor scrubber operation depending on the primary contaminant present. Scrubbers treating primarily H 2 S are operated at elevated pH levels. If ammonia and amines are the primary odor source, operation in an acidic range will provide greater removal. Highly complex mixtures may require multi-stage units to effectively treat all odorous compounds present in the air stream. The chief operating problem with packed-bed scrubbers is scaling. Dissolved constituents in the circulating solution will concentrate so that potential for scaling always exists. Scaling results in high pressure drops and channeling of the liquid and gas streams. These problems can increase energy cost and decrease the rate of mass transfer. Alleviating scaling potential may require excessive solution blowdown, which significantly increases chemical costs. Softening the makeup water reduces the scaling problem. Packed-bed scrubbers, with their associated chemical startup systems, have a higher capital cost than carbon adsorbers or biofilters. They become cost effective at medium to high contaminant concentration levels and at high air-flow rates. B. Mist Scrubbers An alternate chemical scrubber design, known as a “mist scrubber,” offers a significantly different approach to wet chemical scrubbing of odorous General Considerations December 1998 G2-31 gases. In this design, a relatively strong chemical solution of sodium hypochlorite and caustic is introduced through an air-atomizing nozzle. This nozzle creates a fine mist consisting of millions of very fine droplets (typically about 20 microns or less in diameter) that are introduced into a relatively large vessel. The very high surface-area-to-volume ratio of the fine droplets, coupled with the high gas-liquid contact time and high chemical concentration, creates efficient hydrogen sulfide absorption and oxidation. Removal of organic sulfur compounds tends to be better in this type of scrubber because the oxidant concentration is higher and the fine droplets promote greater direct contact of odorous compounds and scrubbing chemicals. The mist scrubber has the advantage of using a chemical solution that is immediately drained from the scrubber as condensate that forms on the walls of the scrubber vessel after a single pass. The drawbacks to this design are greater mechanical complexity (compressors and associated peripheral equipment) and a tendency for some air-atomizing nozzle designs to plug frequently. Another disadvantage is that some mist is inevitably carried in the treated air discharged from the scrubber. Mist scrubbers should use less chemicals than packed-bed scrubbers. However, the reduction in chemical usage is not great, and the cost savings may be negligible when additional costs are considered for larger vessel sizes (or additional vessels), compressors, and nozzle maintenance required with mist scrubbers. G2-5.3.6 Carbon Adsorbers Activated carbon has been widely used as an adsorbent for odorous air treatment at wastewater treatment facilities. Because the main odor-causing agent at most facilities is H 2 S, the carbon is often impregnated with sodium hydroxide to make it more effective at removing H 2 S. The alkali-impregnated carbon not only adsorbs the H 2 S, but chemically converts it to elemental sulfur. This allows the carbon to continue to adsorb and convert H 2 S, greatly enhancing its H 2 S removal capacity over ordinary activated carbon which can only adsorb H 2 S. The improved H 2 S removal comes at the cost of reduced organic removal. If organics rather than H 2 S is the major source of odor, unimpregnated carbon is the better choice. Where the air stream contains both, it may be appropriate to utilize either a two-stage system with both impregnated and unimpregnated carbon or a single unit with both impregnated and unimpregnated carbon. In either case, the unimpregnated carbon should be the first product to be contacted by the air stream. The life of an activated carbon bed is limited by the quantity of compounds being removed. The more compounds that the carbon removes the shorter its effective lifespan. Unimpregnated carbon can be reactivated with a high temperature steam treatment or thermally regenerated. This is normally done by returning the product to the manufacturer. In the case of chemically impregnated carbon, regeneration is accomplished by rinsing and soaking with a concentrated hydroxide solution. Impregnated carbon should generally be replaced instead of regenerated a third time. G2-32 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Vessels containing the carbon may be concrete or fiberglass. Fiberglass should be used unless space constraints dictate a concrete rectangular vessel. A single stage of carbon treatment should be provided. This may be provided by either a single- or dual-bed vessel, depending on space constraints and cost. Regardless of configuration, each carbon bed should have downflow air direction to reduce blinding of the carbon support sheet and enable operators to agitate the upper surface of the carbon. Access to the vessels should be via hatches in the side walls and/or dome. Sufficient access should be provided to enable loading by an inclined conveyor with simultaneous manual raking of the carbon. Vessels shall be structurally and mechanically designed to enable them to be filled with water in case such carbon regeneration is employed. Design criteria for carbon adsorber vessels are provided in Table G2-5. Table G2-5. Carbon Adsorber Vessel Design Criteria Item/Parameter Criteria Carbon vessel material Fiberglass reinforced plastic Types of carbon Virgin GAC (nonimpregnated) Impregnated GAC Sulfide adsorptive capacity Virgin GAC : 0.02 g H 2 S/cc Impregnated: 0.14 g H 2 S/cc Carbon hardness (ball pan hardness) 90 percent (minimum) Carbon pore volume (CCl 4 /100 g) 60 percent (minimum) Pressure drop across carbon bed 2.0 inches of water column/foot of bed (maximum) Foul air volumetric loading time Less than 50 cfm/sq ft (optimum) 60 cfm/sq ft (maximum) Discharge H 2 S concentration 1 ppm (maximum) Air flow direction through carbon bed Downflow Empty bed contact time 3 to 4 seconds Carbon scrubbers have been used in combination with wet scrubbers where the wet scrubber is optimized to remove H 2 S while the carbon scrubber utilizes unimpregnated carbon to optimize organic removal. Since carbon is affected by moisture, it is usually necessary to dehumidify the air stream between the wet scrubber and the carbon unit. G2-6 Plant and Collection System Details This section describes general information on plant and collection systems, including electrical systems and instrumentation and control systems. General Considerations December 1998 G2-33 G2-6.1 General G2-6.1.1 Arrangement of Units and Access Plant components should be arranged for greatest operating convenience, flexibility, economy, and convenience in installing future units. Adequate access and removal space should be provided around all components to permit easy maintenance and/or removal and replacement without interfering with the operation of other equipment. Consideration should be given to the need for lifting and handling equipment used in the maintenance and replacement of all components. In addition, the placement of structures and devices such as eyes and hooks used in handling heavy and large components shall be included in the design. Lines feeding chemicals or process air to basins, wetwells, and tanks should be designed to enable repair or replacement without drainage of the basins, wetwells, or tanks. G2-6.1.2 Provisions for Flushing, Cleaning, and Draining Provisions should be made for flushing all scum lines, sludge lines, lime feed and lime sludge lines, and all other lines which are subject to clogging. Flushing can be accomplished using cold water, hot water, steam, and/or air, as appropriate. All piping subject to accumulation of compacted solids shall be arranged to facilitate mechanical cleaning and flushing without causing a violation of effluent limitations and without cross-connecting to the potable water system. Provisions shall be made for dewatering each unit. The dewatering system should be sized to permit removal of basin contents within 24 hours. Drain lines shall discharge to points within the system so that adequate treatment is provided for the contents of the drained unit. Consideration should be given to the possible need for hydrostatic pressure relief devices. Provision should be made to prevent tank flotation following dewatering. Dewatering pipes should not be less than 4 inches in diameter. Piping should be sloped and/or have drains (drain plug or valve) at the low points to permit complete draining. Piping should not be installed with isolated pockets that cannot be drained. G2-6.1.3 Pipe Identification Pipes should be color coded in a way that will permit ready identification at any location. See G2-2.8.3 for color codes. G2-6.1.4 Corrosion Concrete, metals, control and operating equipment, and safety devices should be designed to withstand corrosion. G2-6.1.5 Operating Equipment The owner should provide a complete set of tools and accessories for use by plant operators, including squeegees, wrenches, valve keys, rakes, and shovels. A portable pump is desirable. Readily accessible storage space and work bench facilities should be provided. G2-34 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G2-6.1.6 Facility and Equipment Size and Scale Issues A. Throttling Valves The basic valves used for wastewater control are ball, pinch, cone, long radius elbow control valve (designed for sewage), eccentric, and lubricated or nonlubricated plug valves. When considering automatic throttling valves for small plant application, care must be taken not to create a situation that will cause plugging of the valve. Small plants use small lines because the flows are relatively small. The design engineer must ensure that a 3-inch spherical solid can pass through the valve at the lowest desired flow, otherwise plugging can occur. B. RAS Pumps for Small Plants When considering centrifugal pumps for RAS pumps in small plants, minimum practical size and revolutions per minute must be taken into account to prevent plugging. The pump must be able to pass a 3-inch spherical solid. If the pump speed required to produce the desired flow is too low, the pump will plug. The pump impeller then cannot generate enough force and pressure to keep the volute clear of debris and to move a variably viscous RAS along. Diaphragm pumps should also be considered for RAS pumps for small plants. C. Aeration Basin Length-to-Width Ratios The recommended length-to-width ratio for plug flow aeration basins is 40:1. Smaller ratios result in aeration basins which tend to operate more like a complete mix basin. To achieve the required length-to-width ratio in small plants, the basins would be too costly to construct and too narrow to clean. A better solution to achieve plug flow in small facilities is to construct basins in a series with a positive hydraulic grade line between them. G2-6.2 Mechanical Systems Screening devices and grit removal facilities are discussed in Chapter T1. Other mechanical system elements such as pumps, blowers, gates, valves, or other mechanical system elements are not addressed in this manual. G2-6.3 Electrical Systems G2-6.3.1 General A. Governmental Codes and Regulations Sewage treatment system reliability classifications are defined in EPA 430-99-74-001. Plant electrical service shall be as specified by this standard for each reliability class. Codes and regulations exist at the federal, state, and local level, dictating minimum acceptable requirements for electrical systems. A partial list of codes and regulations to be used as a basis for design is as follows: General Considerations December 1998 G2-35 ? National Electric Code (NEC). ? Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). ? State and local building codes. ? National Electrical Safety Code (NESC). B. Manufacturer and Technical Society Recommendations Various manufacturers and technical societies publish standards and recommendations to be used as a basis for design and review whenever the project specifications have not made them mandatory. Those resources include the following: ? National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). ? Underwriters Laboratories (UL). ? Illuminating Engineering Society (IES). ? Insulated Power Conductor Engineering Association (IPCEA). ? American National Standards Institute (ANSI). ? Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). C. Plan Requirements Electrical system plans should thoroughly and completely depict the work required. To accomplish the desired results, the electrical plans should include at least the drawings listed here, as follows: ? Electrical legend and general notes. ? Site plan. ? Plant power distribution plan (can be included in site plan). ? Complete electrical one-line diagram. ? Building lighting plans. ? Building power plans. ? Motor control diagrams. ? Equipment and installation details, as required. G2-6.3.2 Electric Power Sources A. Reliability EPA 430-99-74-001 and other reliability criteria dictate whether one or multiple electric supplies are required. B. Primary Power Source 1. General Generally, the local electric utility will be the primary source of electrical power. When a second source of electrical power is required, it may be on-site generation or a second connection to the electric utility. If the second source is a connection to the electric utility, it must be so arranged that a failure of one source does not directly affect the other. G2-36 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 2. Service Voltage The selection of the voltage at which the utility is to serve the plant electrical system is a choice based on several factors, some of which follow: ? The size and arrangement of the plant’s electrical distribution system. ? The availability of qualified maintenance personnel for high- or medium-voltage systems. ? Economic advantages that may be built into the electric utility rate schedule which favor taking electrical service at the utilities’ distribution voltage. C. Standby Power Source The choice between on-site generation versus a second electric utility connection is generally based on cost. Costs to be considered include one-time and monthly electric utility charges, on-site generation-first cost, on-site generation fuel costs, and maintenance costs. In some special cases where the standby power consumption requirements are small enough, portable trailer-mounted engine generators can be used to good advantage by serving as the standby power source for several facilities. Where this option is available, provisions for ready connection to the building switchgear should be made. G2-6.3.3 Power Distribution Within the Plant The electrical power distribution system within the plant should be planned and designed on the following basis: ? Plant electrical loads (peak and average demand). ? Maximum fault currents available. ? Proper protective device coordination and device-fault current withstand and interrupt ratings. ? Plant physical size and distribution of electrical loads. ? Plant power factor correction requirements. ? Location of other plant utility systems and facilities. ? Reliability requirements. ? Voltage drop limitations. ? Planned future plant expansions. ? Ability to accommodate upgrades and modifications. ? Feasibility and possible economic justification for electrical demand control system. ? Life-cycle cost of major electrical equipment. ? All codes and regulations, and good engineering practice. G2-6.3.4 Coordination Coordination between the electrical plans and the plans and specifications of other disciplines (such as mechanical and structural) must be complete and General Considerations December 1998 G2-37 accurate. There must also be complete coordination between the electrical plans and specifications. The most frequently found conflicts include: ? Equipment requiring electrical circuits listed in specification sections other than electrical is not shown on the electrical plans. ? Specification requirements for electrical equipment characteristics such as horsepower, voltage, and number of phases differs from characteristics shown on the plans. ? Failure to adequately define and delineate the interface between the electrical system and other systems or contracts. ? Building design doors too small to permit equipment removal. ? Inadequate ventilation for heat generated by electrical equipment. ? Interference between electrical equipment installation and the installation of other equipment or utilities. G2-6.3.5 Reliability and Maintenance Considerations A. General An electrical system must be designed both to be reliable and easily maintained if it is to properly serve its intended purpose. To assist in review of this vital requirement, the following list of frequent design oversights, errors, and omissions has been compiled. This list does not contain any solutions to problems. It is intended only as a reminder to electrical designers or checkers. Solutions to these problems depend on conditions or factors unique to specific projects. Item Comment 1. Chemical and electrolytic corrosion, corrosive gases Chemical and electrolytic corrosion can be a serious problem with direct buried steel conduits and electrical equipment enclosures. Chlorine gas, salt air, and other elements attack exposed conduits. 2. Conduit Aluminum conduit is incompatible with some types of concrete and earth, and as a general rule should not be embedded in concrete or directly buried in the ground. Consideration for PVC coated rigid steel conduit should be done for these and other corrosive areas. 3. Hazardous areas Refer to NEC section 500 in toto. 4. Manholes, handholes, and pull boxes Manholes, handholes, and pull boxes should be provided in raceway systems at close enough intervals to allow pulling cables and conductors without exceeding tension limits. Drainage, pumping, and lighting should be considered. 5. Earth settlement Earth settlement can cause serious problems with underground raceways, damaging the integrity of the raceway and perhaps the conductors or, by changing the slope of the raceway, upsetting the planned drainage. 6. System capacity Sufficient system capacity and space should be included in the design to accommodate planned system additions. Some allowance should be made for unplanned system expansion. G2-38 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design B. Lighting Systems Lighting systems are one of the most visible parts of an electrical system design and therefore one of the most criticized aspects of a design. Some of the more frequent lighting system design problems are as follows: ? Inadequate or too high light levels. (In general, lighting levels should be approximately as recommended in the IES standards.) ? Luminaires difficult or impossible to relamp. ? Improper choice of light source for various occupancies. ? Use of mercury vapor or similar lamps with long startup times in areas not continuously occupied. ? Exclusive use of mercury vapor or similar lamps with a long restrike time following a momentary power failure in rooms that are continuously occupied. ? Light switches trapped behind doors. ? Inadequate emergency lighting. ? Failure to consider efficiency, power factors, noise level, and temperature when specifying ballasts. ? Failure to consider color rendition when specifying lamps. ? Failure to consider third harmonic currents. ? Improperly located luminaires. ? Inadequate light, glare, or shadows. C. Engine Generators Engine generators are used with increasing frequency as a standby power source as the reliability requirements of sewage systems become more stringent. 1. Phase Alignment Care must be taken in the electrical design to ensure that on retransfer from the standby source to the normal source, the motor branch circuit breakers and main circuit breakers are not opened because of out-of-phase relationships between the regenerative motor voltage and the normal supply voltage. 2. Muffling The proper level of muffling must be specified. Also, the location of exhaust gas discharge must be coordinated with the location of ventilation system air-in openings. 3. Louvers Electrically operated louvers in engine generator spaces should be of the energized-to-close/deenergized spring-loaded-to-open type. 4. Fuel System A day tank with an electrical fuel pump should be specified for diesel-fueled units. Control power must be on backup power circuits. General Considerations December 1998 G2-39 5. Starting Sufficient delay should be provided in starting the engine generator to allow recloser operation of the utility system. Sufficient delay should be provided on retransfer to the normal source to ensure that the normal source has been firmly reestablished. 6. Switchgear Whenever possible, plant electrical main switchgear and standby engine generators should be in separate building spaces. 7. System Expansion Planned system expansion and required standby power requirements should be carefully considered when sizing engine generators. 8. Starting Current The economics of all of the various methods of reducing the total electric motor starting current requirements should be carefully considered and compared with the costs associated with the different sizes of engine generators which could be utilized. In systems with variable-speed pumping connected to the standby power source, careful consideration of the size of the engine generator specified and the inrush current of the variable-speed system actually furnished on the project is essential. D. Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) Uninterruptible power supplies must be considered, sized, and distributed to support a variety of supervisory process controls and to maintain plant operations. Telephone systems, in-plant supervisory control (SCADA or SCS), a variety of plant and network computer systems, and just plain backup power systems require a degree of UPSs to stay on line or in restoration. Plan and appropriately allow for these. UPSs require special provisions in location, ventilation, maintenance, and interconnection to building and other electrical power and equipment systems. The sizes and locations must be provided for upfront in the design in order to prevent costly provisions in remote siting. Consideration of the type of UPS to be furnished in particular locations will greatly impact the configuration of the location. In addition, the type of switching options, on-line control operation, and battery backup will determine special needs. Alarming off-line or trouble conditions of the UPSs should be incorporated into the design. A troubled UPS during a power failure can cause or compound the effects of an outage, and interfere with timely restoration of operations. Advance notice of problems can prevent such occurrences. G2-40 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E. Ground Fault 1. Ground Fault Sensors Ground fault sensors are required on services rated 1,000 amps or larger (refer to NEC 230-95). Special attention should be given to the advisory statement contained in the last paragraph of 230-95(b). 2. Switching Equipment Ensure that all electrical switching equipment is specified with adequate fault current to withstand and interrupt ratings. 3. Grounding Circuits In general, it is good engineering practice to install a separate equipment grounding conductor in the raceway with the circuit conductors for all circuits where the voltage exceeds 150 volts to ground, and on all circuits rated 60 amps or more, regardless of voltage. 4. Grounding Dual-Fed Services Particular attention should be paid to the method of grounding dual-fed or double-ended services where ground fault sensors are used (refer to NEC 250-23, exception four). It is good practice to require that connections to grounding electrodes are readily accessible to permit periodic inspection. F. Parts 1. Standard Parts Wherever possible, the electrical system should be designed for standard parts and components available from several sources or manufacturers. 2. Replacement Parts An adequate inventory of spare or replacement parts on-site is vital where maximum operating continuity is important. G. Flooding 1. Equipment Wherever possible, electrical equipment should be installed above the maximum flood level. Flooding from any source should be considered, including the possibility of piping or structural failure within the facility (such as a piping failure that could flood the dry pit of a pump station). 2. Conduits Conduits embedded in the concrete walls of water-holding basins should be above the water surface in the basin to prevent water from entering the raceway at construction joints where expansion joints will be required in the conduit. General Considerations December 1998 G2-41 H. Miscellaneous 1. Oil-Insulated Equipment Transformers, switches, and other oil-insulated equipment should be designed with adequate oil retention or containment facilities, in addition to other requirements in the applicable sections of the NEC. 2. Equipment Protection Generally, centrifuges, fixed-platform aerators, centrifugal compressors, and similar equipment should be provided with vibration detectors. High inertia drives, such as centrifuges, which have long accelerating times, may require special motors, circuit protective devices, and overload relays. Electrical equipment must be protected from moisture and dirt. In general, major electrical equipment such as switchboards and motor control centers should be installed in a room or space dedicated exclusively to electrical equipment. 3. Restart Selection of momentary versus maintained contact switches, especially in motor control circuits, needs careful consideration if restart without operator action is desirable or required. If restart without operator action is part of the design, the effect of the total motor-starting current on main and feeder circuit protective devices should be considered. 4. Temperature Detectors In general, providing temperature detectors embedded in the motor windings for (1) all manually started squirrel cage motors 220 hp and larger and less than 600 volts, and (2) all automatically started squirrel cage motors 100 hp and larger and less than 600 volts, is good engineering practice. Motors above 600 volts, DC motors, synchronous motors, and adjustable-speed drives are usually special cases, and running overload or over-temperature protective schemes should be considered on a case-by-case basis. 5. Aluminum Conductor Substitution On projects where conductor amperage capacity is based on copper but substitution of aluminum is allowed, a careful review of any proposed substitution of aluminum conductor size and the size of the associated raceway is needed. For some but not all copper conductors, the next larger aluminum conductor will have an equivalent amperage capacity; however, for some copper conductor sizes the aluminum conductor with an equivalent amperage capacity is two sizes larger. Some engineers believe it is good practice to restrict the use of aluminum to conductors size N-2 AWG and larger. 6. Space Requirements Designers should consider headroom and working space requirements around equipment to meet codes, facilitate maintenance, and permit equipment removal or replacement. Also, variations in dimensions G2-42 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design among equipment made by different manufacturers should be considered. 7. Utility Outlets The design should ensure that sufficient power outlets of the proper type are provided in the vicinity of process equipment to permit operation of power tools for maintenance. G2-6.4 Instrumentation and Control Systems G2-6.4.1 General Requirements A. Governmental Codes and Regulations Sewage treatment systems are classified by reliability as required in EPA publication 430-99-74-001. Plant instrumentation and control systems should be designed to comply with the applicable requirements of this standard. Codes and regulations exist at the federal, state, and local level that dictate minimum acceptable system requirements. The applicable portions of the following partial list of codes and regulations should be used as a basis for design and/or review: ? National Electric Code (NEC). ? State and local building codes. ? Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). B. Manufacturer and Technical Society Recommendations Various manufacturers and technical societies also publish standards and recommendations. The following partial list of standards and recommendations should be used as a basis for design or review whenever the project specifications have not made them mandatory: ? Instrument Society of America (ISA). ? Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). ? Underwriters Laboratories (UL). C. Plan Requirements Instrument and control system plans should thoroughly and completely depict that work. The plans, in conjunction with the specifications, must define the type of control system, the type of components in the system, process variables, scale ranges and set points, process flow rates, and the interface between the instrumentation and control system and the remainder of the plant. To accomplish this, the instrument and control plans should include, as a minimum, the following drawings: ? Instrumentation and control system legend and general notes. ? Process and instrumentation diagram (P&ID). ? Process flow diagram (may be combined in P&ID). General Considerations December 1998 G2-43 ? Plans showing location of all instrument and control system equipment and components and signal circuits, both electrical and pneumatic. ? Switching logic or schematic drawings. ? Equipment and installation details as required. G2-6.4.2 Instrument and Control System Reliability Requirements A. General The size, complexity, and operating requirements of the treatment process are important, but are not the only factors in establishing the instrument and control system type. Compatibility of diverse components has been a consistent problem, so a single manufacturer should be specified whenever possible. Other factors may be cost, required operator skill level, and owner preference. The reliability requirements of the instrument and control system are dictated by the treatment process and the reliability classification, as defined by EPA-430-99-74-001. The operating reliability of instrument and control systems in sewage plants is determined by the reliability classification and the treatment process. The information necessary to make control decisions should be available from two sources, a primary element and a secondary element; or by inference from one or more process monitors in different but related process areas or zones. Operator intervention/override should be provided for all automated process controls. Effective intervention by an operator requires that process information, such as flow, pressure, levels, and so on be available in a form and location usable by the operator. B. Design Considerations The instrumentation and control system within the plant should be planned and designed on the following basis: ? Process operational requirements. ? Control system maintainability. ? Control system stability. ? Planned future plant or process expansion. ? Economic justification of automatic versus manual control. ? Use of standard products wherever possible. ? Need for uninterruptible power supplies to instrumentation and control system. ? Local and/or remote manual controls. ? Process or equipment “fail safe” requirements. ? All applicable codes and regulations, and good engineering practice. G2-6.4.3 Coordination Coordination between the instrumentation and control drawings and specifications and the drawings and specifications of the other disciplines G2-44 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design (such as electrical, mechanical, and structural) must be complete and accurate. There must also be complete and accurate coordination between the instrumentation and control system drawings and specifications. A list of the most common conflicts follows: ? Equipment requiring electrical power is not coordinated with electrical drawings. ? Specification requirements for equipment characteristics is different from characteristics shown or implied in drawings. ? Failure to adequately define and delineate the interface between the instrumentation and control system and other systems or contracts. ? Failure to properly coordinate instrumentation and control equipment requirements with building or process equipment design. ? Failure to properly coordinate control strategies and field instrumentation required to support the strategies. G2-6.4.4 Maintainability—Control Systems A. Section Summary Wastewater treatment plants are becoming more dependent on control systems of all types and complexities. Treatment plants are becoming more dependent on the one common feature of control systems: software. Without proper documentation and maintenance of the software, proper operation of the plant is at risk. The operation of a plant relies on proper application programs, which could be lost without adequate system documentation. System backup programs may also be at risk if system activities such as changes to program logic, changes to the tuning parameters, and changes to the plant (instrument installation) are not properly documented. Maintenance of the control system is difficult if not impossible to accomplish without proper documentation. B. Identifying the Required Documents The operation and maintenance of a wastewater treatment plant that uses any type of programmable device for process control requires the following types of documents: ? System description in narrative format. ? System block-diagram drawing that identifies location and node names of the connected PLCs, PCs, operator interfaces, servers, modems, etc. ? Software used for system configuration is always updated and ready to load. ? Drawings showing I/O wiring connections and address assignments. ? Address assignments identifying all of the variables within the control system, such as register and address assignments, variables, and I/O tables (if required). General Considerations December 1998 G2-45 ? Control system programs for each PLC or programmable process control device in a state that is updated and ready to load, as well as a printout of the program. ? Narrative description of each part of the program and the software used to enter the description. C. Smart Instrumentation Instruments that provide the control system with both the measurement of the process and diagnostic information about the instrument are referred to as “smart instruments.” Both pieces of information are critical in today’s control systems due to the way data is moved and used. It is common to move analytical data from the control system to a server where many people can view the data and use it in reports. If the instrument is malfunctioning the data may be in error, but it will be used in reports generated from the server. Smart instruments can provide an indication that the quality of the data is in question and therefore reports may not be accurate. D. PLC Documentation Software Specifications for wastewater treatment plants using PLCs should include comprehensive requirements for PLC documentation software. Documentation systems, either from the PLC manufacturer or third-party software vendors, should provide functions important to maintaining a plant such as uploading, verifying, and storing the application programs. E. Reliability and Maintenance Considerations An instrumentation and control system must be designed with both operational reliability and maintainability if it is to properly serve its purpose. To assist in review of this vital requirement, the following list of frequent design oversights, errors, and omissions has been compiled. (The list does not contain any solution to problems. It is intended only as a reminder to designers or checkers. Solutions depend on conditions or factors unique to specific projects.) ? Millivolt-level signals inadequately separated or shielded from parallel runs of heavy power circuits. ? Millivolt-level signals not in twisted shielded pair or triad construction. ? Electric and pneumatic signal conductors not in conduit or otherwise protected from physical/mechanical damage. ? 120 vac control circuits too long, allowing distributed capacitance to keep the circuit energized after the primary control element is opened. ? Hazardous area (refer to NEC section 500 in toto). ? Failure to use oil-free air in pneumatic control systems. ? Failure to indicate when single-point grounding is required. ? Failure to indicate or specify required voltage regulation or over- voltage protection. G2-46 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ? Failure to specify adequate equipment enclosures for adverse, hostile, or hazardous environments. ? Failure to consider possible or probable clogging of sensor lines by grease or solids in the process stream. ? Failure to specify or provide isolation valves on instruments connected to process piping. ? Failure to specify snubbers on pressure switches. ? Failure to provide needle valves for control of operating air or hydraulics to control valves. ? Float switches in very turbulent areas. ? Flow meters too close to bends in process pipes. ? Installation of equipment in areas difficult or impossible to reach for maintenance. ? Failure to consider operator convenience in layout or design of control system. ? Failure to provide operator with sufficient process data. G2-6.4.5 Flexibility—Control Systems A. Flexibility Issues The control system should be designed for future growth and expansion. B. Plant Expansion As equipment is added to the treatment plant, additional connections to the control system will be required. The future requirements can usually be identified since the mechanical plans normally show future equipment. G2-6.4.6 Technologies—Control Systems (DCS/SCADA) Design A. Define the Functional Requirements The functional requirements should be developed in response to operational requirements identified in meetings and workshops with operations staff. B. Key Functional Requirements The DCS/SCADA system should be designed using the control system functional requirements defined in the workshops with the operational staff. Some of the key functions required for a DCS/SCADA system include: ? Redundancy of the DPU/PLC hardware configurations and failover sequences of the process control software and operator interfaces. ? Coordination of the PLC and DCS/SCADA programs. ? Global database management. ? Ability to manage the total number of I/O tags. ? Data integrity and scanning processes used to acquire data. General Considerations December 1998 G2-47 ? Historical database management. ? Control system response time. ? Data highway topologies including redundancy and self-healing capabilities. C. Coordinated and Integrated Software Functions The software that will provide the operator interface and data management, including trending and historical functions, must have a high level of continuity between the DCS/SCADA functions and field hardware. D. Historical Database Management Wastewater treatment plants require data to be gathered, stored, trended, and archived. DCS/SCADA system hardware should provide historical information processing and trending. The ability to export data to other software systems will provide the historical archiving and trending functions required by the wastewater treatment plant. The capabilities of the software vendors’ historical and trending functions should be a high-priority selection criteria. E. The Operator/Management Interface Avoid using graphics as the main factor in selecting control system software; all software vendors have great graphics. Wastewater treatment plants operate on trends and history more than immediate existing conditions. How trends, reports, and historical information is presented to the operators and plant management is one of the key elements that defines the control system’s computer platform. How displays are developed for the graphic user interface is an important design consideration. Operator input should be solicited during the design. F. Moving Data to Other Systems It is common to find process control data moving to/from other computer systems. This may include laboratory information management systems and maintenance management systems. The data that moves between the systems must be in a standard format that can be used by both the control system and these information management systems. G2-6.4.7 Coordination with Process Design A. Section Summary The coordination between the control systems, instrumentation, and control systems is imperative for proper process control. B. Design Coordination If a control system is used the coordination must extend to the development of the control system. Data bases must be coordinated to G2-48 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ensure installed instruments are connected to the control system and the signals are properly noted and stored. Graphic images must be developed for the operator’s workstation or PC and must utilize the instrumentation data and the processes piping at the plant. The graphics must tightly link to all instrumentation data and control actuators within the plan. The combination of information and control must provide the operators with the controls to run the plant. C. The Role of P&IDs Process and instrumentation drawings (P&IDs) are the single most important part of any drawing package for defining and organizing a project, and understanding how the plant is controlled after the project is completed. Standard ISA conventions should be used. D. Typical P&ID The instrumentation and I/O point identification system should follow ISA standards S5.1 Table 1 as much as possible. The P&ID symbols should be based on standard ISA symbols as defined in Volume I, S5.1 of the Standards and Practices for Instrumentation. G2-7 Safety This manual is not intended to serve as a safety manual. Material provided in this section is provided as general information intended to be helpful in achieving a safe workplace for construction of wastewater collection and treatment facilities. Compliance with all federal and state safety regulations referenced in G2-7.1 is required as described in that section. G2-7.1 Safety Regulations G2-7.1.1 Federal Regulations The US Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) federal safety regulations cover all wastewater collection, conveyance, and treatment activities. OSHA enforces these regulations through CFR 29 1910. Individual states with federally approved industrial safety programs (such as Washington State) may also enforce these standards. G2-7.1.2 Washington State Safety Regulations State safety regulations specifically require compliance for all wastewater collection, conveyance, and treatment plant operation, maintenance, and construction activities conducted in the State of Washington. WISHA enforces these regulations through the following codes: ? Chapter 296-24 WAC, General Safety and Health Standards. ? Chapter 296-62 WAC, Occupational Health and Safety. ? Chapter 296-67 WAC, Process Safety Management. General Considerations December 1998 G2-49 Other regulations enforced by WISHA that may directly apply to the design and construction of wastewater collection, conveyance, and treatment industry structures and facilities are as follows: ? Chapter 296-37 WAC, Commercial Diving Operations Safety. ? Chapter 296-44 WAC, Electrical Construction Safety Code. ? Chapter 296-45 WAC, Electrical Workers Safety Rules. ? Chapter 296-65 WAC, Asbestos Removal and Encapsulation Safety. ? Chapter 296-155 WAC, Safety Standards for Construction Work. ? Chapter 296-306 WAC, Agricultural Safety Code (Biosolids Application). G2-7.2 Engineering, Design, and Construction Safety Engineering, design, and construction safety should not be considered as an option or an add-on feature applied after construction begins or an employee accident has occurred. Construction safety requirements and considerations should be included in the contract documents, including providing for construction safety communication, training, inspection, and monitoring. Clear lines of communication and coordination with the construction contractors and subcontractors is a critically important part of ensuring that proper safety considerations are addressed. Safety considerations should be specifically emphasized during all phases of a project: engineering, design, bid specifications, prebid meetings, preconstruction meetings, and project safety coordination and monitoring. G2-7.2.1 Contracts Construction contracts for wastewater collection, conveyance, and treatment structures should identify specific requirements for safety program requirements, submittals, and project-specific safety planning detail. G2-7.2.2 Prebid Specifications Prebid specifications should specifically include relevant safety requirements and considerations. Therefore, specifications require the contractor to comply with all applicable federal, state, and local safety regulations as well as site- specific detail and instruction about project safety requirements. In addition, copies of the contractor’s safety program should be reviewed by the owner as part of the required project submittals. Prebid safety and hazardous material compliance specifications are effectively used to inform the contractor of safety hazards and/or priority safety requirements. These might include, but are not limited to, the following: ? Control of physical hazards associated with the project site and construction activities. ? Coordination of vehicle traffic and heavy equipment operations. ? Hazards communication: chemicals used (such as chlorine, sulfur dioxide, lime, ferric chloride, and polymers), biological hazards, and so on. ? Hazardous energy control procedures (lockout-tagout procedures). ? Emergency response procedures and requirements. G2-50 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ? Permit-required confined-space entry procedures. ? Process safety management program requirements. ? Unusual process operations, such as the use of pure oxygen, or advanced technology pilot projects. ? Biosolids handling facilities. ? Availability of fire or rescue personnel. ? Other hazards as appropriate. Informing the general contractor and subcontractors of these exposures is specifically required under various safety regulations and offers many advantages toward ensuring safety and environmental compliance. Such information enables the contractor to protect employees, construction inspectors, and the public. G2-7.2.3 Preconstruction Meetings Preconstruction meetings offer an opportunity to reemphasize safety requirements and considerations necessary during the project. Emphasizing safety at preconstruction meetings demonstrates the concern for employee safety and provides documentation of the safety information available. G2-7.3 General Wastewater Safety Hazards The environment of a wastewater collection, conveyance, and treatment system may present many potential hazards as a result of the nature of wastewater and its byproducts as well as the treatment processes, chemicals, and equipment. A composite list of potential hazards and hazardous areas that should be considered by engineers, designers, and the project manager follows. (The following safety considerations are intended to stimulate thinking rather than serve as a comprehensive checklist. Many items may not directly apply to all wastewater facilities.) ? Abnormal atmospheres (ammonia, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, chlorine, ethane, gasoline, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulfide, methane, mixture of gases, natural gas, nitrogen, oxygen-deficient environments, oxygen-rich environments, ozone, polymers, sewer gas, sludge gas, sulfur dioxide, and temperature extremes). ? Airborne hazards (bioaerosols, biological agents, chemical dust, dust, mists, fumes, toxic or explosive gases, and volatile solids). ? Backflow prevention. ? Burns (chemical and thermal). ? Chemicals (corrosives, oxidizers, flammable, toxic, reactives, unstable, etc.). ? Confined spaces. ? Drowning. ? Earthquakes. ? Electrical bonding and grounding. ? Electrical shock. ? Elevated work spaces or working platforms. ? Explosive gases or liquids. ? Falls. ? Fires. ? Flooding. ? Food contamination. ? Housekeeping (internal and external). ? Impact. ? Infections and diseases. ? Ingress and egress (entrances and exits). ? Laboratory. ? Ladders, stairs, and ramps. ? Landscaping and landscape maintenance. ? Lifting (ergonomics). ? Lightning protection grounding. ? Materials handling and material movement. ? Moving machinery and machine guarding. ? Natural hazards (lighting and flood protection). ? Night operations and essential lighting. ? Noise. ? Noxious gases and vapors. ? Openings. ? Open tanks. General Considerations December 1998 G2-51 ? Overhead fixtures. ? Overflow drainage. ? Pinning and crushing. ? Slips, trips, and falls. ? Spillage. ? Vapors and dust (gasoline, solvents, dried sludge, activated carbon, etc.). ? Vehicles and traffic control. ? Ventilation. ? Walkways. ? Weather (heat, cold, ice, and snow). G2-7.4 Hazardous Materials and Chemical Handling The many types of hazardous materials, chemicals, solvents, and fuels stored at wastewater facilities for a variety of uses may pose a potential health hazard in normal use or accidents. Common uses of hazardous materials and chemicals at wastewater facilities include wastewater facility processes, process control, housekeeping, landscaping, laboratory, maintenance, fuels, and odor control. In addition, material safety data sheets provided by chemical manufacturers describe proper handling of chemicals. Hazardous materials that become wastes are considered hazardous wastes and need to be handled and disposed of properly. Commonly used hazardous materials in wastewater facilities include, but are not limited to, the following items. Treatment Chemicals Combustible, Flammables and Explosive Hazards Alum Activated carbon Ammonia Acetylene Caustic Diesel fuel Chlorine Digester gas Chlorine dioxide Fuel oil Defoamers Gasoline Ferric chloride LP gas Ferric sulfate Lubricating oils Hydrochloric acid Welding gases Hydrogen peroxide Methanol LP gas Lime Paints and thinners Odor-masking agents Solvents Oxygen Ozone Pesticides Polymers Sodium bisulfate Sodium hypochlorite Sodium thiosulfate Sulfuric acid Sulfur dioxide G2-52 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design These additional safety considerations should also be thoroughly reviewed prior to the design and construction of wastewater facilities that will house hazardous materials. (The following safety considerations are intended to stimulate thought and consideration- rather than serve as a comprehensive regulatory compliance checklist. Many items may not directly apply to all wastewater facilities.) ? Compliance with storage and handling requirements per local fire codes and the UFC. ? Well lighted unloading facilities that are easily accessible by emergency response crews. ? Unloading station clearly marked. ? Unloading facilities well ventilated for delivery vehicle exhaust emissions. ? Separate receiving and storage areas for chemicals that react violently if mixed together. ? Temperature controlled storage. ? Ventilation provided. ? Containers shielded from heat sources. ? Leak detection provided. ? Leak repair kits provided. ? Vacuum relief devices on tanks. ? Tank liquid-level measuring devices and alarms provided. ? Pull-chain or pedal-operated deluge showers with pedal-operated, chest-level-high wash spouts and a floor drain adjacent to areas where hazardous chemicals are being handled or stored (alarm when used). ? Guard posts for equipment and storage tanks, including underground tanks to prevent damage by vehicles (fire codes often include specific requirements for post type and location). ? Seismic restraints on gas cylinders. ? Fuel gas cylinders separated from oxygen cylinders. ? Ventilation exhaust ports adequately dispersed and located such that discharges will not contaminate air inlets in other areas. ? Treatment systems for hazardous gas releases. ? Repair and containment kits for cylinders and tanks. ? Light and ventilation switches located outside. ? Self-contained breathing apparatus provided. ? An automatic control to actuate forced ventilation and lighting when chemical rooms are occupied. ? Approved storage for flammables, thinners, solvents, etc. ? Additional storage space for peak storage demands. ? Dikes or curbs capable of holding the stored volume, plus a safety allowance in each liquid chemical storage area (designed to allow chemicals to be recovered and reused). ? Health risks associated with chemicals considered (refer to chemical material safety data sheets). ? Piping minimized. ? Pumping and piping systems permanently installed for delivering liquid ferric chloride, sulfuric acid, and other corrosive liquid chemicals to the application point. ? Chemical pressure piping systems provided with pressure relief to storage areas. ? Chemical storage areas sited to eliminate the need to reach beyond safe handling limits. ? Nonslip floor surfaces in areas where polymers may be spilled. ? Dust collectors provided on chemical elevators. ? Materials and devices used for storing, transporting, or mixing hazardous chemicals compatible with the chemicals involved. ? Tanks, bins, and other containers labeled. ? Chemical material safety data sheets provided. ? Separate chlorinator/chlorine evaporator and chlorine storage rooms, each with aboveground ventilation only to outside air. ? Chlorination facilities with concrete floors and adequate but separate drainage from other facilities. ? View windows to the chlorinator/chlorine evaporator room and chlorine storage room for outside observation. ? Chlorine leak detection devices provided. ? Chlorine leak containment system to capture and neutralize released chlorine (for large systems). ? Liquid chlorine containers stored in well- ventilated, fireproof structures with protection against direct exposure to the sun. ? Spill Response and Leak test kit. ? Dry hypochlorite stored in a cool, dry area. General Considerations December 1998 G2-53 G2-7.5 Walking and Working Surfaces The many types of potential hazards associated with walking and working spaces may pose a potential risk to the health and safety of employees during the course of routine work activities. Consideration of safe walking and working surfaces should be thoroughly reviewed prior to the design and construction of wastewater facilities. (The safety considerations in the tables below are intended to stimulate thinking rather than serve as a comprehensive checklist. Some items may not directly apply to all wastewater facilities.) General Work Area Considerations ? An open channel immediately ahead of the point where wastewater enters the influent structure to vent explosive gases and vapors. ? Wetwells located in a separate structure or accessible only from the outside, and properly ventilated. ? Monitored and alarmed screen room or shredder room, separated from other facilities, with clear access to the outside. ? Protection against flooding, including alarms as appropriate. ? Equipment, piping, valves, and other appurtenances within structures arranged for ease of access and ample space, including headroom and walk aisles. ? Work platforms for elevated equipment that may require adjustments, observations, or preventive maintenance. ? Access to windows, lights, HVAC, odor control filters, and ceiling- mounted items that must be operated or maintained. ? Adequate space and access for equipment repair or removal. ? Adequate space for equipment storage. ? Dual entrances or accesses to potentially hazardous areas with tight- fitting, self-closing doors that open outward and are equipped with panic hardware. ? Panic hardware on exit doors and fusible links on doors in high fire-risk areas, as appropriate. ? Potentially explosive areas provided with explosion venting, protective devices, suppression systems, or barricades. ? Equipment maintenance shops with appropriate safety provisions for hazards associated with maintenance activities. ? Nonslip surfaces (such as broom-finished concrete or nonslip covering) for floors and ramps. ? Dust accumulation spots minimized (open truss members, ledges, light fixtures, etc.). ? Laboratories with two easily accessible exits that are reasonably remote from each other. ? Designed to withstand earthquake forces. ? Basement areas with two easily accessible exits that are remote from each other. ? Light interior colors in dim areas. ? Provisions for the safe collection of samples. ? Interior doors, where appropriate, that swing both ways and have see- through panels. ? Lightning protection. ? Adequate climate control (humidity, temperature, and so on) for comfort in offices, laboratories, eating areas, work stations, and selected work areas. ? Walking aisles and machine areas identified. ? Allowable floor loadings posted. G2-54 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Walkways, Ladders, Stairways, and Ramps ? In nonhazardous areas, manhole steps or permanently attached ladders inside tanks, basins, or wetwells for entry or exit in case of emergency. ? Fixed ladder systems must have 36-inch minimum walkthroughs at the top of the ladders to allow continuous employee fall protection support. ? Fall protection anchorage points provided for potential work spaces with fall hazards greater than 10 feet. ? Nonslip stair treads on landings and stairs. ? Stair risers of equal height and proper slope per regulatory specifications. ? Standard handrails (36- to 42-inch minimum) and midrails (18 to 21 inches) of type and cross-section such that they can be fully gripped with fingers and thumb. ? Separate handrail to provide a handhold where entrance is provided by ship’s ladders or entrance level. ? Fixed ladders more than 20 feet long equipped with safety cages, ladder safety devices, or fall protection systems. ? Fixed ladder systems greater than 30 feet must be provided with rest or offset landings. ? Rest landings on stairways. ? No manhole steps or fixed ladders to provide access to hazardous areas. ? Ramps with slopes commensurate with intended use and provisions to prevent slips, trips, and falls. ? In climates with ice and snow, gratings on outside stairs and walkways on tanks wherever possible. ? Lift-rings and grating locks flush-mounted to prevent tripping. Openings and Hatchways ? Railings designed to withstand 200 pounds loading with kickplates around openings and stairwells. ? Hatchway covers with springs or positive locking devices to hold the covers open (unless they swing free of opening and lie flat). ? Double handrails, fencing, or guards of proper height at floor and wall openings, pump wells, influent structures, open tanks, and aboveground ramps. Fall Protection ? Designs for new or renovated facilities should consider and eliminate potential fall hazards for operations, maintenance, and contractor personnel. ? Work performed on unprotected walking/working surfaces more than 10 feet from a lower level requires use of fall protection systems. ? Walkways greater than 4 feet in elevation above an adjacent exposed level require standard handrail protection. ? Fall protection anchorage points are secure structures that can withstand forces exerted by fall arrest and rescue equipment. This can include a beam, girder, column, or floor. The minimum strength requirement is 5,000 pounds. Improvised anchorages must be unquestionably strong and used with certified anchorage connectors. General Considerations December 1998 G2-55 G2-7.6 Working Spaces Design, engineering, and construction of wastewater facilities that will provide working spaces for employees should incorporate appropriate considerations of HVAC systems, potable water supply, personal hygiene facilities, adequate lighting, first aid, housekeeping, and noise control. The following considerations should be reviewed and considered for design, engineering, and construction of these facilities. (The following safety considerations are intended to stimulate thinking rather than serve as a comprehensive checklist. Many items may not directly apply to all wastewater facilities.) Ventilation Considerations ? Separate, mechanical, forced ventilation for spaces such as influent channels, influent rooms, wetwells, dry wells, screen rooms, shredder rooms, grit chambers, disinfection areas, manholes, sumps, pits, sludge pump areas, sludge storage areas, sludge digestion areas, gas control rooms, sludge storage and conditioning tanks, centrifuges, sludge- processing areas, digester buildings, boiler rooms, engine rooms, incinerator rooms, laboratories, garages, maintenance shops, laundry rooms, and shower rooms (even belowground structures without a cover are hazardous; natural ventilation that is inadequate under some conditions has caused fatalities). ? Ventilation to force fresh air into wetwells so that the exhaust ventilator does not pull sewer gases from the influent sewer into the wetwell. ? Forced mechanical ventilation automatically actuated when chlorination rooms, chemical handling rooms, and laboratories are occupied. ? Critical ventilation sustained during emergencies such as floods, fires, storms, or power failures (fire code may require break-glass-type emergency shutoff for hazardous materials locations). ? Ventilation exhaust ports adequately dispersed and located to discharge where there will be no contamination of air intakes. ? Adequate provision for makeup air for ventilators. ? Treatment of hazardous materials in ventilation exhaust (required by some fire codes). (Note that ventilation which is adequate for control of fire and explosion might be insufficient for health protection.) Water Supply ? Potable water (when used for plant processes or other purposes such as washdown of equipment) must be protected by backflow preventers, vacuum breakers, or airbreak. Includes all washdown hoses, pump seals, and so on (backflow preventer provided in the plant supply). ? Warning signs near each nonpotable water outlet; color coded, nonpotable water lines. ? Adequate supply for fire protection. ? Adequate pressure to hoses for cleanup (excessive pressure can be a hazard). ? See G2-2.2 and C2-2.1.2 for additional information on water supply. Personal Hygiene Facility ? Walk-through shower facilities with hot and cold running water. ? Two lockers for each employee, one for work clothes and another for street clothes. ? Washing machine and dryer for work clothes. ? Pedal-operated laboratory sinks, toilets, and wash sinks. ? Disinfectant dispensers, liquid soap dispensers, and towel dispensers. G2-56 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Lighting and Work Space Illumination ? Adequate exterior and interior lighting throughout the plant, particularly in areas of activities such as repair and servicing of equipment, valves, and controls. ? Lights that promptly illuminate hazardous and interior areas. ? Emergency lighting (battery-operated lights) and exit lights for interior areas, particularly in the vicinity of stairways. ? Portable, explosion-proof lighting system. ? Emergency generator set. ? Lighting of warning signs. First Aid ? First aid supplies or kits. (Under some conditions, OSHA requires approval by a consulting physician.) ? Posted instructions for calling 911 and/or emergency medical services. Housekeeping ? Ample storage areas for equipment. ? Hose bibs, hoses, nozzles, and hose racks in spillage areas. ? Water-repellent wall surfaces for cleanup purposes. ? Sludge pumps with quick-closing sampling valves. ? Floors sloped and drained to facilitate cleaning. ? Cleaning equipment, including industrial vacuum cleaners, brooms, mops, high-pressure washer, steam cleaners, etc. ? Splash guards and drip pans. ? Airtight, metal receptacles for solvent soaked and combustible wastes. ? Seal water discharged to hub drains adjacent to or integral to the equipment. Noise Control Considerations ? Equipment designed for noise reduction below 85 decibels. ? Provisions for reducing noise from multiple equipment units (enclosures). ? A maximum permissible noise level during operation, expressed in decibels of sound under standard test conditions. ? Air compressors, vacuum pumps for filter units, centrifuges, blowers, standby power units, and other similar equipment producing high noise levels located either within isolated buildings or rooms or within acoustically sound-proofed structures for maximum sound reduction. Odor Control Systems Odor control systems, increasingly common in treatment facilities, may present several hazards. Major elements of these systems are typically a collection structure, a cover over basins of wastewater or sludge, ducts, contact vessels, chemical makeup and feed systems, chemical piping, chemical solution recycle, blowers, and discharge stacks. Because these systems collect gases that could be explosive or toxic, they need to be carefully designed to avoid release of the collected gases into an operating space. The design of these systems should include monitoring for combustible or toxic gases. Individual elements within odor control systems, such as covered channels or basins, large ducts, contact vessels, etc., may be considered as “confined spaces” as described in G2-7.8. General Considerations December 1998 G2-57 G2-7.7 Fall Protection and Prevention Systems Industrial safety controls that are designed, engineered, and constructed for wastewater treatment facilities include the following: Piping and Valve Installation Considerations ? Valves are accessible and easily operated. ? Large, frequently operated valves are power operated. ? Head clearance is provided. ? Valves located above reach are chain or power operated. ? Influent and discharge pipes to pumps and other equipment are valved so that dismantling them will not result in wastewater, sludge, gas, or chemicals entering the work area. ? Piping will not block or restrict access for routine operation or maintenance. ? Selected valves are provided with lock devices. ? Freeze protection is ensured. ? Supports are required when systems are dismantled for maintenance. ? Sludge pumps are equipped with pressure gauges to indicate gas buildup when pumps are out of service. ? Safety and relief devices are provided on heat exchangers. ? Cages or guards around accessible hot piping. ? Stubouts for future construction are designed so they are not a hazard. ? Safety guards located around check valve exterior levers. ? Standard color-coded process piping and emergency equipment. See G2-2.8.3. Gas Monitoring Device and Alarm Installation ? Alarm systems, both visual and audible, to detect explosive or combustible gases and vapors in screenings of shredder rooms, digester areas, flammables storage, tunnels, galleries, and elsewhere, as needed. ? Sensing devices equipped with visual and audible alarms both nearby and at a central location, placed in all hazardous areas for combustible or explosive gases and vapors. ? Oxygen leakage detectors at appropriate points on oxygen supply tanks. ? Chlorine leak-detection devices to signal equipment failure in larger installations. ? Visual and audible alarms. Incinerator Installation ? Dry sludge handling methods to preclude dust accumulation that results in potential dust explosion. ? Automatic signal for incinerator flame-out. ? Automatic shutdown controls in the event of incinerator flame-outs. ? Fully automatic ignition start controls. ? A proper safety train on the incoming fuel supply of the auxiliary fuel system. ? Burner system controls to ensure adequate purge time, including interrupted pilot, flame scanner, and safety controls to prevent the possible lighting or relighting of a burner in a potentially hazardous atmosphere. ? Adequate temperature controls. ? Adequate ventilation. G2-58 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Laboratory Safety ? Durable, nonslip floor material. ? Ventilation with adequate makeup air, explosion-proof motors, and laboratory hoods in special test areas. ? Eye wash and deluge shower. ? Clearly identified gas outlets equipped with substantial handles. ? Lips on storage shelves for earthquake protection. Maintenance Shop Safety ? Provisions for protection against infrared radiation from combustion units, ultraviolet radiation from arc welding, etc. ? Exhaust facilities for welding and grinding. ? Enclosure and ventilation for sand blasting, solvent cleaning, and spray painting areas. ? Adequate materials handling equipment, including cranes and hoists. Materials Handling and Storage Safety ? Chemical storage areas located so personnel do not have to stretch beyond safe handling limits. ? Provisions for keeping manual lifting to a minimum. ? Provisions for using hand trucks. ? Access to storage shelves for power lifting equipment. ? Well planned, safe operations associated with railroad cars, including provision of derailers and wheel chocks. ? Fixed or portable electrical hoists with ceiling lifting devices for lifting heavy loads, including chemicals, pumps, motors, and equipment for repair or replacement. ? Hoists to remove and lower equipment into pit areas. ? Dust collectors on chemical elevators at loading points. ? Drum handling equipment. ? Rigging materials (ropes, chains, hooks, devices, pins, etc.) rated for intended service. ? Restraints on gas cylinders. ? Provisions for earthquake forces, as necessary. ? Safety equipment, including portable ventilation equipment such as air blowers and adequate lengths of noncollapsible ducting, indicators for hydrogen sulfide, combustible gases, methane, chlorine, carbon monoxide, and oxygen deficiency; proper self-contained air breathing apparatus; inhalators; resuscitators; decibel meter noise analyzers; explosion-proof flashlights; portable lifting equipment; first aid kits; safety tools (nonsparking); and nonconducting ladders with nonskid feet. ? Safety harnesses, ropes, tripods, and hoists for entering vaults or pits containing potentially harmful or explosive gases. ? Safety poles, life preservers, life jackets, or combinations of these at needed locations. ? Fire extinguishers. ? Barricades, traffic cones, warning signs, flashers, and reflective vests. ? Telephones, intercom systems, and two-way radios for communication. ? Safety libraries. ? Training rooms and training equipment. General Considerations December 1998 G2-59 Site Layout and Security ? Fencing around plant structures, railing, walls, locked doors, etc. where unauthorized entry could result in personal mishap or disruption of plant operations (avoid trapping personnel with these security measures). ? Secured entrance gates. ? Provisions for emergency vehicles (work closely with the local fire department). ? Traffic control signs or signals. ? Sidewalks located for natural access routes. ? Delineated crosswalks and walkways visible to vehicle occupants and pedestrians. ? Landscaping that minimizes the need to use hand-operated mowers, hedge clippers, etc. ? Safe landscaping maintenance equipment and associated personal safety equipment. ? Landscaping that avoids steep slopes which must be mowed. ? Landscaping that does not attract bees and dangerous pests. ? Layout that allows sun or heat ducts to melt ice and snow from walks and driveways. ? Areas for snow storage. ? Containers for storage of sand, salt, or other ice-melting chemicals. ? Signs to direct visitors to parking and reception areas to limit wandering by visitors. ? Designated parking for visitors and staff. ? Provisions for safe transport of chemicals, fuel supplies, sludge, etc. Safety Signage and Markings ? Directive signs, such as “No Smoking,” “Safety Glasses Required,” “Wear Life Vest,” “Hard Hat Required,” “Hearing Protection Required,” “Danger-—Confined Space,” “Safety Glasses Required,” etc. ? Hazard identification signs indicating dangers such as explosive gases, noise, chemicals, flammables, ice, slippery floors, high pressure vessels, high pressure pipes, overhead utilities, and underground utilities. ? Instructional signs to indicate correct procedures in critical locations and for critical operations or emergencies. ? Signs to limit or restrict access. ? Special equipment bracing where required. ? Analysis of items such as piping and storage tanks for seismic loads. ? Wind socks and/or wind vanes. Rotating/Reciprocating Machinery and Machine Guarding ? Caps or guards around exposed rotating shifts and all other moving parts (open-mesh type allows equipment viewing without removing guards). ? Guards that are easily replaced and fastened. ? Guards around long, exposed shafts to safeguard the worker from contact or injury from whipping if the shaft breaks. ? Shafts with painted spirals or other markings to indicate running conditions. ? Positive displacement pumps with an air chamber and a pressure switch that will stop the pump at a preset pressure. ? Nonsparking pulleys, belts, and fan wheels used in explosive areas. ? Warning signs on equipment that starts automatically or from a remote location. ? Provisions for local disconnects and lockout-tagout receptacles. G2-60 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G2-7.8 Confined Spaces Confined spaces are a major cause of death and serious injury in the workplace. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) publishes guides and criteria for working in confined spaces. Confined spaces are defined by OSHA & WISHA regulatory codes and NIOSH publications as “any space which by design, (1) is large enough for an employee to enter, (2) has limited means for entry and exit, and (3) is not designed for continuous employee occupancy.” Permit-required confined spaces are those confined spaces that contain or have the potential to contain one or more of the following hazards: ? Contains or has the potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere. ? Contains a material that has the potential for engulfing an entrant. ? Has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated by inwardly converging walls or by a floor which slopes downward and tapers to a smaller cross-section. ? Contains any other recognized serious safety hazard. Specific examples of confined spaces in wastewater facilities are as follows: ? Manholes (wastewater, stormwater, etc.). ? Large pipes and conduits. ? Channels. ? Tunnels. ? Digesters. ? Scum pits. ? Wetwells. ? Dry wells. ? Vaults (electrical, valve vaults, and so on). ? Grit chambers. ? Screening pits. ? Storage tanks and hoppers (chemicals, screenings, water, fuel, sludge, etc.). ? Septic tanks. ? Septage receiving tanks and pits. ? Sumps. ? Gas holders. ? Excavated holes. ? Covered basins and channels. ? Odor control systems. G2-7.9 Fire Control and Protection Systems Specific examples of fire control and protection systems include the following: General ? Fire hydrants that meet local fire codes for type and location. ? Landscaping that will not result in large quantities of combustible vegetation, particularly near structures. ? Smoke and fire alarms. ? External fire alarms as required by local fire code. ? Automatic fire suppression systems. ? Firefighting devices located in each separate structure at accessible points near the entrance to areas of likely conflagration. ? Fire extinguishers suitable for the area and the equipment to be protected. ? Laboratory wall surfaces, ceilings, and furniture made of nonflammable or fire-resistant materials. ? Critical drains sized for fire flows. ? Containment for hazardous materials, fire flow, and precipitation. General Considerations December 1998 G2-61 General (continued) ? Provisions to allow use of adequately treated wastewater as a backup firefighting supply. ? Equipment, buildings, and fire alarm systems in compliance with local, state, and national fire codes and OSHA and insurance company requirements. Fuel Storage ? Separate storage for gasoline, diesel fuel, digester gas, liquid fuels, and propane. ? Containment for spills and overflows. ? Floor drain traps for fuel spills. Gas Collection, Piping, and Appurtenances ? Gas protective devices in accordance with manufacturers’ recommendations. ? Gas piping and pressure-vacuum relief valves on digesters with adequate flame traps. ? Drip traps designed to prevent release of gas. ? Waste burners and vents located a safe distance from buildings. ? Bypasses and valves to allow maintenance of gas equipment. ? Ventilated rooms for gas-burning equipment such as boilers and engines. ? Automatic shutdown of gas systems at preset pressures. G2-7.10 Electrical Safety Specific examples of electrical safety include the following: ? Medium and high voltage cables completely enclosed in either conduit or covered trays and adequately marked to warn personnel of contents. ? Switchboards with “dead front” and “dead rear.” ? Moisture-proof enclosures for switches, equipment, and lights in moist areas where there is no possibility of flammable gas accumulation. ? Ground fault circuit interrupters where required. ? Electrical equipment adequately grounded. ? Ground equipment to avoid static electricity sparks in explosive areas. ? Ground straps for portable equipment. ? Wiring properly insulated, grounded, and nonexposed. ? Required clearances provided around electrical equipment. ? Electrical “lockout” facilities with padlocks and tags to prevent accidental starts when machinery and equipment are being worked on or otherwise taken out of service. ? Emergency shutoff switch, clearly labeled, at all machinery units. ? Oil-filled submersible motors equipped with thermal detectors to deenergize the motor before the ignition temperature of the oil is reached. ? Alternative power supply for critical lighting, ventilation, and sensory devices and alarms. ? Two separate power sources to the plant, or standby power to keep critical systems operational. ? Exterior floodlighting to provide for nighttime operation, maintenance, and inspection. ? Safe access for lamp replacement. ? Insulating floor mats at control centers and panels. ? Maintenance tools with insulated handles and flashlights with nonconductive cases. ? Electrical tools (drills, saws, etc.) grounded or double-insulated. ? Grounded extension cords. ? For future construction, stub-outs designed so they are not a hazard. G2-62 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G2-7.11 Process Safety Management and Risk Management Planning G2-7.11.1 Process Safety Management Employees have been and continue to be exposed to the hazards of toxicity, fires, and explosions from catastrophic releases of highly hazardous chemicals in their workplaces. The OSHA/ WISHA Process Safety Management (PSM) of Highly Hazardous Chemicals regulation contains requirements for the management of hazards associated with processes using highly hazardous chemicals such as chlorine and sulfur dioxide. It establishes procedures for process safety management that will protect employees by preventing or minimizing the consequences of chemical accidents involving highly hazardous chemicals. PSM program development specifically includes components required by OSHA’s Process Safety Management regulation, as follows: (A) Employee Participation (I) Mechanical Integrity Review (B) Process Safety Information (J) Quality Assurance (C) Process Hazard Analysis (K) Hot Work Permit (D) Operating Procedures (L) Management of Change (E) Emergency Operations (M) Incident investigation (F) Employee Training (N) Emergency Planning and Response (G) Contractors (O) Compliance Audits (H) Prestartup Safety Review (P) Trade Secrets G2-7.11.2 Risk Management Planning The Clean Air Act (CAA) section 112 (r) requires publicly owned treatment plants to implement Risk Management Planning programs to prevent accidental releases of regulated substances (such as chlorine, sulfur dioxide, methane, propane, etc.) and reduce the severity of those releases that do occur. EPA has promulgated regulations that apply to all stationary sources with processes that contain threshold quantities of regulated substances. Processes are divided into three categories based on the potential for offsite consequences associated with: a worst-case accidental release; accident history; or compliance with the prevention requirements under the OSHA/ WISHA Process Safety Management (PSM) Standard. Processes that have no potential impact on the public in the case of an accidental release will have minimal requirements. For other processes, sources are required to implement formal hazard assessments of chemical systems and implement a comprehensive risk management program to prevent a chemical release that would impact the surrounding communities. Processes in industry categories with a history of accidental releases and processes already complying with the OSHA/WISHA Process Safety Management Standard are subject to a prevention program that is identical to parallel elements of the OSHA/ WISHA standard. All other processes will be subject to streamlined prevention requirements. All regulated facilities must prepare a risk management plan based on the risk management programs established at the source. The source must submit the plan to EPA, and the General Considerations December 1998 G2-63 plan will be available to state and local governments and the public. These regulations will encourage sources to reduce the probability of accidental releases of substances that have the potential to cause immediate harm to public health and the environment and will stimulate the dialogue between industry and the public to improve accident prevention and emergency response practices. The requirements for a covered process include: (1) Prepare and submit a single risk management plan (RMP) (Program 1, 2, or 3), including registration that covers all affected processes and chemicals. (2) Conduct a worst-case release scenario analysis; review accident history; ensure emergency response procedures are coordinated with community response organizations to determine eligibility for Program 1; and, if eligible, document the worst case and complete a Program 1 certification for the RMP. (3) Conduct a hazard assessment, document a management system, implement a more extensive, but still streamlined prevention program, and implement an emergency response program for Program 2 processes. (4) Conduct a hazard assessment, document a management system, implement a prevention program that is fundamentally identical to the OSHA PSM Standard, and implement an emergency response program for Program 3 processes. (5) Measures taken by sources to comply with OSHA PSM for any process that meets OSHA’s PSM standard are sufficient to comply with the prevention program requirements of all three programs. EPA will retain its authority to enforce the prevention program requirements and the general duty requirements of CAA Section 112(r)(1). EPA and OSHA are working closely to coordinate interpretation and enforcement of PSM and accident prevention programs. EPA will also work with state and local agencies to coordinate oversight of worker, public safety, and environmental protection programs. G2-8 Reliability Classification This section describes the three reliability classifications established by EPA for sewerage works. G2-8.1 Definitions Reliability standards establish minimum levels of reliability for three classes of sewerage works. The reliability classification shall be established by the owner and approved by Ecology and will be a major consideration for discussion at the preconstruction meeting described in G2-7.2.3. Pump stations associated with, but physically removed from, the actual treatment works may have a different classification than the treatment works itself. The reliability classification will be based on the water quality and public health consequences of a G2-64 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design component or system failure. Specific requirements pertaining to treatment plant unit processes for each reliability class are described in EPA’s technical bulletin, “Design Criteria for Mechanical, Electric, and Fluid System and Component Reliability,” EPA 430-99-74-001. Guidelines for classifying sewerage works are listed in Table G2-6. Table G2-6. Guidelines for Classifying Sewerage Works Reliability Class Guideline I These are works whose discharge, or potential discharge, (1) is into public water supply, shellfish, or primary contact recreation waters, or (2) as a result of its volume and/or character, could permanently or unacceptably damage or affect the receiving waters or public health if normal operations were interrupted. Examples of Reliability Class I works are those with a discharge or potential discharge near drinking water intakes, into shellfish waters, near areas used for water contact sports, or in dense residential areas. II These are works whose discharge, or potential discharge, as a result of its volume and/or character, would not permanently or unacceptably damage or affect the receiving waters or public health during periods of short-term operations interruptions, but could be damaging if continued interruption of normal operations were to occur (on the order of several days). Examples of a Reliability Class II works are works with a discharge or potential discharge moderately distant from shellfish areas, drinking water intakes, areas used for water contact sports, and residential areas. III These are works not otherwise classified as Reliability Class I or Class II. G2-8.2 Reliability Components In accordance with the requirements of the appropriate reliability class, capabilities shall be provided for satisfactory operation during power failures, flooding, peak loads, equipment failure, and maintenance shutdown. Except as modified below, unit operations in the main wastewater treatment system shall be designed so that, with the largest-flow-capacity unit out of service, the hydraulic capacity (not necessarily the design-rated capacity) of the remaining units shall be sufficient to handle the peak wastewater flow. There shall be system flexibility to enable the wastewater flow to any unit out of service to be routed to the remaining units in service. Equalization basins or tanks will not be considered a substitute for component backup requirements. General requirements for each reliability classification are summarized in Table G2-7. Specific requirements are described in EPA’s technical bulletin, “Design Criteria for Mechanical, Electrical, and Fluid System Component Reliability,” EPA 430-99-74-001. General Considerations December 1998 G2-65 Table G2-7. General Requirements for Each Reliability Classification Reliability Class General Requirements I For components included in the design of Reliability Class I works, the following backup requirements apply: A. Mechanically Cleaned Bar Screens. A backup bar screen, designed for mechanical or manual cleaning, shall be provided. Facilities with only two bar screens shall have at least one bar screen designed to permit manual cleaning. B. Pumps. A backup pump shall be provided for each set of pumps performing the same function. The capacity of the pumps shall be such that, with any one pump out of service, the remaining pumps will have the capacity to handle the peak flow. C. Comminution Facility. If comminution of the total wastewater flow is provided, an overflow bypass with a manually-installed or mechanically-cleaned bar screen shall be provided. The hydraulic capacity of the comminutor overflow bypass should be sufficient to pass the peak flow with all comminution units out of service. D. Primary Sedimentation Basins. The units should be sufficient in number and size so that, with the largest-flow-capacity unit out of service, the remaining units should have a design flow capacity of at least 50 percent of the total design flow. E. Final Sedimentation Basins and Trickling Filters. The units shall be sufficient in number and size so that, with the largest-flow-capacity unit out of service, the remaining units shall have a design flow capacity of at least 75 percent of the total design flow. F. Activated Sludge Process Components. 1. Aeration Basin. A backup basin will not be required; however, at least two equal-volume basins shall be provided. (For the purpose of this criterion, the two zones of a contact stabilization process are considered as only one basin.) 2. Aeration Blowers or Mechanical Aerators. There shall be a sufficient number of blowers or mechanical aerators to enable the design oxygen transfer to be maintained with the largest-capacity-unit out of service. It is permissible for the backup unit to be an uninstalled unit, provided that the installed units can be easily removed and replaced. However, at least two units shall be installed. 3. Air Diffusers. The air diffusion system for each aeration basin shall be designed so that the largest section of diffusers can be isolated without measurably impairing the oxygen transfer capability of the system. G. Disinfectant Contact Basins. The units shall be sufficient in number and size so that, with the largest-flow-capacity unit out of service, the remaining units shall have a design flow capacity of at least 50 percent of the total design flow. II The Reliability Class I requirements shall apply except as modified below: D/E. Primary and Final Sedimentation Basins and Trickling Filters. The units shall be sufficient in number and size so that, with the largest-flow-capacity unit out of service, the remaining units shall have a design flow capacity of at least 50 percent of the design basin flow. III The Reliability Class I requirements shall apply except as modified below: D/E. Primary and Final Sedimentation Basins. There shall be at least two sedimentation basins. F. Activated Sludge Process Components. 1. Aeration Basin. A single basin is permissible. 2. Aeration Blowers/Mechanical Aerators or Rotors. There shall be at least two blowers, mechanical aerators, or rotors available for service. It is permissible for one of the units to be uninstalled, provided that the installed unit can be easily removed and replaced. Aeration must be provided to maintain sufficient DO in the tanks to maintain the biota. G2-8.3 Electrical Power Sources Two separate and independent sources of electric power shall be provided to the plant either from two separate utility substations or from a single substation and a works-based generator located at the plant. If available from the electric utility, at least one of the power sources shall be a preferred source (that is, a utility source which is one of the last to lose power from the utility grid because of loss of power-generating capacity). In geographical areas where it is projected that, sometime during the design period, the G2-66 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design electric utility might reduce the rated line voltage (i.e., brown-out) during peak utility system load demands, a generator shall be provided as an alternate power source where practicable. As a minimum, the capacity of the backup power source for each class of treatment plant shall be as listed in Table G2-8. Table G2-8. Minimum Capacity of the Backup Power Source for Each Reliability Classification Reliability Class Minimum Capacity I Sufficient to operate all vital components and critical lighting and ventilation during peak wastewater flow conditions. II The same as Reliability Class I, except that vital components used to support the secondary processes (i.e., mechanical aerators or aeration basin air compressors) need not be operable to full levels of treatment, but shall be sufficient to maintain the biota. III Sufficient to operate the screening or comminution facilities, the main wastewater pumps, the primary sedimentation basins, the disinfection facility, and critical lighting and ventilation during peak wastewater flows. G2-9 Laboratory, Personnel, and Maintenance Facilities This section describes requirements for laboratory, personnel, and maintenance facilities. G2-9.1 General Minimum standards are presented in this section for laboratory, personnel, and maintenance facilities. G2-9.2 Laboratory Facilities G2-9.2.1 General See the EPA publication, “Estimating Laboratory Needs for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities” (1973) for guidelines on laboratory facilities. G2-9.2.2 Space Requirements A method for determining bench space is to provide 12 to 25 lineal feet of bench space per analyst working in the lab at any given time. An analyst doing very limited testing (e.g., pH, TSS, residual chlorine) may need only 12 lineal feet, while an analyst doing more extensive testing (e.g., BOD and fecal coliforms, in addition to those mentioned above) may need closer to 25. Likewise, floor space should vary from 150 to 300 square feet per analyst depending on the number and type of tests performed. G2-9.2.3 Design The following factors should be key considerations in designing plant laboratories: ? Flexibility, to help plant management adapt to changes in use requirements. General Considerations December 1998 G2-67 ? Adaptability, to allow for changes in occupancy requirements. ? Expandability, to provide for changes in space requirements. A. Location The laboratory should be located at ground level, easily accessible to all sampling points. To ensure sufficient environmental control, the laboratory shall be located away from vibrating machinery or equipment that might have adverse effects on the performance of laboratory instruments or the analyst. B. Layout Efficient laboratory operation depends largely on the physical layout of the laboratory. The physical layout includes items such as working area arrangement, the number and location of sinks and electrical outlets, the arrangement of laboratory equipment, materials of construction, and lighting. The details of the layout can affect the accuracy of the laboratory tests. For example, tests that include identification of some colorimetric end points can be drastically affected by the type of lighting and the finishes on laboratory facilities. The factors listed in the following subsections should be considered when laying out a laboratory. 1. General ? Adequate lighting should be provided. Fluorescent lighting is recommended. ? Wall and floor finishes should be nonglare-type and light in color. Flat-finish wall paint is recommended. Floor finishes should be a single color for ease in locating small items that have been dropped. ? Floor covering, in addition to being nonglare and slip resistant, should be easy to clean and comfortable. ? Doors should have large glass windows for visibility into and out of the laboratory. There should be no obstructions near the doors. ? Aisle width between work benches should be at least 4 feet. Adequate spacing should be provided around free-standing equipment, workbenches, and file cabinets to facilitate cleaning. ? Electrical receptacles should be provided at strategic points for convenient and efficient operation of the laboratory. Duplex-type receptacles should be spaced at 3-foot intervals along benches used for laboratory tests. Strip molding receptacles may be used. ? If needed, gas and vacuum fixtures should be provided at convenient locations for every 15-foot length of bench used for laboratory tests. G2-68 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ? The use of an automatic dishwasher should be considered. Where dishwashers are provided, some sinks can be replaced by cup sinks. ? Give special consideration to equipment when laying out the laboratory facility. Pieces of equipment used for performing common tests should be nearby. For example, the drying oven used in making total, suspended, and dissolved solids tests should be close to the muffle furnace for use in determining total volatile solids and volatile suspended solids from the samples dried in the drying oven. The drying oven and the muffle furnace should be near the balance table because the balance is used in the weight determinations for the various solids tests. 2. Storage and Cabinets ? Storage space for reagent stock should be under workbenches. Reagent containers removed from storage areas under workbenches are less likely to be dropped than reagent containers removed from storage in the inconvenient and hard-to-reach areas above the workbenches. Only items that are infrequently used or chemicals of a nonhazardous nature should be stored above workbenches. Strong acids or bases should be stored within convenient reach of the laboratory personnel, preferably beneath or adjacent to the fume hood. ? Sufficient cabinet and drawer space should be provided for the storage of equipment and supplies. Wall cabinets should be no more than 30 inches above the workbench top so that the contents of the top shelving can be reached. The base cabinets under the workbenches should contain a combination of drawers and storage spaces for large items. All cabinets and drawers should be acid-resistant. 3. Sinks ? One sink with a large gooseneck faucet, large enough to wash laboratory equipment, should be provided for every 25 to 30 feet of bench length. One sink should be sufficient when total bench length is less than 25 feet. The minimum size of this sink should be 21 1/2 inches by 15 1/2 inches by 8 inches, and it should be made of chemical-resistant material. ? Cup sinks, also of chemical-resistant material, should be provided at strategic locations on the bench surface to facilitate laboratory testing. The number of cup sinks depends largely on the type of tests that will be run; the general rule is one cup sink for every 25 to 30 feet of bench length. Cup sinks should be alternated with the wash sinks at 12- to 15-foot intervals. ? Where workbench assemblies are provided in the center of the laboratory, a trough-type sink down the center of the workbench may be provided in lieu of cup sinks. A hot and General Considerations December 1998 G2-69 cold water tap should be placed about every 5 to 10 feet along the trough. 4. Benches and Tables ? Bench tops should be suitable for heavy-duty work and resistant to chemical attack. Resin-impregnated natural stone and other manmade materials provide such a surface and should be used. ? Bench surfaces should be 36 inches high for work done from a standing position and 30 inches high for work done while sitting. ? Bench surfaces should be at least 30 inches wide. ? A separate table is desirable for microscopes. This table should be about 30 inches long, 24 inches deep, and 27 inches high. ? The analytical balance should be located on a separate table of the type sold specifically for the use of analytical balances. The table should not transmit vibrations that would adversely affect the operation of the balance. Using a slab of dense material (such as 4-inch thick granite, concrete, or slate) is sufficient to dampen vibrations. 5. Air Handling ? Fume hoods should be near the area where most laboratory tests are made. Hoods should provide an airflow between 50 and 125 cfm/sf of face area. ? Where air conditioning is desirable, laboratories should be separately air conditioned, with external air supply for 100-percent makeup volume. Separate exhaust ventilation should be provided. 6. Safety ? Safety is a prime consideration of a laboratory. The first aid kit, fire extinguisher, eye wash, and emergency shower should be near the main working area of the laboratory. If the safety shower is not provided in a separate shower stall, a floor drain should be nearby. ? Sources of startling noises, such as alarms or composite sampling equipment, should be located at sites remote or otherwise isolated from the laboratory. G2-9.3 Personnel Facilities Personnel facilities are generally located in the administration building. This building serves the needs of the supervisory staff, the operation and maintenance personnel, and often the laboratory staff. Sewer maintenance personnel may also share the administration building. However, facilities for the laboratory and operations and maintenance staff need not be provided in the administration building, even though this is customary. G2-70 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design A wastewater treatment plant staffed for 8 hours or more each day should contain support facilities for the staff. Toilets shall be provided in conformance with applicable building codes. The following should also be provided: ? Washing and changing facilities. These should include showers, lockers, sinks, and toilets sufficient for the entire staff at design conditions. A heated and ventilated mudroom is desirable for changing and storing boots, jackets, gloves, and other outdoor garments worn on the job. Each staff member should have separate lockers for street clothes and plant clothes. Separate washing and changing facilities should be available for men and women, with the exception of the mudroom. ? Eating facilities. Provide a clean, quiet area with facilities for storage and eating light meals. ? Meeting facilities. Provide a place to assemble the plant staff and visitors. In most cases, the meeting facilities and the eating facilities will be the same. ? Supervisors’ facilities. Provide a place where discussion and writing can be carried out in private. Small treatment plants that are not staffed 8 hours a day need not contain all of the personnel facilities required for larger plants, but shall have a room with a door capable of being locked and contain at a minimum a toilet and lavatory. G2-9.4 Maintenance Facilities To ensure adequate maintenance of equipment, convenient maintenance facilities should be available. Such facilities generally include a maintenance shop, a garage, storage space, and yard maintenance facilities. Access to nearby municipal garages and other maintenance centers should be considered. Duplication of facilities should be avoided where possible. G2-9.4.1 Maintenance Shop A separate maintenance shop should be designated where treatment plant equipment and vehicles can be repaired. The maintenance shop should be provided with the following facilities: ? Work space with adequate area and lighting, including a workbench with vise. ? Conveyance to move heavy items from the point of delivery to the appropriate work space. ? Storage for small tools and commonly used spare parts. ? Adequate power outlets and ratings for the equipment. The shop should be laid out such that it is readily accessible to maintenance vehicles and personnel. Adequate space for present maintenance operations and a reasonable allowance for the future are important. The shop may be part of the administration building or the garage. G2-9.4.2 Vehicle Requirements Maintenance and transportation vehicles should be provided for the treatment plant staff. Sludge hauling trucks are also required for many treatment plants. General Considerations December 1998 G2-71 A garage and storage area should be included in the treatment plant for protection of the plant’s vehicles. G2-9.4.3 Storage Requirements Storage space should be provided for plants, fuels, oils and lubricants, grounds maintenance equipment, spare parts, and collection system equipment. In larger facilities it may be desirable to have a separate storage building for paints, fuel, oils and lubricants, spare parts, yard supplies, and so on. For storing flammable materials, the requirements of the Uniform Building Code shall be met. In smaller facilities it might be desirable to combine storage with the shop or garage so that the stored material can be protected against unauthorized use. G2-9.4.4 Yard Requirements A landscaped yard helps soften the visual impact of a treatment facility. Shrubs and trees judiciously located can screen unsightly areas from public view. Care must be taken that the plantings do not become a hindrance to operation. Deciduous leaves falling in clarifiers can hinder skimming and add unnecessarily to the digester loading. Roots from trees too close to pipes can cause clogging. Sidewalks and roadways through the yard should provide convenient access to the facility’s equipment. Lighting shall be adequate for safe nighttime operation. Handrails should be placed along side stairs and around open basins. A basin washdown system should have enough hose bibbs, with a sufficient length of hose and hose racks, to expedite the washdown of the basins. The irrigation system should allow convenient watering of the lawn, shrubs, and trees. Both systems often are supplied from treatment plant effluent, and care must be taken to prevent cross-connections with the potable water source. Yard maintenance requires its own complement of equipment and tools for irrigation, lawn mowing, fertilizing and weed control, shrub and tree care, and sidewalk and roadway cleaning. Provisions should be made for storage of such equipment. Yard maintenance equipment may be stored in the garage or the facility storage building. G2-10 References American Society of Civil Engineering. Sulfide in Wastewater Collection and Treatment Systems. ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice, No. 69. 1989. Chow, Ven Te. Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1959. Grant, Douglas M. Isco Open Channel Flow Measurement Handbook. Fourth Edition (Revised). 1995. Instrument Society of America. Standards and Practices for Instrumentation. Volume 1, Eleventh Edition, Standard No. S5.1. 1991. Sanks, Robert L., et al. Pumping Station Design. Butterworth Publishers, 1989. G2-72 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design US Environmental Protection Agency. Design Criteria for Mechanical, Electrical, and Fluid System Component Reliability. Publication No. EPA 430-99-74-001. 1974. US Environmental Protection Agency. Estimating Laboratory Needs for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities. Publication No. EPA 430-9-74-002. 1973. Water Environment Federation. Odor Control in Wastewater Treatment Plants. Manual of Practice No. 22. 1995. December 1998 G3-1 G3 Special Considerations for Small Community Systems This chapter provides supplemental information that specifically applies to small communities for planning, designing, and constructing a domestic wastewater collection and treatment facility. An overall description of the regulatory framework, guidance on selecting an engineering consultant, rate setting, and financing the project are all discussed in general terms. Information and design criteria are also presented for several treatment technologies that have been demonstrated to be particularly appropriate for small community applications. G3-1 Regulatory Framework......... 3 G3-1.1 Ecology Regulations ....................3 G3-1.1.1 Chapter 173-221 WAC: Discharge Standards and Effluent Limitations for Domestic Wastewater Facilities ..................... 3 G3-1.1.2 Chapter 173-201A WAC: Water Quality Standards for Surface Waters of the State of Washington ................................. 3 G3-1.1.3 Chapter 173-220 WAC: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit Program .............................................. 4 G3-1.1.4 Chapter 173-200 WAC: Water Quality Standards for Ground Waters of the State of Washington ................................. 4 G3-1.1.5 Chapter 173-216 WAC: State Waste Discharge Permit Program ............................. 4 G3-1.1.6 Chapter 173-240 WAC: Submission of Plans and Reports for Construction of Wastewater Facilities ..................................... 5 G3-1.1.7 Chapter 173-802 WAC: State Environmental Policy Act .............................. 5 G3-1.2 Requirements of Other State Agencies........................................5 G3-1.2.1 Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife .......................................................... 5 G3-1.2.2 Washington Department of Natural Resources ....................................................... 6 G3-1.2.3 Washington Department of Health......... 6 G3-1.3 Other Considerations...................6 G3-1.3.1 Local Requirements ............................... 6 G3-1.3.2 Tribal Requirements............................... 6 G3-1.3.3 Discharge and Disposal Requirements ................................................. 7 G3-2 Identifying and Securing Resources ............................ 7 G3-2.1 Hiring a Consultant...................... 7 G3-2.2 Identifying Available Financial Resources .................................... 7 G3-2.2.1 Evaluating and Setting User Rates, Connection Fees............................................. 8 A. User Rates ................................................... 8 1. Flat Rates ................................................. 9 2. Consumption Rates .................................. 9 3. Combination of Flat and Consumption Rates ..................................................... 9 B. Connection Fees .......................................... 9 1. Physical Connection Charge ...................10 2. General Facilities Charge........................10 G3-2.2.2 Grant and Loan Programs .....................11 A. Department of Ecology ..............................11 B. Department of Community, Trade, and Economic Development (CTED).............11 C. United States Department of Agriculture/Rural Development (USDA/RD) .............................................11 G3-2.3 Small Town Environment Program...................................... 12 G3-3 Wastewater Treatment Technologies...................... 12 G3-3.1 General ....................................... 12 G3-3.2 New Technology ........................ 13 G3-3.3 Package Treatment Systems .... 13 G3-3.3.1 Design Flows.........................................13 G3-3.3.2 Organic Loadings..................................13 G3-3.3.3 Settling Tanks........................................13 G3-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G3-3.3.4 Activated Sludge ...................................13 G3-3.3.5 Aeration System....................................14 G3-3.3.6 Solids Handling and Disposal ...............14 G3-3.3.7 Alternative Construction Materials .......14 G3-3.3.8 Expansion Capability ............................14 G3-3.3.9 Operation and Maintenance ..................14 G3-3.3.10 Performance ........................................14 G3-3.4 Recirculating Gravel Filter .........14 G3-3.4.1 General Information..............................14 G3-3.4.2 Design Considerations...........................15 A. Filter ...........................................................15 B. Organic Loading.........................................15 C. Recirculation Tank .....................................16 D. Flow Diversion Device...............................16 E. Dosing System............................................16 G3-3.5 Ponds and Aerated Lagoons .....16 G3-3.5.1 General..................................................16 G3-3.5.2 Design Criteria ......................................16 G3-3.6 Land Treatment Systems...........17 G3-3.7 Constructed Wetlands................17 G3-4 References .......................... 18 Special Considerations for Small Community Systems December 1998 G3-3 G3-1 Regulatory Framework While this discussion is not intended to be comprehensive, it is an attempt to provide a framework for understanding the regulations that can affect a wastewater facilities project while it is being developed and after it has been completed. Regardless of its size, the community is ultimately responsible for its wastewater facilities and for the compliance of those facilities with local, state, and federal requirements. Chapter G1 contains more general information on local, state, and federal permitting and approval requirements and Chapter E2 contains additional information on surface water effluent requirements. References to other chapters are also made in the following sections. G3-1.1 Ecology Regulations Some of the more common applicable regulations administered by Ecology are described below. G3-1.1.1 Chapter 173-221 WAC: Discharge Standards and Effluent Limitations for Domestic Wastewater Facilities Chapter 173-221 WAC establishes surface water discharge standards which represent “all known, available, and reasonable methods of prevention, control, and treatment” (AKART) for domestic wastewater treatment facilities, as required by Chapter 90.48 RCW. These are often referred to as technology- based standards. The chapter also provides for alternative discharge standards in some situations where specific criteria have been met. The water quality standards, as established in Chapter 173-201A WAC, may supersede the standards cited in this chapter. That is, if the technology-based discharge standards or the alternative standards presented in Chapter 173-221 WAC are not sufficient to meet the water quality standards, then more stringent discharge requirements will apply. G3-1.1.2 Chapter 173-201A WAC: Water Quality Standards for Surface Waters of the State of Washington Chapter 173-201A WAC establishes water quality standards for surface waters of the state which are meant to protect public health and beneficial uses such as drinking water, fish, shellfish, wildlife habitat, recreation, etc. The chapter classifies fresh and marine surface waters based on present and potential beneficial uses; each surface water body is designated as Class AA (extraordinary), Class A (excellent), Class B (good), Class C (fair), or Lakes. These classifications have specific water quality criteria for dissolved oxygen, fecal coliform, total dissolved gas, temperature, pH, turbidity and several toxic substances, including ammonia and chlorine. The water quality criteria for toxic substances include acute and chronic criteria to address both short and longer term impacts. This chapter provides for acute and chronic mixing zones to be established at the point of discharge if public health and beneficial uses are not adversely affected. The mixing zone allows opportunity for initial dispersion and dilution of the discharge; water quality standards must then be met at the boundary of the mixing zone. A discharge must receive AKART in order to be authorized as a mixing zone. AKART represents the most current methodology that can be reasonably required for preventing, reducing, or eliminating the pollutants associated with a discharge. G3-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design For domestic wastewater, AKART is considered to be secondary treatment, as presented in Chapter 173-221 WAC. However, if secondary treatment is not sufficient to meet water quality standards, additional treatment may be required. G3-1.1.3 Chapter 173-220 WAC: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit Program Chapter 173-220 WAC establishes the state permit program for implementation of the NPDES Permit Program created by the federal Clean Water Act. The program requires a discharge permit for any point source discharge of pollutants to surface waters of the state. As outlined in this chapter, permits and an accompanying fact sheet are issued on a five-year cycle and include information such as discharge limits, monitoring schedule, and general and special conditions. This chapter also includes the requirements for permit applications and renewal and for public notice. G3-1.1.4 Chapter 173-200 WAC: Water Quality Standards for Ground Waters of the State of Washington Chapter 173-200 WAC establishes ground water quality standards with the intent to maintain the highest quality of the state’s ground waters, protect human health, and protect existing and future beneficial uses of the ground water. This intent is implemented through three mechanisms: ? A policy of “antidegradation,” i.e., the degradation of ground water quality that will interfere with or significantly reduce beneficial uses will not be allowed. ? The requirement for all known, available, and reasonable methods of prevention, control and treatment (AKART). ? Numeric and narrative contaminant criteria. This chapter includes criteria for the maximum concentration level of various contaminants, which are not to be exceeded in ground water. These criteria are used in the determination of enforcement limits and early warning values for the proposed discharge. For more discussion on the requirements of Chapter 173-200 WAC, see Chapter E3. In addition, see a guidance document for Chapter 173-200 WAC, “Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards,” available from Ecology. G3-1.1.5 Chapter 173-216 WAC: State Waste Discharge Permit Program Chapter 173-216 WAC establishes the state permit program for the discharge of pollutants to ground waters of the state and to municipal sewerage systems. The use of reclaimed water is also permitted under the State Waste Discharge Permit Program. The program excludes domestic wastewater discharges from septic tank/drainfield systems with a design capacity not exceeding 14,500 gpd and mechanical treatment and lagoon systems with a design capacity not exceeding 3,500 gpd. DOH regulates these systems under Chapter 248-96 WAC. The program also excludes the injection of fluids through injection wells, which is regulated under Chapter 173-218 WAC. Special Considerations for Small Community Systems December 1998 G3-5 As outlined in the chapter, permits are issued on a five-year cycle and include information such as discharge limits, monitoring schedule, and general and special conditions. The chapter also includes the requirements for permit applications and renewal and for public notification. G3-1.1.6 Chapter 173-240 WAC: Submission of Plans and Reports for Construction of Wastewater Facilities Chapter 173-240 WAC outlines the requirements for the submittal of planning, design, and construction documents for both domestic and industrial wastewater collection and treatment systems. Prior to the construction or modification of wastewater facilities, an engineering report and plans and specifications for the project must be prepared under the supervision of a professional engineer and approved by Ecology. It also includes requirements for the general sewer plan, construction quality assurance plan, and operation and maintenance manual, as well as for a certified operator and public ownership of the facilities. The requirements of Chapter 173-240 WAC and procedures to follow for compliance with this chapter are discussed in greater detail in Chapter G1. G3-1.1.7 Chapter 173-802 WAC: State Environmental Policy Act The State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA) was implemented to ensure that environmental issues and concerns are given adequate consideration by state and local governments in their decision-making processes. The impacts of a proposal on the physical environment must be evaluated and addressed with the same diligence as the technical and economic issues. SEPA provides an opportunity for the public to be informed about project proposals and to make their concerns heard. If a community anticipates that significant concerns may be raised about a wastewater facilities project, the SEPA checklist should be issued as early as possible during the planning process. Other means of informing the public and soliciting comments, such as public meetings, mailings, etc., should also be used. G3-1.2 Requirements of Other State Agencies G3-1.2.1 Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) is responsible for the oversight and management of the state’s fish and wildlife resources. If a wastewater facilities project has the potential to impact these resources, the WDFW should be contacted. The role of the WDFW is very significant when the existing or potential discharge is to surface water. If work is to be conducted in surface waters of the state, such as with an outfall pipe, a Hydraulic Project Approval (HPA) must be obtained from the WDFW. The HPA will usually include conditions that address potential impacts to fish and wildlife resources. If the impacts of the proposal are deemed to be unacceptable to WDFW, the HPA could be denied. When a wastewater facility discharges effluent to marine water, there is generally a decertification or closure area established around the discharge G3-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design point for the purposes of shellfish harvesting. Within this closure area, commercial harvesting is prohibited and recreational harvesting is strongly discouraged. The WDFW can deny the HPA for construction or repair of an effluent outfall if the impacts and loss of resources are deemed significant. The WDFW can also assess the owner of an existing outfall for the financial damages associated with the loss of the shellfish resources. G3-1.2.2 Washington Department of Natural Resources The Washington Department of Natural Resources (DNR) manages many of the state’s forest and aquatic lands. Many outfalls in marine waters are constructed in tidelands and aquatic lands managed by the DNR. A lease is required from the DNR for new and existing outfalls located on these lands; some existing outfalls do not have leases, but may be required to obtain one in the future. Frequently, forestland identified as a potential land application site is under the management of the DNR. A lease or purchase agreement would have to be developed with the DNR before the project could be approved for construction. G3-1.2.3 Washington Department of Health The Washington Department of Health (DOH) is responsible for determining the decertification or closure area for shellfish harvesting associated with a particular effluent outfall to marine or estuarine waters. The size of the closure area is determined by a number of factors including flow, treatment efficiency, reliability, and mixing potential. The DOH also is working in coordination with Ecology to develop and manage the Water Reclamation and Reuse Program. A project proposal to reclaim and reuse wastewater effluent must be reviewed and approved by Ecology, which is concerned primarily with water quality issues, and the DOH, which is concerned with the public health issues. See Chapter E1 for more information about water reclamation and reuse. G3-1.3 Other Considerations G3-1.3.1 Local Requirements A wastewater facilities project must conform to local plans such as growth management comprehensive plans, general sewer plans, county sewerage plans, etc. This conformance should be confirmed early in the planning process to avoid delays and setbacks in the proposed project. Local permits or approvals will also be required for construction of collection systems and treatment plants. See Chapter G1 for information on local permitting and approval requirements. G3-1.3.2 Tribal Requirements Wastewater facilities can impact tribal nation interests, such as fish and shellfish resources. If a proposal has potential to impact tribal interests, either directly or indirectly, the project proponent should inform the tribe as soon as possible. Special Considerations for Small Community Systems December 1998 G3-7 G3-1.3.3 Discharge and Disposal Requirements If a project involves a discharge to surface water, several federal, state, and local permits or approvals will be required. See Chapter E2 for additional information. If a project involves a discharge to a surface water associated with any part of an irrigation system (canal, wasteway, ditch, etc.), the community will need to communicate with, and obtain any approvals from, the appropriate irrigation district or federal agency. If a project involves a discharge to ground water, see Chapter E3 for information. If the project involves the disposal or reuse of biosolids, the community will need a permit from the local health department. See Chapter S for information on biosolids. G3-2 Identifying and Securing Resources G3-2.1 Hiring a Consultant For the small community, hiring an engineering consultant for a wastewater facilities project is one of the most important decisions that will be made. The consultant will play a critical role in providing technical advice, developing project alternatives, designing the project, and directing the implementation of the project. Therefore, it is vital that the community hires an engineer who understands and supports its goals, as well as possesses the technical competence and experience to perform the job. There are also legal requirements that must be followed when a community hires a consultant. In general, the selection must be a competitive process, and the selection must be determined on the basis of technical competence and experience. Cost is not a prime consideration in the selection process. Chapter 39.80 RCW describes standard procedures for the procurement of architectural and engineering services in the State of Washington. These procedures must be followed by all state and local governmental agencies and special districts. It allows for a fair and open competitive selection process where a qualified consultant can be selected. The purpose of this process is to provide for the competitive procurement of professional services based solely on qualifications and competence of the consultant related to the scope and complexity of the project. The publication “Guidelines to Contracting for Architectural, Engineering, Land Surveying, and Landscape Architect Services” describes the purpose of the law, analyzes it in detail, and suggests methods for compliance. G3-2.2 Identifying Available Financial Resources The construction and operation of a wastewater treatment facility represents a significant long-term financial commitment for any municipal entity, but particularly for the small community. Even if the community is able to secure grants and low-interest loans, the expense of financing such a project often requires assuming long-term debt. Connection G3-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design fees and user rates must be established to adequately cover the resulting debt payment as well as ongoing operation and maintenance costs. G3-2.2.1 Evaluating and Setting User Rates, Connection Fees One of the greatest difficulties that small utilities face is how to finance capital projects and ongoing operation and maintenance. Many wastewater systems constructed during the 1970s and 1980s with federal and state grant funding are now in need of upgrading or replacement. More stringent water quality standards and regulations have also necessitated upgrading wastewater systems. This availability of grant funding which has helped small communities construct capital projects, has also allowed small communities to keep user rates and connection fees relatively low. The availability of grant funding is becoming much more limited. Small communities must find means to fund system improvements as well as adequate operation and maintenance while keeping costs affordable for their users. This section will outline some of the important factors and concepts that should be part of a sound financial plan for small community sewer utilities. There are two main types of income for sewer utilities: ? User rates: the rate assessed on a regular basis to users connected to the system. ? Connection fees: a one-time assessment normally collected prior to providing service. A. User Rates User rates are used to pay for the operation and maintenance of the wastewater utility, as well as capital debt repayment. Typical operation and maintenance expenses include the following: ? Labor costs (salary, benefits, and taxes paid) for all persons involved in the utility, including administration. ? Materials, including chemicals, replacement parts and equipment, and laboratory supplies. ? Power and other utilities. User rates should adequately fund repair and replacement of the system, as well as ongoing operation and maintenance. Many small communities do not make sufficient allowance in their rate structure for repair and replacement and get caught short when major repairs are required. All facilities in the utility will eventually have to be replaced. Sewers may last as long as 50 years or more, if installed properly. Mechanical equipment, such as pumps, should have a 10- to 20-year life. It is difficult to determine just how long the facilities will last, but life will generally be extended with proper operation and maintenance. Small communities must plan for eventual replacement. For example, to replace 10 miles of sewer with an estimated 50-year life, the sewer utility should plan for approximately 1,000 feet of pipe replacement each year. At $50 per foot, this represents $50,000 per year of needed income just for pipe replacement. Rates can be set a number of different ways: Special Considerations for Small Community Systems December 1998 G3-9 ? Flat rates. ? Consumption rates. ? Combination of flat and consumption rates. 1. Flat Rates Flat rates are just that: sewer users pay a flat monthly fee for sewer service regardless of volume or organic loading. For small communities with no significant commercial or industrial loads, a simple flat rate may be an appropriate approach. If some businesses contribute a higher volume of wastewater, communities may charge those users a higher flat rate. 2. Consumption Rates Larger users may be more appropriately charged using a consumption rate. This rate, based on water meter usage, is a reflection of how much wastewater is being discharged by that user. It is a fair method provided that separate irrigation meters are used or that irrigation uses are taken into account in the development of the rate structure. 3. Combination of Flat and Consumption Rates Often, the best method for developing a rate structure is a combination of flat and consumption rates. In this method the community collects a set amount per payment period, usually monthly, plus an additional charge for consumption beyond a base amount. The reasons for establishing this type of rate structure are as follows: ? Some utility costs are a function of number of users. ? Some costs are directly related to the amount of flow or organic strength of the wastewater, such as chemicals, pump maintenance and replacement, and power. A cost-of-service analysis will identify the utility’s costs as well as one or more proposed rate structures to pay for the costs. For a community with significant commercial or industrial loads, a multi-tiered rate structure may be recommended. The multi-tiered system can take into account waste loads from different types of businesses. For example, restaurants may represent a significant load on the system, especially fast food establishments, and therefore should pay for the additional discharge into the system. Rates for industries will depend on the type of process and may require a special agreement with the sewer utility. Some types of industries, such as food processing, may require both flow measurement and sampling to adequately quantify the impacts on the system and determine appropriate user rates. B. Connection Fees Connection fees can generally be placed in two categories, a physical connection charge (PCC) and a general facilities charge (GFC). A PCC is assessed only if the community has to bear the cost of actually hooking up the new user to the sewer system. A GFC is assessed on new connections to the sewer system. G3-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 1. Physical Connection Charge Determining the amount of a PCC will depend on the amount of materials, time, and effort it takes to connect an average user in the community. Sometimes this charge reflects only the equipment and materials if the labor is paid with user rates. A PCC would apply only to cases where the utility performs the actual connection of the new user to the sewer. In new developments, side sewers are normally provided and this charge would not be applicable. 2. General Facilities Charge A GFC is assessed to the new user prior to connection to the system. The GFC does not necessarily have to reflect the actual impact of the new connection on the system. As the name implies, the charges are for “general facilities” or those facilities that have benefit for a cross- section of the system users. As the utility adds more customers, the utility must provide additional collection capacity and possibly treatment capacity. Charges like the GFC help the utility fund the cost of providing additional capacity. One method for establishing the amount of the GFC is to examine the actual incremental cost of adding new users over a given planning period. This cost should reflect the need for financing and construction of new facilities and upgrades to both the treatment and conveyance portions of the system. The community must determine the amount of improvements that will be funded through new connection fees based on the number of connections anticipated. The amount of the GFC is determined accordingly. While this is simplistic, it does provide for a rational method of developing the GFC. However, it may not allow the utility to secure financing and construct new facilities in a timely manner to accommodate growth. Communities must consider inflation when developing a GFC amount. It is suggested that communities regularly adjust these charges to reflect inflation, in particular increases in construction costs. There are several indexes that can be used to modify the charges, such as the Engineering News Record Construction Cost Index (CCI) for Seattle. In addition to GFCs, other means of financing improvement projects in order to provide additional capacity include: ? Developer financing. If the capacity needed for development is significant, the developer may be required or be willing to provide some or all upfront financing in order to receive assurance of service. ? Local Improvement District (LID). The LID method assesses property based on the benefit provided to the property by the improvements. ? Bond financing backed by user rates. This may be done without existing user rate increases if the utility is not in significant debt and sufficient dollars are being set aside for replacement. In this scenario a portion of the revenue from user rates is used to finance a revenue bond to pay for system Special Considerations for Small Community Systems December 1998 G3-11 expansion. As growth occurs, GFCs are used to replenish the replacement fund. ? State and federal loans. See G3-2.2.2. G3-2.2.2 Grant and Loan Programs A number of state and federal funding programs are available to help communities fund wastewater facilities projects. The programs vary according to application requirements, project priority, eligibility criteria, and so on. Sponsoring agencies should be contacted to receive current information on program criteria and requirements. The most common funding programs for wastewater facilities projects are discussed below. A. Department of Ecology The Centennial Clean Water Fund (Centennial) provides state grant and loan funds to public entities for the planning, design, and construction of wastewater facilities projects. Eligible facilities include, but are not limited to, sewers, pump stations, wastewater treatment, and stormwater treatment. The State Revolving Fund (SRF), through a combination of state and federal funds, provides low-interest loans to public entities for the same types of projects funded under Centennial. SRF loans can be used in conjunction with Centennial grant funds on a facilities project. A single application can be made to Ecology for both the Centennial and the SRF programs. See G1-2.7 for additional information on Ecology funding assistance. For further current information on program guidelines, contact Ecology headquarters in Olympia or the nearest Ecology regional office. B. Department of Community, Trade, and Economic Development (CTED) The Public Works Trust Fund (PWTF) provides low-interest state loans to public entities for various types of infrastructure projects, including wastewater and stormwater facilities. Funds are available for planning, design, and construction of the projects. The Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) program provides federal grants for infrastructure projects to benefit low and moderate- income persons. Often, the block grant is used to supplement other funds in order to make a project more affordable for lower-income residents. For additional information, contact the Department of Community, Trade and Economic Development in Olympia. C. United States Department of Agriculture/Rural Development (USDA/RD) The USDA/RD, through the Rural Utilities Service (RUS), provides federal grants and loans for wastewater and drinking water infrastructure projects. Eligibility for grant assistance is based primarily on financial need. For additional information, contact USDA/RD in Olympia. G3-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G3-2.3 Small Town Environment Program The Small Town Environment Program (STEP) is a program administered by Ecology that seeks to develop water quality projects in small communities based on the concepts of community self-help, volunteerism, and alternative approaches to reduce project costs. Communities selected for the program partner with Ecology to evaluate the water quality problem, organize local support and resources, secure technical support and funding, and potentially construct some or all of the project with local resources. Communities interested in STEP should contact Ecology headquarters or the nearest Ecology regional office. G3-3 Wastewater Treatment Technologies Chapters T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 contain design criteria for conventional wastewater treatment technologies. This section will present some additional design information that should be considered for small community systems. This discussion should not be viewed as comprehensive; other design approaches may be considered. G3-3.1 General Important goals for any proposed small community treatment system should be simplicity and reasonable cost. Many treatment systems may not be appropriate for a small community because of their cost or complexity. Conversely, some technologies are only applicable to a smaller community. Making a determination of appropriateness is an important responsibility for the community and its consultant. Regardless of the technology being proposed, the system will generally include unit processes in some form, as follows: ? Removal of large debris and grit; removal of inert and biodegradable solids. ? Reduction of soluble organic matter (such as BOD). ? Reduction of pathogenic organisms (such as fecal bacteria). ? Adequate stabilization of residual solids to permit legal disposal or beneficial use. Additional treatment steps may be required, depending on the method of disposal or reuse and local conditions. These can include the following: ? Removal of nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorous). ? Removal of toxic substances (such as ammonia and residual chlorine). ? Dewatering of liquid sludge to permit economic removal and transport for ultimate disposal or use (that is, land application). Prior to developing a treatment system proposal, it is critical to determine what the regulatory requirements will be for the treatment and disposal or beneficial reuse of both the liquid effluent and the residual solids produced in the process. Special Considerations for Small Community Systems December 1998 G3-13 G3-3.2 New Technology New or developmental technology requires special consideration as described in G1-5.4.1 G3-3.3 Package Treatment Systems Package treatment plants are often used for small communities because they are generally less expensive than built-in-place facilities of the same type and size. Sometimes package treatment systems are marketed as innovative technology, an alternative to conventional wastewater treatment systems. In reality, however, most package plants are based, or are variations on, conventional treatment technology, such as activated sludge, oxidation ditch, sequencing batch reactor, rotating biological contactors, and so on. Therefore, the treatment design criteria for these plants should be comparable to conventional treatment systems. Package treatment designs often use features that reduce construction and operating costs and result in a smaller site footprint. For example, there may be common-wall construction between the aeration and clarification systems, the same blower may be used to provide aeration and sludge pumping, etc. However, these benefits must be weighed against the potential for loss of process control, reduced operational flexibility and reliability, and long-term performance. G3-3.3.1 Design Flows As with conventional treatment systems, careful consideration must be given to whether the package system can properly handle the full range of design flows. The plant must have hydraulic capacity to handle the design peak flows. If the small community experiences high I/I flows, an I/I study should be conducted. G3-3.3.2 Organic Loadings The biological process calculations of the system must be based on recognized design standards. The system must be capable of treating the full range of design loadings and consistently meet regulatory requirements. G3-3.3.3 Settling Tanks Surface overflow rates should be consistent with design criteria for the particular biological process being used (such as extended aeration, fixed film, and so on). G3-3.3.4 Activated Sludge The food/microorganisms (F/M) ratios and process kinetics must be comparable to recognized design standards. Control of the sludge transfer system must be adequate to achieve the necessary solids retention time (SRT) in the aeration basin. For example, air lift pumping systems reduce operation and maintenance costs and equipment requirements, but the level of SRT control is less than conventional sludge pumping systems that can use variable speed drive sludge pumps and flow meters. G3-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design G3-3.3.5 Aeration System The aeration system must be adequately sized to account for the gas transfer efficiencies expected for the type of diffuser system and aeration basin geometry being used. Where flexible materials are used in the diffuser construction, consideration should be given to loss of efficiency that can occur as diffuser materials wear with age. G3-3.3.6 Solids Handling and Disposal The design must include provisions for sludge stabilization necessary to meet the proposed disposal or reuse objective. Accurate estimates of solids generation are necessary for treatment design, but also for making determinations about dewatering, offsite transport, and final disposal or reuse options. G3-3.3.7 Alternative Construction Materials Alternative construction materials must provide the necessary structural strength and durability required for the life of the system. For buried tanks, consideration should be given to the use of reinforced concrete for construction of the outer tank wall. Tanks should be designed so than any or all compartments can be dewatered without damage to the tank walls. G3-3.3.8 Expansion Capability Consideration should be given to the potential for expanding or modifying the plant to handle higher flows and loadings. Frequently, expansion involves adding additional package plants, which means operating multiple, independent plants. G3-3.3.9 Operation and Maintenance Consideration should be given to providing a control building with sufficient space for an office, laboratory, restroom and shower, aeration blowers, and materials and supplies. Operation and maintenance needs must be provided comparable to a similar size and type built-in-place facility. G3-3.3.10 Performance Statements about process performance should be verified using data from actual operating plants, as well as the design calculations. The data should be for similar-size systems treating similar types of wastewater. Evaluating data from an underloaded plant (that is, a plant not yet operating at its design capacity) will not give a true representation of what the system can do at full capacity. Performance can decrease significantly at higher loadings. Consideration should be given to requiring a vendor guarantee from the manufacturer for package treatment systems. G3-3.4 Recirculating Gravel Filter G3-3.4.1 General Information A recirculating gravel filter (RGF) consists of a recirculation tank and a gravel filter. The recirculation tank typically provides one-day detention of design flow. The filter consists of 2 to 3 feet of fine gravel (filter media) over a coarse Special Considerations for Small Community Systems December 1998 G3-15 gravel underdrain system. A layer of coarse gravel with pressure-dosing laterals is placed over the filter media and allows mixing of the design flow with the filter effluent prior to dosing the filter. A RGF, also known as a recirculating sand filter (RSF), is an emerging secondary wastewater treatment process suitable for small communities. The filter receives septic tank effluent from either individual or community septic tanks. This process may be a viable option for flows up to 100,000 gallons per day. The process can produce effluent with seasonal BOD 5 and TSS concentrations of less than 10 mg/l each. Almost complete nitrification can be achieved provided there is not an alkalinity limitation in the influent wastewater. The RGF also has features that encourage denitrification. There are a number of advantages to RGFs, including extremely easy construction and operation. The process is resistant to shock loads because of dilution in the recirculation tank. A RGF also takes less space than a lagoon. The performance of a RGF is not affected if the actual loading or flow is less than design loading. The land area required to construct a RGF may be a disadvantage if land costs are expensive or if there is a concern for aesthetics. For a small community with a design flow of 25,000 gpd, the filter would be about the size of a tennis court. RGFs can be extremely easy to operate and maintain. The key factors that affect the operation costs include the design features of the facility and the level of monitoring required by the regulatory agency with jurisdiction over the facility. G3-3.4.2 Design Considerations Since most of the applications of RGFs are small (less than 50,000 gpd) and the actual flows and loadings are less predicable, overdesigning the system is recommended, especially the filter. Increasing the filter size will increase the volume of filter media and dosing system piping. Overdesigning the facility will probably not significantly impact the construction cost. There are several published design guidelines for RGFs, including DOH’s “Design Guidelines for Sand Filters” and Metcalf & Eddy’s “Wastewater Engineering–Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse.” Some of the more common design features are summarized below. A. Filter The filter is typically sized for 3 to 5 gpd/sf based on forward flow. The filter is constructed within a plastic or concrete liner and consists of 2 to 3 feet of filter media sandwiched between an underdrain layer of gravel and surface layer of course gravel. Filter media is washed pea gravel or coarse sand with an effective size of 2 to 3 millimeters. B. Organic Loading The organic loading of the filter is 0.01 pounds of BOD per square foot based on an influent concentration of 200 mg/l. Most design guidelines do not have criteria for solids loading. G3-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C. Recirculation Tank Typical sizing for the recirculation tank volume has been one day of design flow. D. Flow Diversion Device A fraction of the filter underdrain flow must be diverted to disposal. Buoyant ball check valves, weirs, and other devices have been used for this function. E. Dosing System A pressure dosing system is usually provided to intermittently dose the filter. The dosing piping, located in the coarse layer of gravel on the top of the filter, is typically small diameter (one-half to one and one-half inch) plastic piping with orifices ranging in size from one-eighth to five- sixteenths inch. The pumps are sized for the design flow and to provide a residual head at the orifice of 1 to 5 feet. G3-3.5 Ponds and Aerated Lagoons G3-3.5.1 General Stabilization ponds and aerated lagoons have been used extensively for small community wastewater treatment for many years. They have represented a low-cost, low-technical approach for communities where land was plentiful and inexpensive. However, with the onset of more stringent ground water and surface water quality regulations in this state, lagoon technology is not generally viewed as an appropriate method for municipal wastewater treatment. Pond and lagoon systems have traditionally had difficulty with consistent suspended solids removal. These systems often cannot meet the ammonia limits being imposed upon many freshwater stream dischargers. They also are not adequate to achieve the overall nitrogen reduction frequently necessary for discharge to ground water. Ecology will review proposals for new and upgraded pond and lagoon systems on a case-by-case basis. However, in general, new systems will be discouraged for municipal wastewater treatment. The use of non-overflow lagoons for effluent disposal will be considered. G3-3.5.2 Design Criteria Embankments for surface impoundment up to 15 feet in height should provide at least 2 feet of freeboard; embankments over 15 feet in height should provide 3.5 feet of freeboard. A dam safety permit is needed if the storage capacity at the top of embankment level is 10 acre-feet or more. The Dam Safety Unit may grant an exemption if the embankment height is 6 feet or less and the consequences of failure are minimal. This exemption must be obtained in writing from the Dam Safety Unit at Ecology’s headquarters in Olympia. Embankments should be designed to withstand a 100-year flood event. Wastewater treatment lagoons or storage ponds that can impound a volume of 10 acre-feet (equivalent to 435,600 cubic feet or 3.258 million gallons) or more may be subject to state dam safety regulations. In cases where a lagoon is Special Considerations for Small Community Systems December 1998 G3-17 divided into several cells, the total volume of water impounded by all the cells generally determines whether the embankment is subject to the dam safety regulations. See Chapter G1 for additional information on dam safety requirements. Storage lagoons should include a properly engineered liner. A synthetic liner is required for most land treatment storage systems. Any other recommended liner system must be justified. The minimum liner thickness allowed is 30 mils (.030 inches); however, 40 to 60 mils thickness may be required for special situations. Liners are almost always required for newly constructed wastewater impoundments. Existing impoundments generally do not have to be lined, unless activities such as solids removal or construction activities disrupt the integrity of the bottom. Ecology may then require the installation of a synthetic liner. For municipalities, a minimum of three months of winter storage is required. However, local conditions may dictate longer periods of storage. The applicant is required to provide the rationale for the storage capacity selected. G3-3.6 Land Treatment Systems Land treatment systems apply domestic wastewater to crop fields via spray irrigation for the purpose of soil and crop treatment. These systems differ from land application systems which must meet the requirements for reclaimed water as outlined in Chapter 90.46 RCW and the “Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards” (DOH and Ecology, 1997). In principle, the sprayfield treatment of wastewater uses the physical, chemical, and microbial properties of the soil and vegetation to remove contaminants from the applied wastewater. The upper soil-plant zone (root zone) is used to stabilize, transform, or immobilize wastewater constituents and support crop growth, leading to an environmentally acceptable assimilation of the waste. As a result, selection of an appropriate land treatment site is vital to the success of the system. The topography of the area, whether natural or finished grade, must minimize the potential for runoff from the site and must minimize the potential for surface water to enter the site. Water, snowmelt, or rain runoff or run-on at the site should be minimized. Engineering reports for land treatment systems must comply with WAC 173-240-060 and the most recent versions of the following guidance documents: “Design Criteria for Municipal Wastewater Land Treatment Systems for Public Health Protection” (DOH, 1994) and “Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards” (Ecology, 1996). Supplemental design strategies can be found in the most recent versions of “Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards” (DOH and Ecology, 1997) and “Irrigation Management Practices to Protect Ground Water and Surface Water Quality, State of Washington” (Ecology and WSU, 1995). G3-3.7 Constructed Wetlands Constructed wetlands are a low-technology treatment system that has been used in small communities in other states but very little in this state. Due to this lack of operational G3-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design history, specific design criteria will not be presented here. Ecology will review proposals for wetlands treatment systems for municipal wastewater on a case-by-case basis. Operational data from other states suggests that wetlands systems, if properly designed, can meet requirements for BOD 5 and TSS removal. However, there is not sufficient operational evidence available that wetlands systems can consistently achieve nutrient removal, particularly ammonia reduction. Many communities are now being required to achieve ammonia removal for freshwater discharges or overall nitrogen reduction for ground water discharges. Wetlands systems will not be encouraged as a treatment technology option when nitrogen removal is required, unless additional measures, such as additional treatments, are implemented to address this inadequacy. G3-4 References Architects and Engineers Legislative Council. Guidelines to Contracting for Architectural, Engineering, Land Surveying, and Landscape Architect Services. 1990. (Available from AELC, 508 Tower Building, 1807 7th Ave., Seattle, WA 98101, (206) 623-5936.) Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering?Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. Third Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991. State of Washington. Water Quality Standards for Ground Waters of the State of Washington. Chapter 173-200 WAC. US Environmental Protection Agency. Guidelines for Water Reuse. Publication No. EPA/625/R- 92/004. September 1992. Washington State Department of Ecology and Washington State University. Irrigation Management Practices to Protect Ground Water and Surface Water Quality. State of Washington, 1995. Washington State Department of Ecology. Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards. Publication No. 96-02. 1996. Washington State Department of Health and Department of Ecology. Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards. 1997. Washington State Department of Health. Design Criteria for Municipal Wastewater Land Treatment Systems for Public Health Protection. 1994. Washington State Department of Health. Design Guidelines for Sand Filters. December 1998 C1-1 SEWER C1 Sewers This chapter covers the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of gravity and low-pressure sewers and manholes. The requirements apply equally to sewer systems that are privately owned as well as publicly owned sewer systems. Also included in this chapter is a section on various types of alternative systems for conveyance of wastewater to a centralized location or wastewater facility. Force main design and construction is covered in Chapter C2. Design criteria for side sewers are not addressed in this manual. C1-1 General Requirements ......... 4 C1-1.1 Approvals......................................4 C1-1.2 Ownership (Certification by the Engineer or the Owner)..........4 C1-1.3 Design ...........................................4 C1-1.4 Operations and Maintenance.......4 C1-1.5 Siting Considerations...................5 C1-2 Industrial and Commercial Pretreatment......................... 5 C1-3 Gravity Systems Design Considerations..................... 5 C1-3.1 Definitions.....................................5 C1-3.2 Design Period ...............................5 C1-3.2.1 Service Laterals ...................................... 5 C1-3.2.2 Collection Sewers................................... 6 C1-3.2.3 Trunk and Interceptor Sewers................. 6 C1-3.3 Design Basis.................................6 C1-3.3.1 Design for Average Daily Flow.............. 6 C1-3.3.2 Peak Flow............................................... 6 C1-3.3.3 Infiltration/Inflow................................... 7 C1-3.4 Design Factors..............................7 C1-4 Gravity Sewer Design and Construction Details............ 8 C1-4.1 Minimum Size................................8 C1-4.2 Depth .............................................8 C1-4.3 Roughness Co-Efficient ...............8 C1-4.4 Slope (Minimum Velocity) ............9 C1-4.5 Alignment......................................9 C1-4.6 Increasing Size .............................9 C1-4.7 High-Velocity Protection ............. 9 C1-4.8 Material ....................................... 10 C1-4.9 Joints.......................................... 10 C1-4.10 Flushing.................................... 10 C1-5 Testing ................................. 10 C1-5.1 Leakage Testing......................... 10 C1-5.2 Television Inspection................. 10 C1-5.3 Mandrel Testing ......................... 11 C1-5.4 Pressure Line Testing................ 11 C1-6 Manholes Design and Construction Details.......... 11 C1-6.1 Location...................................... 11 C1-6.2 Connections............................... 11 C1-6.3 Diameter ..................................... 12 C1-6.4 Flow Channels............................ 12 C1-6.5 Watertightness........................... 12 C1-6.6 Ventilation .................................. 12 C1-6.7 Frames, Covers, and Steps ....... 12 C1-6.8 Liners.......................................... 12 C1-6.9 Manhole Testing......................... 12 C1-7 Assessment of Structural Condition and Infiltration/Inflow................ 13 C1-7.1 General ....................................... 13 C1-7.2 Inspection Methods ................... 13 C1-7.2.1 TV Inspection........................................13 C1-7.2.2 Manhole Inspection ...............................14 C1-7.2.3 Smoke Testing.......................................15 C1-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C1-7.2.4 Dye Testing ...........................................16 C1-7.2.5 Other Testing Methods..........................16 C1-7.3 Flow Monitoring and Modeling ..16 C1-7.3.1 Flow Monitoring....................................16 C1-7.3.2 Flow Modeling ......................................17 C1-8 Sewer System Rehabilitation/Replace- ment Techniques ............... 17 C1-8.1 Sewer Mains................................17 C1-8.2 Side Sewer Repairs ....................19 C1-8.3 Manhole Rehabilitation...............19 C1-9 Special Requirements ........ 20 C1-9.1 Required Separation Between Water Lines and Sanitary Sewers.........................................20 C1-9.1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Separation (Parallel)........................................................20 C1-9.1.2 Unusual Conditions (Parallel) ...............20 C1-9.1.3 Vertical Separation (Perpendicular) ......22 C1-9.1.4 Unusual Conditions (Perpendicular) .....22 A. Gravity Sewers Passing Over or Under Water Lines..............................................22 B. Water Lines Passing Under Gravity Sewers......................................................22 C. Pressure Sewers Under Water Lines...........23 C1-9.2 Pumpout Facilities at Marinas ...23 C1-9.3 Stream Crossing.........................23 C1-9.4 Inverted Siphons.........................23 C1-9.5 Required Separation From Water Supply Wells ....................24 C1-9.6 Odor Control ...............................24 C1-9.7 Corrosion Control.......................24 C1-9.8 Trenchless Technologies...........25 C1-9.9 Pipe Casing.................................25 C1-10 Alternative Systems ......... 25 C1-10.1 Grinder Pump, Septic Tank Effluent Pump, and Septic Tank Effluent Filter/Small Diameter Gravity Systems .........26 C1-10.1.1 Application..........................................26 C1-10.1.2 Design Considerations.........................26 A. Peak Design Flows .....................................26 B. Infiltration and Inflow Considerations........27 C1-10.1.3 Hydraulic Gradeline/Pipeline Sizing ...27 A. SDG Hydraulic Gradeline ..........................27 B. STEP/GP Hydraulic Gradeline...................27 C1-10.1.4 Minimum Velocity ..............................27 C1-10.1.5 Pump Selection STEP/GP ...................27 C1-10.1.6 Tank/Vessel Type and Sizing..............28 A. Tank Configuration STEP/SDG.................28 B. Detention Volume STEP/SDG ...................29 C. Working Volume STEP/GP........................29 D. Storage Volume..........................................30 E. Power Outages............................................30 1. Applicability ...........................................30 2. Power Transfer Switch/EG Plug.............30 C1-10.2 System Components ............... 30 C1-10.2.1 Pipeline................................................30 A. Service Line/Check Valves ........................30 B. Cleanouts/Pig Ports ....................................30 C. Valves.........................................................31 D. Air Release Assemblies..............................31 E. Pipeline Material and Pressure Testing.......31 F. Discharge to a Gravity Collection System......................................................31 1. Grinder Pump System.............................31 2. Corrosion Control in STEP/SDG Systems................................................31 3. Odor Control...........................................32 G. Discharge to a Conventional Force Main...32 C1-10.2.2 Pump or SDG Assembly .....................32 A. Pumps.........................................................32 B. Pump/Effluent Vault (Screen) STEP/SDG ...............................................32 C. Control Panel/Level Control.......................32 D. Electrical Requirements .............................33 E. Ventilation ..................................................33 C1-10.3 Vacuum Sewer System............ 33 C1-10.3.1 Introduction .........................................33 C1-10.3.2 Principles of Operation........................33 A. Gravity Sewer from the Building ...............34 B. Vacuum Valve and Vacuum Service..........34 C. Vacuum Mains............................................35 D. Vacuum Station..........................................35 C1-10.3.3 System Design Criteria........................36 A. House Connection and Valve Sump...........36 B. Vacuum Collection Mainlines ....................37 C. Sewage Collection Tank at the Vacuum Station ......................................................38 D. Vacuum Pumps at the Vacuum Station......38 E. Sewage Pumps at the Vacuum Station........38 C1-10.4 Maintenance Provisions .......... 39 C1-10.4.1 Maintenance Program..........................39 C1-10.4.2 Personnel Qualifications......................39 C1-10.4.3 Operation and Maintenance.................39 C1-10.4.4 System Monitoring..............................39 Sewers December 1998 C1-3 C1-10.4.5 Easements for Municipalities ..............39 C1-10.4.6 Replacement Parts ...............................39 C1-11 References......................... 40 Figures C1-1. Ratio of Peak Hourly Flow to Design Average Flow................................................... 7 C1-2. Required Separation Between Water Lines and Sanitary Sewers, Parallel Construction....21 C1-3. Required Separation Between Water Lines and Sanitary Sewers, Unusual Conditions Parallel Construction.......................................21 Tables C1-1. Minimum Slope of Sewers, by Size (Assuming Full Flow) ...................................... 9 C1-2. Factors to Consider When Planning a TV Inspection Project............................................14 C1-3. Rehabilitation/Replacement Techniques for Sewer Mains....................................................18 C1-4. Water Main Standard Pipe Material...............22 C1-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C1-1 General Requirements C1-1.1 Approvals Designs of new sewer systems or extensions of existing systems must provide for: ? Adequately processing the added hydraulic and organic load; or ? Adequately providing treatment facilities on a time schedule acceptable to Ecology. See Chapter G1 for additional information on approvals. C1-1.2 Ownership (Certification by the Engineer or the Owner) Sewer systems shall be owned and operated by a public entity demonstrating the capability to operate and maintain the sewer system. C1-1.3 Design Sewer systems shall be designed and constructed to achieve total containment of sanitary wastes and maximum exclusion of infiltration and inflow (I/I). No new combined sewers will be approved. C1-1.4 Operations and Maintenance Agencies that own and operate sewage collection systems shall implement an operation and maintenance program outlined in the system design documents. The program should contain information as follows: ? General description of the system, including any drawings, plans, or schematics. ? Normal operations plan. ? Emergency operations. ? Parts of the system that require maintenance. ? General maintenance requirements. ? Specific component maintenance, including references to equipment O&M manuals. The operation and maintenance program should include an emergency response plan for emergency actions. This plan, which is intended to maintain reasonable system integrity in the event of natural or other types of disasters, life-threatening situations, or other unplanned activities of an emergency nature that affect the sewage collection system, shall be supplied by the owner. This response plan should include the following activities: ? Inspect and evaluate the facility’s condition. ? Remove debris and clear blocked drainage caused by flooding or other reasons. ? Repair leaks, eliminate overflows, and clear blocked or collapsed pipes, sewers, or pump stations. ? Clean up overflow areas. ? Provide temporary or emergency systems as needed. Sewers December 1998 C1-5 C1-1.5 Siting Considerations Siting of public sanitary sewer mains and manholes shall be restricted to the public right- of-way and/or easement dedicated for this utility. Due to the depth of this type of utility, the pipe is normally located in the center of the right-of-way. Preliminary layouts can be accomplished largely from a topographical map. Gravity flow should be a primary factor in siting considerations. The system layout process begins by selecting an outlet, delineating service area boundaries, and locating the trunk and main sewers. Sewer systems will need to be accessed by maintenance staff for periodic inspection, cleaning, and repair. Access to the system components should be provided by all-weather roadways. Sewer systems should not be located near public water supplies. If this cannot be avoided, use of pressure pipe or pipe encasements should be considered. See C1-9 for special requirements for separating sewers from water lines and water supplies. C1-2 Industrial and Commercial Pretreatment Pretreatment of sanitary sewer discharges may be required for those users who do not conform to the standards established by the federal, state, and local authorities as required by the Clean Water Act and the General Pretreatment Regulations. No user shall introduce or cause to be introduced into the waste stream any pollutant or wastewater which causes pass-through or interference problems. C1-3 Gravity Systems Design Considerations All gravity system sewers must be designed to be consistent with the approved general sewer plan, described in Chapter G1. C1-3.1 Definitions Lateral. A sewer that has no other common sewers discharging into it. Submain. A sewer that receives flow from one or more lateral sewers. Main or trunk. A sewer than receives flow from one or more submains. Interceptor. A sewer that receives flow from a number of main or trunk sewers, force mains, etc. C1-3.2 Design Period C1-3.2.1 Service Laterals Service laterals shall be designed for the ultimate development of the parcel being served. C1-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C1-3.2.2 Collection Sewers Collection sewers (that is, laterals and submains) shall be designed for the ultimate development of the tributary areas. C1-3.2.3 Trunk and Interceptor Sewers Selection of the design period for trunk and interceptor sewers should be based on an evaluation of economic, functional, and other considerations. Some of the factors that should be considered in the evaluation are: ? Possible solids deposition, odor, and pipe corrosion that might occur at initial flows. ? Population and economic growth projections and the accuracy of the projections. ? Comparative costs of staged construction alternatives. ? Effect of sewer sizing on land use and development. C1-3.3 Design Basis Sewer systems shall be designed on the basis of per capita flows for the design period in conjunction with a peaking factor, or approved alternative methods. Design calculations for trunk and interceptor sewers shall be submitted to the local jurisdiction for approval. Larger systems should have hydraulic modeling performed. Replacement mains or rehabilitation of existing mains shall be designed on the basis of measured flows with projections for the design period as applicable. Documentation shall be submitted for approval of the authorized entity and/or Ecology. Documentation of the alternative method shall be provided upon request. C1-3.3.1 Design for Average Daily Flow Designing for average daily wastewater flows for new systems should be based on per capita flows in Table G2-1. These figures are assumed to cover normal infiltration, but an additional allowance should be made where conditions are unfavorable. If there is an existing water system in the area, water consumption figures can be used to help substantiate the selected per capita flow. New sewer systems may be designed by methods other than on the basis of per capita flow rates. Alternative methods may include the use of per capita flow rates based on water consumption records, actual measured flows for the agency, or other methods. Documentation of the alternative method used shall be provided to Ecology for review and approval. C1-3.3.2 Peak Flow Generally, the sewers shall be designed to carry at least the peak hourly flow when operating at capacity. Peak hourly flow should be the design average daily flow in conjunction with a peaking factor in Figure C1-1, Ratio of Peak Hourly Flow to Design Average Flow, which is extracted from “Recommended Standards for Wastewater Facilities, 1990 Edition (10 States Standards).” The peaking factor shall not be less than 2.5. An agency may use a local peaking factor curve, which is based upon actual local flow data. Sewers December 1998 C1-7 10.0 LEGEND 8.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.40.5 0.7 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.05.0 7.0 10.0 20.0 30.040.050.070.0100.0 Ratio of Q peak hourly/ Q design average Population (in thousands) Source: Fair, G.M. and Gayer, J.C. Water Supply and Wastewater Disposal, First Ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1954), p. 136. Q peak hourly =Maximum rate of wastewater flow (peak hourly flow) Q design average=Design average daily wastewater flow P =Population in thousands Q peak hourly Q design average 4 +P 18 +P = Figure C1-1. Ratio of Peak Hourly Flow to Design Average Flow C1-3.3.3 Infiltration/Inflow Use of the per capita flows (see Table G2-1) and the peaking factor (see C1-3.3.2) is intended to cover normal I/I for systems built with modern construction techniques. However, an additional allowance should be made for I/I with existing conditions such as high ground water, older systems, or a number of illicit connections. I/I allowances for existing systems should be made from actual flow data to the greatest extent possible. C1-3.4 Design Factors The design engineer shall utilize current design criteria. At a minimum, the design of gravity sanitary sewers will include the following: ? Peak sewage flows from residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial sources. ? I/I. ? Topography and depth of excavation. ? Treatment plant location. ? Soils conditions. ? Flow impacts from upstream pump stations, if applicable. C1-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ? Maintenance. ? Existing sewers. ? Existing and future surface improvements. ? Controlling service connection elevations. ? Flow from existing combined systems, if applicable. ? Potential surcharge in downstream sewers. C1-4 Gravity Sewer Design and Construction Details C1-4.1 Minimum Size No sewer shall be less than 8 inches in diameter except that, in special cases, 6-inch diameter sewer lines may be approved by Ecology if the 6-inch lines meet the following criteria: ? The probable maximum number of services will not exceed 30 persons. (For this purpose, compute on the basis of not less than three persons per residence.) ? Running lengths of 6-inch pipe in excess of 150 feet will be allowed only at the discretion of Ecology. ? A manhole shall be provided where the 6-inch pipe connects to an 8-inch or larger line. Manholes shall be provided at a maximum of 300-foot intervals and at changes in direction or grade. Cleanouts are not acceptable as substitutes for manholes. This does not include a 6-inch side sewer to serve one or two single- family dwellings. ? A manhole or cleanout shall be provided at the end of the 6-inch line. If a cleanout is provided, the first manhole will be placed within 150 feet of the end of the line. ? No extension of the 6-inch line will be possible at a later date. ? The minimum slope allowable for 6-inch lines will be 1.0 feet per 100 feet. ? Six-inch pipe used in collection systems shall be PVC conforming to ASTM D 3034, SDR 35, ABS conforming to ASTM D 2680, HDPE, PE3408 conforming to ASTM 714, or Ductile Iron Class 50 conforming to ASTM A 21.51. ? The design is subject to all other design requirements as noted in this chapter. C1-4.2 Depth Generally, sewers should not be less than 3 feet deep, be sufficiently deep to prevent freezing and physical damage, and should receive sewage from existing dwellings by gravity. C1-4.3 Roughness Co-Efficient An “n” value of 0.013 shall be used in Manning’s formula for the design of all sewer facilities (regardless of pipe material) except inverted siphons, where an “n” value of up to 0.015 can be used. Sewers December 1998 C1-9 C1-4.4 Slope (Minimum Velocity) All sewers shall be designed and constructed to give mean velocities, when flowing full, of not less than 2.0 fps. Self-cleaning velocity shall be provided and demonstrated by the engineer to the public entity to accept the problem caused by a lack of sufficient flow. Table C1-1 lists the minimum slopes that should be provided; however, slopes greater than those listed in this table are desirable under low-flow conditions. Table C1-1. Minimum Slope of Sewers, by Size (Assuming Full Flow) Sewer Size (inches) Minimum Slope (feet per 100 feet) 80.4 10 0.28 12 0.22 14 0.17 15 0.15 16 0.14 18 0.12 21 0.10 24 0.08 27 0.07 30 0.06 36 0.05 Sewers shall be laid with uniform slope between manholes. Sewers on a 20-percent slope or greater shall be anchored securely with concrete anchors or their equal. Suggested minimum anchorage spacing is as follows: ? Not over 36 feet center-to-center on grades of 20 percent and up to 35 percent. ? Not over 24 feet center-to-center on grades of 35 percent and up to 50 percent. ? Not over 16 feet center-to-center on grades of 50 percent and more. C1-4.5 Alignment Generally, gravity sewers shall be designed with straight alignment between manholes. However, curved sewers may be approved where circumstances warrant. C1-4.6 Increasing Size Where a smaller sewer joins a larger one, the invert of the larger sewer should be lowered sufficiently to maintain the same energy gradient. A method for approximating these results is to place the 0.8 depth point of both sewers at the same elevation. Pipeline sizes should only be increased at manholes. C1-4.7 High-Velocity Protection Where velocities greater than 15 fps are expected, special provision shall be made to protect against internal erosion or displacement by shock. C1-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C1-4.8 Material Any generally accepted material for sewers, such as polyethylene, ductile iron, PVC, or concrete, will be given consideration, but the material selected should be adapted to local conditions, such as characteristics of industrial wastes, possibility of septicity, soil characteristics, exceptionally heavy external loadings, abrasion, and similar problems. Material and installation specifications shall contain appropriate requirements established by the industry in its technical publications, such as ASTM, AWWA, WEF, and APWA standards. Requirements shall be set forth in the specifications for the pipe and methods of bedding and backfilling so as not to damage the pipe or its joints, impede cleaning operations and future tapping, create excessive side fill pressure or undulation of the pipe, or seriously impair flow capacity. All sewers shall be designed to prevent damage from superimposed loads. Proper allowance for loads on the sewer because of the width and depth of a trench should be made. When standard-strength sewer pipe is not sufficient, the additional strength needed may be obtained by using extra-strength pipe or by special construction, such as improving bedding conditions or encasing the pipe in concrete. C1-4.9 Joints The method of making joints and the materials used shall be included in the specifications. Joint specifications shall meet the requirements that have been established by appropriate technical organizations such as ASTM, AWWA, WEF, and APWA. C1-4.10 Flushing Complete sewer main flushing between each manhole section should be considered before other testing is accomplished. Provisions should be made to ensure debris does not penetrate beyond each manhole. Flap gates are desirable in manholes at the upstream end of laterals which are at minimum grades and not to be extended at an early date. C1-5 Testing C1-5.1 Leakage Testing Leakage tests shall be required for all elements of the sewer system. Either air or water testing can be specified. The minimum standard for testing shall be as set forth in the most recent edition of the WSDOT’s and/or APWA’s “Standard Specifications for Municipal Public Works Construction.” The inspecting engineer shall certify the integrity of the system. One or more of the following test mechanisms (in C1-5.2, C1-5.3, and C1-5.4) may be specified by the local permitting authority in its sewer system approval process. C1-5.2 Television Inspection The use of a television camera for a recorded inspection prior to placing the sewer in service is recommended. Spot reinspection of 50 percent of the pipe after 10 months of service is also recommended. Sewers December 1998 C1-11 C1-5.3 Mandrel Testing Sanitary sewers constructed of flexible pipe should also be tested for deflection not less than 30 days after the trench backfill and compaction has been completed. The test shall be conducted by pulling a properly sized “go/no-go” mandrel through the completed pipeline. Testing shall be conducted on a manhole-to-manhole basis and shall be done after the line has been completely flushed out with water. C1-5.4 Pressure Line Testing All pipelines and appurtenances subject to hydraulic pressure shall be tested in sections of convenient length under a hydrostatic pressure equal to 150 psi in excess of that under which they will operate; in no case shall the test pressure be less than 200 psi. HDPE 3408 pipe shall conform with AWWA standards, which state the test pressure shall be 1.5 times the system working pressure. Any leaks discovered in accordance with the WSDOT or AWWA method of testing water mains shall be eliminated. C1-6 Manholes Design and Construction Details C1-6.1 Location Manholes shall be installed at the end of each line with 8-inch diameter or greater unless the 8-inch line is not expected to be extended in the foreseeable future, in which case a cleanout can be installed at the end of the line. Manholes shall also be installed at all changes in grade, size of pipe, or pipe alignment. Manholes shall be installed at all intersections and at distances not greater than 400 feet for sewers 15 inches in diameter or less, and 500 feet for sewers with diameters of 18 inches to 30 inches. Greater distances may be acceptable in cases where adequate cleaning equipment is provided. Greater spacing may be permitted in larger sewers and in those carrying a settled effluent. Cleanouts may be used instead of manholes at the end of lines 6 inches or 8 inches in diameter and not more than 150 feet long. C1-6.2 Connections The ends of all pipes shall be trimmed flush with the inside walls of the manhole. Flexible pipes connecting to sanitary sewer manholes shall be provided with an entry coupling or gasket. No pipe joint in flexible pipe shall be placed within 10 feet of the manhole. Rigid pipes connected to the sanitary sewer manhole shall be provided with a flexible joint at a distance from the face of the manhole of not more than 1.5 times the nominal pipe diameter or 18 inches, whichever is greater. For precast concrete manholes, the cut through the manhole wall and steel mesh shall be such that the cut is flush with the face of the concrete. Also, it shall be cut so that it will not loosen the reinforcement in the manhole wall. All openings cut through the wall shall be grouted and watertight. An outside drop connection should be provided for a sewer entering a manhole at an elevation of 24 inches or more above the manhole invert. The drop connection pipe diameter and fitting shall be equal to or greater than the diameter of the sewer line it serves. If an inside drop connection is used, interior clearances must be maintained at the standards set forth for minimum inner diameters of the manhole. C1-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C1-6.3 Diameter The minimum inner diameter of manholes shall be 48 inches. For incoming pipe larger than 24 inches in diameter, the manhole diameter should be 54 inches or greater. Manholes are mandatory when connecting significant industries to the system and should be of adequate size to provide for monitoring and sampling equipment. C1-6.4 Flow Channels Flow channels in manholes shall be shaped and sloped to provide a smooth transition between the inlet and outlet sewer lines and minimize turbulence. The channels and manholes shall conform accurately to the sewer grade. Channeling height shall be to the springline of the sewer or above. Benches shall be sloped from the manhole wall toward the channel to prevent accumulation of solids. C1-6.5 Watertightness Watertight manhole covers shall be used wherever the manhole tops may be flooded. Joints between precast manhole units shall have rubber gaskets or be provided with a positive self-sealing mastic. Care should be exercised during the handling of the precast units to avoid disturbing or damaging the gasket and to attain proper alignment of the joints. C1-6.6 Ventilation Ventilation of gravity sewer systems should be considered in systems with continuous watertight sections greater than 1,000 feet in length. C1-6.7 Frames, Covers, and Steps Frames and covers shall be cast or ductile iron or other suitable material for specialized site conditions. All covers located in an easement or constructed of aluminum material should be the locking type. Manhole steps shall be constructed to meet all requirements of ASTM C-478, be rated for a minimum 300-foot-pound concentrated load, and meet the latest OSHA requirements. Co-polymer polypropylene steel-reinforced steps are recommended, with the steel core specified as a minimum half-inch-steel bar fully enclosed in the co-polymer polypropylene. C1-6.8 Liners Corrosion resistant coatings should be considered for adverse environmental conditions. Structural linings should be considered for manhole rehabilitation and for reduction of I/I. C1-6.9 Manhole Testing Manholes should be tested for leakage by measurement of exfiltration or infiltration for a period of not less than three hours. Manholes shall be filled to the rim at the start of the test. No visible leakage will be permitted. The vacuum method may be used to test watertightness of a manhole in lieu of the water method. Manholes shall not be tested until after final assembly and backfilling is completed. Final assembly shall include paving and adjustment to grade. Sewers December 1998 C1-13 The contractor shall plug all openings in the sides of the manhole and all pipes entering the manhole, taking care to securely brace the plugs from being drawn into the manhole. Openings shall be plugged with a nonshrinking grout acceptable to the engineer. The test head shall be placed at the inside of the top of the manhole rim or casting and the seal inflated in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. A vacuum of 10 inches of mercury shall be drawn and the vacuum pump shut off. With the valves closed, the time shall be measured for the vacuum to drop to 9 inches. Use WSDOT Standard Specifications or ASTM-C1244 for testing criteria. C1-7 Assessment of Structural Condition and Infiltration/Inflow C1-7.1 General Considerable public investment was required to construct existing sewage collection systems, and even greater expense is incurred to replace systems if deterioration to failure is allowed. Appropriate preventive maintenance, beyond routine cleaning, is essential to maximize collection-system life. Although restoring or preserving structural integrity of a system is often the primary goal of preventive maintenance, particularly in older systems, I/I reduction can be an equally important goal if frequent sanitary sewer overflows, basement backups, surcharged manholes, or other capacity-related problems exist. I/I is often considered a symptom of deteriorated collection systems, but once defects allow I/I to occur, I/I may actually cause further deterioration as bedding and backfill materials are eroded into a leaky system, eventually resulting in collapse. Since preventive maintenance typically cannot be done on an entire system in a short time period due to budget constraints, work should be prioritized to address the most critical portions of the system first. Critical portions of a system include those where failure is most likely and where the consequence of that failure is highest, as well as those that contribute the most I/I. A first step in prioritizing preventive maintenance should be to assemble pertinent background information on the system, such as accurate sewer maps and data on pipe age, material, size, depth, surface cover (such as major arterial street, gravel alley, under buildings, etc.), and maintenance history. Consideration should be given to using a computerized collection system inventory program in combination with a geographic information system (GIS). C1-7.2 Inspection Methods Once the initial prioritization based on the criteria discussed in C1-7.1 has been completed, the following methods may be used to obtain detailed site-specific information to prioritize actual corrective measures as described in C1-8. C1-7.2.1 TV Inspection TV inspection identifies certain types of collection system defects. These include longitudinal and circumferential cracks, sags, offset joints, broken or deformed pipe, defective connections, and root intrusion. I/I can also be C1-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design observed if the TV inspection is performed during a severe rainfall event or if the ground water level is above the sewer because I/I can vary greatly with antecedent rainfall and ground water elevation. Factors to consider when planning a TV inspection project are listed in Table C1-2. Table C1-2. Factors to Consider When Planning a TV Inspection Project Factor Comment Sewer cleaning Using equipment such as high-velocity jets, hydraulically propelled movable dams, and/or mechanically powered rods or buckets, the sewer to be inspected should be cleaned of sediment, debris, grease, and roots to successfully accomplish the inspection. The equipment selected should be compatible with the material and condition of the line to be cleaned. Sewer flow control Using methods such as bypass pumping, temporary plugging, or working during low-flow times, flow in the sewer to be inspected should be sufficiently reduced to successfully accomplish the inspection. In general, reducing depth of flow to 20 percent of the pipe diameter is recommended. Camera system Camera systems should be specifically designed and constructed for sewer inspection with sufficient lighting to provide a clear picture of the pipe. The camera should be moved through the line at no more than 30 feet per minute, with appropriate pauses to document any defects or unusual conditions observed. Linear measurement of the distances from the beginning of an inspection run to various defects should be accurate to within 1 percent. Consideration should be given to requiring pan-and-tilt capabilities to allow defects and service lateral connections to be more clearly viewed. As the equipment becomes available, TV inspection of service laterals from the mainline will assist in determining which laterals are “live” and in how best to reconnect these laterals during any subsequent mainline rehabilitation efforts. Documentation Records of the TV inspection should include videotapes and printed reports and may include photographs for particularly noteworthy conditions. All records should clearly identify the location of the line, the date and time of the inspection, the direction of camera travel (upstream or downstream), the size, depth, and material of the pipe, and the surface cover. Records should document locations of service lateral connections and any defects or unusual conditions in the pipe. Computer coding this data for entry into a collection system inventory program may be desirable. C1-7.2.2 Manhole Inspection Manhole inspection can provide important information about the following: ? Debris. Buildup of debris can indicate potential upstream defects which allow backfill and bedding materials to enter the line. ? Flow conditions. Evidence of poor hydraulic conditions, high flows, and manhole surcharging are typical examples of conditions that may be observed. ? Corrosive atmosphere. Evidence such as hydrogen sulfide odors or exposed aggregate in the manhole can indicate corrosion potential not only for the manhole but also for any concrete pipe in the vicinity. ? Grease buildup. Grease buildup in manholes can indicate a problem with grease interceptors or traps on upstream connections that may also be affecting the sewer mains. ? I/I. Manhole inspection is often done in conjunction with a smoke testing or dye testing effort. Manholes can be the source of significant I/I through the pick holes in the cover, around the frame, through joints or cracks in the manhole or base, and through the annular space of connecting lines. High I/I through the frame and cover can result Sewers December 1998 C1-15 from manholes located in gutters, in roadways with inadequate storm drainage, near surface water subject to flooding, or in any low spot; the potential for these problems can be estimated regardless of the time of year. On the contrary, infiltration through subsurface defects may only be apparent during winter rain events and/or high ground water levels; in some cases, staining from past infiltration may be evident. C1-7.2.3 Smoke Testing Smoke testing is the process of blowing a nontoxic smoke made from mineral oil at low pressure into the sewer system to identify inflow sources such as cross connections, catch basins, area drains, roof drains, etc. Smoke testing can be done relatively quickly and inexpensively and the correction of inflow sources is typically the most cost-effective I/I reduction measure available. For these reasons, smoke testing is often one of the first steps in an I/I reduction program. Issues to consider when planning a smoke testing inspection effort include the following: ? Notification. To avoid confusion and panic, advance notification of all occupants of buildings adjacent to the area to be tested, as well as the local fire department, is essential. Smoke will come out of plumbing vents on roofs of buildings, will actually enter buildings with plumbing defects such as floor drains without traps or with dry traps or broken vent pipes, and will come out of cracks in streets or holes in yards. Some residents may wish to be present at the time the test is performed if they suspect they have faulty vents or traps in their plumbing. In some cases, persons with serious medical conditions may want to be away from home at the time the test is done in case smoke enters their building. ? Equipment. Blowers to deliver the smoke should have a minimum capacity of 1,650 to 8,000 cfm. The smoke is generated from liquid mineral oil fed slowly into the exhaust system of the blower where it is vaporized. Mineral oil can be purchased in aerosol cans if only a small-scale testing program is planned. If testing is to be done continuously over a period of months, mineral oil can be purchased in bulk much more economically. If purchased in bulk, various delivery systems are possible. One example of a successful system is the use of a 2-gallon pressurized tank (typically sold for residential application of weed killers) with a valve installed on the discharge tubing to supply a slow feed of oil into the exhaust system. A rubber-gasketed circular piece of plywood with a hole cut in the center to fit the blower exhaust fits over the open manhole. ? Methodology. For small diameter lines with low flows, single setups are sufficient. For larger lines or higher flows, blower setups may be needed at both upstream and downstream manholes. For large trunk lines, smoke testing may be difficult without a great deal of effort to minimize the vacuum effect of the flowing water to suck the smoke downstream; this may require the use of temporary plugs and/or bypass pumping. An important key to successful smoke testing is to allow the smoke and blower to run long enough so that defects can be identified and documented. If the smoke or blower is turned off too soon, inflow sources at the end of the line may not smoke. Identification of defects in mainlines (smoke evident through cracks in C1-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design streets) or in private service laterals (smoke from holes in yards or around foundations) is more complete if the testing can be done during dry summer months. ? Documentation. Photographs and/or videotapes, including suitable landmarks for reference, should be made for all defects identified. Written logs should be entered into a database to allow future corrective work to be organized. ? Limitations. If during testing a main line or service lateral does not emit smoke through the ground or street, it does not mean the line is not subject to I/I. The reliability of smoke testing has several limitations. First, smoke needs a pathway to get out. Soil (particularly when wet) or pavement can block this pathway, as can water in sags or traps. Second, the vacuum effect of water flowing in a sewer may be stronger than the low pressure applied to the system by the blower(s) and may keep smoke from filling the system being tested. This same problem results if either the smoke or blowers are turned off prematurely. C1-7.2.4 Dye Testing Dye testing with fluorescent dyed water is performed primarily to: ? Confirm connections to sanitary sewers and storm drains of catch basins, roof drains, plumbing fixtures, service laterals, etc.; and ? Identify rainfall-induced infiltration sources by flooding areas over main lines or service laterals and around manholes. Dye testing can be effective in conditions where smoke testing is not. C1-7.2.5 Other Testing Methods Other testing methods include the following: ? Sonar. High resolution scanning sonar may be used to give a color- enhanced image of the surface of the sewer. This method may be appropriate when TV inspection is not possible (due to high flows and prohibitive costs for bypass pumping) and can provide similar information about the internal condition of the pipe and location of connections. ? Radar. Radar pulses emitted from aboveground or within the pipe are reflected and interpreted by specialists with this equipment to identify pipe locations and condition as well as to provide information on soil strata and possible voids around sewers. ? Thermography. Infrared radiation scanning can be performed from aboveground or within the sewer by specialists with this equipment to identify potential voids surrounding the pipe. C1-7.3 Flow Monitoring and Modeling C1-7.3.1 Flow Monitoring Flow monitoring can be a valuable tool in assessing the amount of I/I in a collection system. This information can be used to help determine which sub- Sewers December 1998 C1-17 basins in a collection system allow the most I/I. This allows I/I to be one of the factors considered in prioritizing future rehabilitation/replacement work. Flow data is typically evaluated for wet and dry days (i.e., with and without rainfall-induced I/I) during wet and dry seasons (i.e., during high and low ground water conditions). Along with rainfall and metered winter water usage records, this allows estimation of the quantities of sewage, base I/I (year- round, full-time I/I), wet season infiltration, and wet season rainfall-induced I/I. Baseline monitoring information followed by sewer system rehabilitation/replacement work, followed by additional monitoring can, if done properly, provide valuable information about the effectiveness of I/I reduction efforts. However, evaluations such as this can lead to erroneous conclusions if care is not taken to ensure that comparisons are based on similar rainfall (including antecedent rainfall for days, weeks, and months in advance of a given date) and ground water conditions. Another limitation to this approach is that measured flow reduction during moderate storms may not scale up to the same percent reduction at higher storms. For this reason, longer term monitoring is more beneficial to ensure severe storms are evaluated both before and after sewer system work. See G2-4.2 for additional information on collection system flow measurement. C1-7.3.2 Flow Modeling Use of flow modeling computer software tools can be helpful in predicting sewer system response to a variety of conditions and scenarios. Models are typically used to predict a systemwide response to rainfall events and future population growth patterns. Models can also be used to evaluate a localized response to new flows from potential high-flow sources (such as certain high- water-use industries, adjoining jurisdictions, or large developments). Development of a reliable, well-calibrated model requires good as-built plans and sewer maps, long-term flow monitoring data, and engineering services. Careful consideration should be given to the benefits that can be realistically expected relative to the costs. C1-8 Sewer System Rehabilitation/Replacement Techniques The objectives of sewer system rehabilitation/replacement are principally to preserve structural integrity and reduce I/I. There are a number of products available from a variety of manufacturers and contractors to help meet these objectives. Sewer system owners should take care to verify that a certain class of product is suited for its proposed application and that a specific product and its installer meet appropriate standards, including successful performance history. The purpose of this section is to highlight the advantages, disadvantages, and other issues for the various classes of sewer rehabilitation/replacement products. C1-8.1 Sewer Mains The rehabilitation/replacement techniques for sewer mains are discussed in Table C1-3. C1-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Table C1-3. Rehabilitation/Replacement Techniques for Sewer Mains Technique Advantages Disadvantages Issues Sliplining Sliplining is the insertion of a new pipe, either continuous (typically butt-fused HDPE) or segmented (typically PVC, ductile iron, or HDPE), of smaller diameter into an existing host pipe. ? Economical. ? Strong. ? Bypass pumping of sewage may not be needed (for segmented slipliner pipe). ? Hydraulic capacity reduced. ? Entry pits usually required. ? Service lateral connections must be excavated. ? Flotation of liner must be prevented during grouting of annular space. ? Condition of existing pipe may limit length of slipliner runs between pits, diameter of slipliner pipe, and/or lengths of segmented pipe pieces. Cured-In-Place Pipe (CIPP) The CIPP lining process consists of inverting a resin- impregnated flexible tube into an existing line using hydrostatic head or air pressure. The resin is cured using heat. ? No access pits. ? Service laterals can be internally reopened. ? Minimal annular space. ? Suitable for various cross-sectional shapes. ? Strength can be selected as a function of liner thickness and resin formula. ? Manholes can be rehabilitated rather than replaced. ? Bypass pumping of sewage required. ? Limited local competition. ? Liner wet-out with resin must be ensured. ? Resin pot life must not be exceeded. ? Proper curing temperatures and times must be maintained. ? I/I must be controlled during installation. ? Expertise and performance of manufacturer and installer must be ensured. Fold-and-Form Lining The fold-and-form process involves inserting a heated PVC or HDPE thermoplastic liner, folded or deformed into a U-shape, into an existing sewer and rerounding the liner using heat and pressure. ? No access pits. ? Service laterals can be internally reopened. ? Manholes can be rehabilitated rather than replaced. ? Annular space allows migration of I/I unless service lateral connections are sealed. ? Bypass pumping of sewage required. ? Limited local competition. ? Liner contraction during cooling induces stresses; consider use of materials with lower co-efficients of thermal expansion/contraction and minimize installation tension. ? I/I must be controlled during installation. ? Expertise and performance of manufacturer and installer must be ensured. Pipe Bursting Pipe bursting is a trenchless replacement technology. Through pipe bursting, the existing pipeline is fragmented and forced into the surrounding soil by pulling a bursting head through the line. A new pipe (typically butt-fused HDPE) of equal or larger diameter is pulled behind the bursting head. New manholes are usually provided at insertion and withdrawal pits. ? Creates a new, strong pipeline, not just rehabilitation of existing pipes. ? Capacity can be increased. ? Preparation of existing line is not critical. ? Entry pits are required. ? Service lateral connections must be excavated. ? Bypass pumping of sewage required. ? Manholes must usually be replaced. ? Condition and location of adjacent buried utilities and foundations as well as surface improvements should be considered. ? Dense or rocky soil may limit suitability of this method. Sewers December 1998 C1-19 Technique Advantages Disadvantages Issues Point Repairs Point repairs can structurally rehabilitate and eliminate infiltration in short sections of lines by such methods as short CIPP liners, epoxy resins, and structural grouting sleeves. Defects such as protruding laterals can be repaired by robotic grinding. Point repairs may be needed to properly prepare the line for some of the manhole-to- manhole rehabilitation/replacement options described in the techniques listed above. ? Economical. ? Repairs only what is needed. ? May not be appropriate for old lines if many more repairs may be needed in near future. ? Goals of project must be considered, along with cost estimates, to ensure manhole-to-manhole rehabilitation and replacement is not warranted. C1-8.2 Side Sewer Repairs Side sewers (also referred to as private service laterals) are sewer lines that connect building drains on private property to the public sewer main in the public right-of-way or easements. Research studies by EPA and others indicate that a significant percentage of systemwide I/I is caused by private property sources. These include sump pumps, foundation drains, roof drains, and defects in service laterals. Service lateral defects include cracked, broken, or open-jointed laterals. In addition, infiltration frequently occurs at a leaky connection of the lateral to the sewer main. Repair of service lateral defects can be accomplished using many of the same methods listed above for sewer mains. Currently, chemical grouting, CIPP lining, and pipe bursting, in addition to open-cut excavation and replacement, are most widely used. Removal of other private property I/I sources requires an effective public awareness and disconnection program. In cases where sewage backups have occurred through service laterals and into buildings, installation of backwater valves provides an immediate solution until the longer term sewer system rehabilitation/replacement program shows results. Backwater valves are typically installed beneath basement floor slabs on that portion of the building drain serving the basement only. This allows plumbing fixtures on the main floor and above to drain even during times when the sewer main is surcharged. C1-8.3 Manhole Rehabilitation Manhole rehabilitation can be performed to correct structural deficiencies, address maintenance concerns, and/or eliminate I/I. Some of the manhole rehabilitation options include lining, sealing, grouting, or replacing various components or the entire manhole. The rehabilitation method selected depends on whether inflow or infiltration, or both, is to be eliminated and whether structural integrity is an issue. Inflow typically occurs through holes in the manhole cover or around the manhole frame and cover. Manhole covers can be sealed by replacing them entirely with new watertight C1-20 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design covers, or by sealing existing covers with rubber-covered gaskets, rubber vents, and pick- hole plugs, or by installing watertight inserts under the existing manhole covers (inflow protectors). Inflow protectors should contain vacuum and gas release valves. Chemical grouting is commonly used to eliminate infiltration. C1-9 Special Requirements C1-9.1 Required Separation Between Water Lines and Sanitary Sewers The basic separation requirements apply to all gravity and pressure sewers of 24-inch diameter or less; larger sewers may create special hazards because of flow volumes and joint types, and accordingly require additional separation requirements. The special construction requirements given are for the normal conditions found with sewage and water systems. More stringent requirements may also be necessary in areas of high ground water, unstable soil conditions, and so on. Any site conditions not conforming to conditions described in this section will require assessment and approval of the appropriate state and local agencies. C1-9.1.1 Horizontal and Vertical Separation (Parallel) A minimum horizontal separation of 10 feet between sanitary sewers and any existing potable water lines, and a minimum vertical separation of 18 inches between the bottom of the water line and the crown of the sewer, shall be maintained. The distance shall be measured edge to edge. See Figure C1-2. C1-9.1.2 Unusual Conditions (Parallel) When local conditions prevent the separations described above, a sewer may be laid closer than 10 feet horizontally or 18 inches vertically to a water line, provided: ? It is laid in a separate trench from the water line. ? The elevation of the crown of the sewer line must be at least 18 inches below the bottom of the water line. When this vertical separation cannot be obtained, the sewer shall be constructed of materials and joints that are equivalent to water main standards of construction and shall be pressure tested to ensure watertightness (see C2-3.6) prior to backfilling. Adequate restraint should be provided to allow testing to occur. ? If sewers must be located in the same trench as a potable water line, special construction and mitigation is required. Both water lines and sewer lines shall be constructed with a casing pipe of pressure-rated pipe material designed to withstand a minimum static pressure of 150 psi. The water line shall be placed on a bench of undisturbed earth with the bottom of the water pipe at least 18 inches above the crown of the sewer, and shall have at least 5 feet of horizontal separation at all times. Additional mitigation efforts, such as impermeable barriers, may be required by the appropriate state and local agencies. See Figure C1-3. Sewers December 1998 C1-21 10 feet, minimum 18 inches, minimum Symmetrical about center line of water main C L Water line Sanitary sewer pipe Figure C1-2. Required Separation Between Water Lines and Sanitary Sewers, Parallel Construction 5 feet, minimum 18 inches, minimum Symmetrical about center line of water main C L Water line Sanitary sewer pipe Undisturbed earth Figure C1-3. Required Separation Between Water Lines and Sanitary Sewers, Unusual Conditions Parallel Construction C1-22 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C1-9.1.3 Vertical Separation (Perpendicular) Sewer lines crossing water lines shall be laid below the water lines to provide a separation of at least 18 inches between the invert of the water line and the crown of the sewer. C1-9.1.4 Unusual Conditions (Perpendicular) When local conditions prevent a vertical separation as described above, construction shall be used as follows: A. Gravity Sewers Passing Over or Under Water Lines These gravity sewers shall be: ? Constructed of material described in Table C1-4. The one segment of the maximum standard length of pipe (but not less than 18 feet long) shall be used with the pipes centered to maximize joint separation. ? Standard gravity-sewer material encased in concrete or in a one- quarter-inch thick continuous steel, ductile iron, or pressure rated PVC pipe with a dimension ratio (DR) (the ratio of the outside diameter to the pipe wall thickness)of 18 or less, with all voids pressure-grouted with sand-cement grout or bentonite. Commercially available pipe skids and end seals are acceptable. When using steel or ductile iron casing, design consideration for corrosion protection should be considered. ? The length of sewer pipe shall be centered at the point of crossing so that the joints will be equidistant and as far as possible from the water line. The sewer pipe shall be the longest standard length available from the manufacturer. Table C1-4. Water Main Standard Pipe Material AWWA (ASTM) Standard Type of Pipe Pipe Joint Fittings Ductile Iron C 151 and C 104 C 111 C 110 Asbestos-Cement C400 (Type II) Class 200 (D 1869) C 110 Polyvinyl-Chloride C 900* (D 3139 and F 477) C 110 Concrete Cylinder C 303 HDPE 3408 C906 Fused per C 906 C 906 * Pipe spec C900 for pipe up to about 12 inches in diameter; C905 for pipe more than 12 inches in diameter. B. Water Lines Passing Under Gravity Sewers Water lines shall be protected by providing: ? A vertical separation of at least 18 inches between the invert of the sewer and the crown of the water line. ? Adequate structural support for the sewers to prevent excessive deflection of joints and settling on and breaking of the water lines. Sewers December 1998 C1-23 ? The length of sewer pipe shall be centered at the point of crossing so that the joints will be equidistant and as far as possible from the water line. The sewer pipe shall be the longest standard length available from the manufacturer. ? A water line casing equivalent to that specified in C1-9.1.4A. C. Pressure Sewers Under Water Lines These pressure sewers shall only be constructed under water lines with ductile iron pipe or standard sewer pipe in a casing equivalent to that specified above in C1-9.1.4A for a distance of at least 10 feet on each side of the crossing. C1-9.2 Pumpout Facilities at Marinas Pumpout facilities and shoreside facilities for disposal of sanitary wastes from boats shall be installed at marinas at the time of initial construction or expansion of facilities, when the marina is of sufficient size and design to serve boats 17 feet or larger in overall length. The facilities shall be designed according to “Design Criteria For Pumpout Facilities at New or Expanded Marinas,” which is the criteria established by the Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission in its document, “Financial Assistance Application for Clean Vessel Funding Program.” The requirement for construction of sewage pumpout facilities shall be specified in the Water Quality Certification for the Corps of Engineers Section 10 permit. Each marina shall prominently display signs stating that it is illegal to discharge untreated sanitary wastes into US waters and directing boaters to the pumpout facilities. C1-9.3 Stream Crossing The pipe and joints shall be tested in place, exhibit zero infiltration, and be designed, constructed, and protected against anticipated hydraulic and physical, longitudinal, vertical, and horizontal loads, erosion, and impact. Sewers laid on piers across ravines or streams shall be allowed only when it can be demonstrated that no other practical alternative exists. Such sewers on piers shall be constructed in accordance with the requirements for sewers entering or crossing under streams. Construction methods and materials of construction shall be such that sewers will remain watertight and free from change in alignment or grade. A minimum cover of 5 feet for stabilized channels and 7 feet for shifting channels should be provided. Permits from other agencies or departments are required for work in or adjacent to waterways, and are described in Chapter G1. C1-9.4 Inverted Siphons Inverted siphons shall have not less than two barrels, with a minimum pipe size of 6 inches, and shall be provided with necessary appurtenances for convenient flushing and maintenance. The manholes shall be designed to facilitate cleaning and, in general, sufficient head shall be provided and pipe sizes selected to secure velocities of at least 3 fps for average flows. A rock catcher and coarse screen should be provided to prevent plugging of the siphons. The inlet and outlet details shall be arranged so that normal flow C1-24 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design is diverted to one barrel and so that either barrel may be removed from service for cleaning or other maintenance. C1-9.5 Required Separation From Water Supply Wells Sewer lines shall be placed no closer than 100 feet to any public water supply well. When constructing sewer lines in the vicinity of any water supply, contact the local Health Department for local requirements, including the use of alternative construction materials. C1-9.6 Odor Control Odor problems are typically related to the presence of hydrogen sulfide. Therefore, the alternatives for control of odor are usually aimed at preventing sulfide generation or at removing sulfides through chemical or biological action. Regular inspection and cleaning of existing collection systems can reduce sulfide buildup, significantly minimizing odor problems. Sealing manhole lids and their openings can be used as a temporary solution for reducing odor complaints. Slope is the key criterion in designing a new wastewater collection system to avoid sulfide problems. Sewers designed with long runs at minimum slope are prone to sulfide generation due to long residence times, poor oxygen transfer, and deposition of solids. Sulfide generation can be a problem in new sewers where actual flows are much less than design flows during the early lifetime of the system, and velocities are inadequate to maintain solids in suspension. Current conventional design practice recommends that a minimum velocity of 2 fps be achieved regardless of pipe size to maintain a self-cleaning action in sewers. It should be noted that this is a minimum velocity and that it is desirable to have a velocity of 3 fps or more whenever practical. If sulfide generation is anticipated to be a problem, larger pipe sizes may be selected to improve the rate of reaeration. However, adequate scouring velocities must still be maintained if larger pipe is used. The use of drops and falls in manholes can be used as a method of adding substantial amounts of oxygen to the wastewater. However, drops or falls are not recommended when appreciable amounts of dissolved sulfide are present, as the turbulence will release sulfide from the stream, generating odors and potentially deteriorating the structure. Sewer line junctions and transitions at manholes require special consideration because they offer an opportunity for both solids deposition and the release of dissolved sulfide. For aerobic wastewater, the major goal of junction design is to provide smooth transitions with minimum turbulence between incoming and outgoing lines in order to prevent eddy currents or low velocity points that will permit deposition of solids. See G2-5 for additional information on odor prevention and treatment C1-9.7 Corrosion Control Hydrogen sulfide may result in severe corrosion of unprotected sewer pipes made from cementious materials and metals. The corrosion occurs when sulfuric acid is derived through the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide by bacterial action on the exposed sewer pipe wall. Various pipe materials exhibit resistance to corrosive attack from sulfuric acid but other forms of chemical corrosion should also be considered. Certain concentrated organic solvents can soften the polymeric materials in plastic pipes and in plastic joints Sewers December 1998 C1-25 on nonplastic pipe, but this type of damage is rare. Galvanic action is the cause of most corrosion in buried iron and steel pipe. Where corrosion problems are the result of hydrogen sulfide action, similar actions to those taken to control odor will also have the beneficial effect of reducing corrosion. Various linings and coatings are available to protect concrete, ductile iron, steel, and ABS composite pipes. External polyethylene film encasements are often used on metal pipes to impede external corrosion from galvanic action. Manholes can also be protected from corrosion by the use of lining systems. C1-9.8 Trenchless Technologies Trenchless techniques for new construction include: microtunnelling, auguring or boring, pipe jacking, and other mining-type operations. Costs, topography, or other issues that may preclude traditional open-cut-and-excavation methods will most often direct the use of these techniques. See C1-8 for descriptions of techniques involving trenchless technologies applicable to sewer system rehabilitation or replacement. Some of these techniques may also be applicable for new construction. C1-9.9 Pipe Casing Often when a sanitary sewer is installed by boring methods, a casing pipe is inserted and the sanitary sewer pipe is placed inside. When installing pipe in a casing, the pipe must be uniformly supported. Generally, the annular space between the pipe and the casing is filled with grout or controlled density fill. C1-10 Alternative Systems Alternative systems are systems which may be used as alternatives to gravity sewers when special conditions warrant the usage of these nonstandard systems. Alternative systems for conveyance of wastewater to a centralized location or wastewater treatment facility include grinder pump (GP), septic tank effluent pump (STEP), small diameter gravity (SDG), and vacuum systems. Grinder pump systems use a macerating type pump to convey sewage through small diameter pipelines to a centralized location. Grinder pumps are also commonly used in conjunction with gravity systems where a particular structure is located below the invert of a gravity collection pipe or there is insufficient vertical drop between the structure and the gravity pipe. Septic tank effluent pump systems use an effluent-type pump to convey the relatively clear liquid from the center of a vessel (STEP tank) that is similar in nature to a septic tank. A STEP system is similar to a grinder system in that it conveys liquid to a common location through small diameter pipelines. The major difference is that much of the solids remain in the STEP tank and have to be removed periodically (similar to pumping a septic tank) and that the liquid conveyed in a STEP system is septic. SDG systems, sometimes referred to as septic tank effluent filter (STEF) systems or septic tank effluent gravity systems, use gravity to convey liquid to a common location. A SDG system conveys the relatively clear liquid from the center of a vessel, similar to a septic tank. The liquid is conveyed by gravity through a system of small diameter pipelines that are designed and sized to ensure that the hydraulic gradeline is below the liquid level of the SDG tanks during peak flow. C1-26 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Similar to a STEP system, much of the solids remain in the tank or vessel and are periodically removed. It is common to combine STEP and SDG on a single system with the SDG units above the hydraulic gradeline and the STEP units in areas that are below the peak hydraulic gradeline. C1-10.1 Grinder Pump, Septic Tank Effluent Pump, and Septic Tank Effluent Filter/Small Diameter Gravity Systems C1-10.1.1 Application The designer may consider alternative collection methods for a variety of different applications. An alternative method of conveyance can be used in any application but is usually selected due to the circumstances surrounding the installation. Examples of such circumstances are as follows: ? Difficult construction conditions, such as high ground water, subsurface rock removal, large amounts of street reconstruction to implement the system, undulating terrain requiring multiple pump stations for a gravity collection system, and difficult topography requiring the structures to pump to the collection line. ? Low- to moderate-density structures along the collection system route or high-density structures separated from the remainder of the collection system by long distances. ? Limited treatment plant capacity requiring I/I to be kept to a minimum. ? Low system costs for certain installations. C1-10.1.2 Design Considerations Design of a septic tank effluent pump (STEP), septic tank effluent filter/small diameter gravity (STEF/SDG), or grinder pump (GP) system shall, at a minimum, incorporate the system design considerations such as determining the peak-hydraulic gradeline, matching the peak-hydraulic gradeline to the individual pump curve or elevation of the SDG units, sizing the holding vessel based on estimated or actual wastewater flows, and designing system appurtenances required to provide a reliable municipal system. A. Peak Design Flows The minimum peak flow used in the pipeline design for alternative systems shall be equal to or greater than the following: Q = 15 + .5D or Q = 15 + .15P Where: Q = Design peak flow, gpm D = Number of equivalent dwellings P = Population Peak flow is defined as an event that lasts about 15 minutes. If a dead-end reach of pipe has single or minimal users with high individual flows, the designer shall use the estimated discharge from two vessels or the combined discharge from two pumps as the minimum design flow. Sewers December 1998 C1-27 B. Infiltration and Inflow Considerations Alternative forms of collection are not meant to receive high amounts of I/I from ground water or surface water. The designer shall incorporate methods and materials in the design to eliminate sources of I/I from the system. C1-10.1.3 Hydraulic Gradeline/Pipeline Sizing Pipelines for STEP, SDG, and GP systems shall be sized to keep the peak hydraulic gradeline below the critical operating elevations of the individual system. The hydraulic gradeline shall be computed using common engineering fluid mechanics calculations using the Hazen Williams or Manning equation with an appropriate roughness co-efficient. If downhill pumping cannot be avoided, the downhill pipeline shall be sized for two-phase flows (water and air). The pipeline shall be sized to allow air to transfer to properly located and sized air release assemblies. A. SDG Hydraulic Gradeline The maximum hydraulic gradeline based on peak flow (C1-10.1.2) shall be below the outlet of the SDG/STEF tank minus 2 percent fall along the service line between the tank and the collection main. The service line will include, at a minimum, a check valve to prevent surcharge of the vessel from the collection line. B. STEP/GP Hydraulic Gradeline The maximum hydraulic gradeline of the mainline, service line, and minor friction losses based on peak flow (C1-10.1.2) shall be no greater than the installed elevation of a STEP/GP pump plus 85 percent of the total available head of the pump. The designer shall also consult the manufacturer of the pump equipment to be used to determine if the individual pump criteria allows continued use at that position on the head curve. The designer shall use whichever criteria are more stringent. The service line will include a minimum of two check valves to prevent surcharge of the vessel from the collection line. C1-10.1.4 Minimum Velocity Minimum velocities for STEP and/or SDG pipelines are not required. STEP and/or SDG pipelines will be installed with cleanouts (pig ports) at the end of each line and at critical line size changes to necessitate cleaning. Minimum velocities for GP pipelines shall be 2 fps. GP pipelines will be installed with cleanouts (pig ports) at the end of each line and at critical line size changes to necessitate cleaning. C1-10.1.5 Pump Selection STEP/GP Pumps installed on a STEP or GP system shall meet the criteria for the maximum hydraulic gradeline and be able to meet the pumping requirements of the structure where it is installed. The designer shall review the system as a whole and select a type or characteristic of a pump for the entire system that has sufficient head to operate at the maximum hydraulic gradeline (see C1-10.1.3). The designer C1-28 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design may opt to include design zones within the system with different maximum hydraulic gradelines. The pump selected shall also be able to discharge influent peak flow (volume) without exceeding the working volume within the pump holding vessel (see C1-10.1.6). Influent peak flow (volume) will be determined by reviewing the number of fixtures within a structure or by applying a peaking factor to average daily volumes. The designer shall use a minimum of 400 percent of average daily flow for estimating peak influent volumes. C1-10.1.6 Tank/Vessel Type and Sizing Any vessel used for construction of a STEP, SDG, or GP system shall conform to general guidelines, as follows: ? Vessels shall be constructed of a material that does not degrade from corrosion caused by the surrounding soil or the wastewater being held in the vessel. Common materials include reinforced cement concrete, reinforced fiberglass, and polyethylene. ? Vessels shall be designed to withstand the external soil loading based upon the type of soil, lateral loading due to hydrostatic water pressure, and wheel loading. Vessels to be located in a traffic-bearing area shall be designed to withstand HS-20 truck loading with appropriate impact factors. ? All vessel designs will bear the stamp of an engineer licensed in the State of Washington with specific expertise in design of similar vessels certifying that the tanks will meet the loading conditions specified herein. ? The vessel, appurtenances (risers, lids, cleanouts, inspection ports, inlet and outlet piping, etc.), and the connection between the vessel and appurtenances shall be watertight. Each vessel and appurtenances once fully assembled and installed shall be tested for leakage by filling with water or low-pressure air. The test will be witnessed by the agency operating the system or their duly authorized representatives. No vessel will be accepted if there is any noticeable leakage during the testing period. A. Tank Configuration STEP/SDG A vessel (tank) up to 1,500 gallons in size shall be configured in accordance with the intent of the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) SPS 1-87 with the following recommendations: ? A baffle wall or compartment wall is recommended but not required for 1,000- and 1,500-gallon tanks. ? The baffle wall will be constructed with a hole or knockout at the top of the baffle wall for ventilation and multiple holes or knockouts located in the clear zone of the tank (approximately 70 percent of the liquid level of the tank). The holes or knockouts shall be of sufficient size to prevent plugging from raw sewage. Sewers December 1998 C1-29 A vessel (tank) over 1,500 gallons in size shall be configured to allow solids to deposit in the tank. It is recommended that the tanks conform to the following approximate configurations: ? An approximate tank size of 3,000 gallons shall have an equivalent diameter of 6 feet. ? An approximate tank size of 6,000 gallons shall have an equivalent diameter of 8 feet. It is recommended that tank volume over 6,000 gallons be accomplished with tanks in series to facilitate tank pumping. If tanks are placed in series, a baffle wall will not be required. Tanks shall have a baffle wall installed that represents two-thirds volume in the first chamber and one-third volume in the second chamber. It is recommended that the baffle wall shall be constructed as outlined above. Tanks that are over 2,500 gallons total volume shall have three access ports with a minimum diameter of 18 inches, two in the first chamber and one in the second chamber. All tanks will include an inlet tee. The bottom of the tee will be extended to 18 inches below the liquid level. A STEP/SDG tank shall contain detention volume, working volume, and storage volume. B. Detention Volume STEP/SDG The detention volume or liquid volume of a STEP or SDG tank that serves a single-family home or small business shall be a minimum of 950 gallons. Detention volume is defined as the volume of liquid below the “OFF” switch (STEP) or the outlet pipe (SDG). Tanks that serve structures with higher wastewater discharge volumes shall be sized in accordance with the following equation: V = 1.5Q (residential strength waste) V = 2.0Q (nonresidential strength waste) Where: V = Liquid volume Q = Peak day flow for the structure being served The equation provides the minimum liquid volume within the STEP/SDG tank. The tank shall also contain sufficient working volume and storage volume. Liquid volume shall be approximately 65 to 75 percent of the total tank volume. C. Working Volume STEP/GP The working volume shall be greater than the difference between the peak influent flow and the discharge of the STEP or grinder pump over a period of time estimated to be the peak duration. Working volume is defined as the volume between the “ON” and the “OFF” switch. C1-30 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design D. Storage Volume STEP, SDG, and GP vessels (tanks) shall have a minimum of 24 hours of storage within the tank except as allowed (see C1-10.1.6E.2). Tanks without 24 hours of storage shall be installed with a power transfer switch with an emergency generator plug or other device for allowing emergency power connection, or shall have reserve volume provided with a separate vessel. Storage volume is defined as the volume between the “OFF” switch and the top of the tank. E. Power Outages 1. Applicability STEP, SDG, and GP systems installed in areas with a history of prolonged power outages may require additional storage volumes. The designer shall review historical records of the local power purveyor to determine the advisability of adding more storage. 2. Power Transfer Switch/EG Plug Vessels without 24 hours of storage shall be provided a power transfer switch with an emergency generator plug. The number of tanks installed with power transfer switches shall be limited to the number of tanks or vessels that can be serviced by the local agency during a power outage. The agency shall also keep power generators with the proper connection to the generator plug on hand and in good working order. C1-10.2 System Components C1-10.2.1 Pipeline Generally, pipeline material shall be constructed of material that is not readily subject to corrosion by raw or septic wastewater. A. Service Line/Check Valves Each service line between the SDG vessel, STEP, or GP pump and the collection line shall have a gate or ball valve installed at the main. In addition, a minimum of two check valves will be installed on the STEP and GP service lines, and a minimum of one check valve will be installed on the SDG service line. The check valve attached to either the STEP or GP pump counts as one of the check valves. Service lines shall be a minimum of 1 inch in diameter. B. Cleanouts/Pig Ports Cleanouts (pig ports) shall be installed at the ends of all pipelines. Cleanouts will be designed to launch a 2 lb/cu/ft polyfoam pig for scouring the pipelines. A cleanout can accept a pig that is 2 inches larger in diameter than the pipe that it is being inserted (for example, a 4-inch pig can be launched into a 2-inch pipeline). An additional pig port will be installed when the pipeline diameter exceeds the size of pig that can be launched in a cleanout (such as the transition between a 4- and 6-inch- diameter pipeline). Sewers December 1998 C1-31 C. Valves Sufficient mainline valves shall be installed at locations to isolate portions of the system and to ensure continuous operation for maintenance and repair. On straight runs of pipeline, it is recommended that valves be installed every one-quarter mile. D. Air Release Assemblies In conformance with good engineering practices, air release and combination air release assemblies shall be installed in the system. Special attention shall be given to the release of air from STEP/SDG pipelines. Air evacuated in these pipelines shall be stripped of odor using activated carbon, soil filters, or other odor control mechanism. The designer should take extra precaution in reducing or eliminating the amount of air being exhausted by keeping the pipeline full of liquid wherever possible. E. Pipeline Material and Pressure Testing Pipeline material shall be pressure rated equal to working pressure of the system. Material shall be resistant to the corrosive nature of wastewater. Common materials include PVC, polyethylene, stainless steel, and epoxy- coated or lined ductile iron. Pressure testing of service lines shall be completed with the ball valve at the mainline in the closed position. Pressure testing of the mainline shall be completed with the service line ball valves in the open position. Pressure testing shall be in compliance with pressure testing for water mains using either APWA or AWWA standards. F. Discharge to a Gravity Collection System 1. Grinder Pump System Discharge to a gravity system from a GP system can be accomplished by either installing a saddle on the gravity main or at a manhole. Discharge in a manhole shall be accomplished by producing a laminar flow in the manhole channel. Both types of installations assume that the GP system has sufficient internal velocity and that the raw sewage has not turned septic. If the raw sewage within the GP pipeline has turned septic, provisions shall be made to reduce or eliminate the effects of hydrogen sulfide release. 2. Corrosion Control in STEP/SDG Systems Discharge to a gravity system from a STEP or SDG system can be accomplished by either installing a saddle on the gravity main or at a manhole. Discharge in a manhole shall be accomplished by producing a laminar flow in the manhole channel. Laminar flow shall not be accomplished using a drop manhole. Prior to discharge, the STEP/SDG effluent shall be conditioned to reduce or eliminate the effects of hydrogen sulfide release. Conditioning may include aeration or chemical addition. C1-32 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 3. Odor Control Release of air at the discharge point will require odor control, which may include the use of carbon filters, soil filters, or other mechanisms. G. Discharge to a Conventional Force Main A STEP, SDG, or GP system may be connected to a conventional force main. The designer shall review the following issues to ensure that there will not be a negative effect on the existing system: ? Ensure that the hydraulics or performance of either the system being connected or the existing force main pump station are not appreciably altered beyond the design parameters. ? Ensure that the downstream facilities are protected from release of hydrogen sulfide. Protection shall consider, when applicable, impacts to treatment, corrosion, and odor. C1-10.2.2 Pump or SDG Assembly A. Pumps Grinder or effluent pumps installed in a municipal system shall be UL listed for the intended application. Each pump shall be affixed with a UL tag denoting its use and shall have available for review a UL card showing the intended application. B. Pump/Effluent Vault (Screen) STEP/SDG Effluent pumps installed in STEP systems that are not rated to pump solids shall be protected with a screening or filtering mechanism to prevent the impeller from plugging. The screening or filtering mechanism shall be designed to provide sufficient effective screen area to prevent plugging. Solids entering the pump impeller shall be reduced to one-eighth-inch in size. Small diameter gravity tanks will be installed with a screening or filtering mechanism at the discharge of the tank to prevent solids over one-eighth- inch in size from entering the service line and mainline. The screening or filtering mechanism shall be designed to provide sufficient effective screen area to prevent plugging. C. Control Panel/Level Control Each STEP and GP pump assembly shall be equipped with a pump control panel and level-sensing mechanism that is UL listed for the application. The control panel shall include an audio and visual alarm that is activated when a high liquid level occurs within the vessel. The audio alarm will be capable of being silenced until repair or corrections can be made. If the system is owned and operated by a single agency, each panel will be affixed with a permanent placard with the name of the agency operating the system, the phone number of the agency, and instructions for silencing the audio alarm. It is recommended that the control panel audio and visual alarm also be activated by low liquid levels occurring within the vessel. It is recommended that each SDG tank be equipped with an alarm panel and a level-sensing mechanism that is UL listed for the application. The Sewers December 1998 C1-33 alarm panel shall include an audio and visual alarm that is activated when a high liquid level occurs within the vessel. The panel shall have the same alarm and placard features as listed for the STEP and GP control panel. D. Electrical Requirements All electrical components of a STEP, SDG, or GP system shall be in compliance with the latest version of the NEC and latest requirements of the state Labor and Industries Electrical Inspection Division. E. Ventilation Each vessel for a STEP, SDG, or GP system shall either be vented through the structure plumbing or provided with a separate ventilation system. C1-10.3 Vacuum Sewer System C1-10.3.1 Introduction The vacuum sewer system requires a main vacuum collection station similar to that of a pump station. Unlike pump stations, vacuum stations also require vacuum pumps to maintain a vacuum on the collection lines feeding the station. The 3-inch, 4-inch, 6-inch, 8-inch, or 10-inch diameter PVC collection lines are laid in a sawtooth profile. The system requires a normally closed valve at each sewage input point to seal the vacuum lines so that a vacuum can be maintained throughout the system. This valve opens automatically when a given quantity of sewage has accumulated in the collecting sump, admitting the sewage and the correct volume of air, then closing and sealing the system. This valve is entirely pneumatically controlled and operated. The differential pressure between the local atmospheric pressure and the vacuum pressure on the immediate downstream side of the valve operates the valve automatically and provides the thrust needed for liquid transportation. A vacuum sewer collection system closely resembles a water distribution system, but the flow is in reverse. The analogy would be complete if the sewage valve was manually operated by the homeowner the way a water faucet would normally be opened and closed in the home. The vacuum sewer system is not to be confused with vacuum toilets commonly used on commercial trains and airlines. The vacuum system described here utilizes the building sewers that flow by gravity to a sump generally located at the property line. The interface valve is located in this sump and provides the transition between the gravity and vacuum systems. C1-10.3.2 Principles of Operation A vacuum system consists of four major components, as follows: ? The gravity sewers from the house to the sump. ? The vacuum valve and service line. ? The collection mains. ? The vacuum station. C1-34 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design A. Gravity Sewer from the Building Building sewers that are commonly installed as part of a conventional gravity sewer system are adequate for use as part of a vacuum sewer system. Building (side) sewers, typically 4- or 6-inch, are usually installed with a 2-percent slope from the building to the collector line. If the sewer system is a new installation, then side sewers similar to “conventional” side sewers would be installed for use with the vacuum system. If an existing gravity system exists, then the gravity side sewers would be intercepted and redirected to the valve sump. The only exception to this is the need to add a supplemental vent to the gravity side sewer. When the interface valve opens it evacuates the sewage and a significant volume of air from the sump. As that volume of sewage and air is removed from the sump, an equal volume of air needs to be drawn in to replace the evacuated volume of sewage and air. Since this is accomplished quickly the vents, which are an integral part of the building plumbing are inadequate to supply the makeup air. As a result the fixture in the building may be sucked dry. By providing a supplemental 4- or 6-inch vent between the valve sump and the actual building, the makeup air can be supplied without any impacts on the fixtures. B. Vacuum Valve and Vacuum Service The vacuum valve provides the interface between the gravity building sewers and the vacuum mains. The interface valves operate without electricity. Sewage enters the sump by gravity. As the liquid level rises in the sump, it pressurizes the air in the sensor pipe. This air pressure is transmitted through a tube to the controller/sensor unit mounted on top of the valve housing. The air pressure operates the controller/sensor unit through a three-way valve that applies vacuum from the sewer to the valve operator. This opens the valve and activates a field-adjustable timer in the controller. After a set time period has expired, the valve closes. Once the sewage has been evacuated, a set amount of atmospheric air is admitted through the vacuum valve to provide the propulsion for the sewage. The source of the makeup air is through the supplemental air vent (see C1-10.3.2A) located between the valve sump and the building sewer connection. Local code may dictate the location of the vent, but it is recommended that the vent be located at least 20 feet from the valve sump. The valve sump is a two-compartment vault. The interface valve in the upper portion of the vault and the lower segment provide the storage for the influent sewage. Typically, the valve structure is made of fiberglass with a cast iron ring and lid capable of withstanding traffic loadings. In deeper settings a concrete manhole section may be used by mounting the valve within the manhole. Where more than one valve is necessary, a buffer tank capable of housing multiple valves should be used. An interface valve is capable of 30 gpm of peak sewage flow. This is based on residential connections that contribute peak flows for short periods of time. If peak flows are expected to occur for a prolonged period or on a continuous basis, then the peak capacity of the valve should be reduced to 15 gpm. Sewers December 1998 C1-35 C. Vacuum Mains The collection mains connect the individual valve pits to the collection tankage and vacuum station. Schedule 40 SDR 21 and SDR 26 PVC have commonly been used, with SDR 21 being the most common and appropriate. Both solvent-weld and gasketed types have been used. Experience has shown that there are fewer problems with gasketed type pipe. Where gasketed pipe is used, the designer must verify that the pipe and the gasket are rated for vacuum use. A double Reiber-type gasket is generally recommended. HDPE pipe has also been used in some installations. The collection mains are laid in a sawtooth pattern. Each lift consists of two 45-degree fittings connected with a short piece of pipe. The lifts are installed to maintain a minimum depth installation and to allow for uphill transmission. The transport of sewage occurs in slugs. Each time a valve is opened a volume of sewage is introduced into the system, but more important is the volume of air that causes the sewage to be lifted up and over the lifts. Since the concept of transport relies on a repeated input of air into the system, pipe movement is possible if proper installation is not done. Some designers have elected to use concrete thrust blocking; however, more recent installations have reasoned that, since the pressure is negative, the outward pressures and thrusts are offset by the vacuum pressures. In either event extreme care should be used when backfilling and compacting. Division valves are typically installed on the main line at an interval of 1,500 feet. The purpose of the division valves is to isolate portions of the line for troubleshooting and maintenance. Valves should be either the plug or resilient wedge variety using mechanical joint connections with transition to PVC gaskets. D. Vacuum Station The vacuum station is the heart of the vacuum collection system. Major components include the following: ? Vacuum pumps. ? Wastewater pumps. ? Generator. ? Collection tank. ? Reservoir tank. ? Controls. ? Motor control center. ? Chart recorder. Vacuum pumps provide the vacuum pressure to the collection system. Historically, vacuum sewers operate at 16 to 20 inches Hg. Vacuum pumps may be either liquid ring or sliding-vane type. Wastewater pumps are required to transfer the wastewater that is pulled into the collection tank by the vacuum pumps to the ultimate disposal point. Submersible pumps have been installed in the collection tank. However, a more common installation uses horizontal, nonclogging centrifugal pumps. The wastewater pumps are typically located below the C1-36 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design collection tank to minimize the net positive suction head requirement. It is critical that the selection of the wastewater pumps accounts for the vacuum in the collection tank (approximately 18 to 23 feet of additional head). As with any pump station, an emergency generator is generally a prudent addition to a vacuum station. A collection tank is a sealed vessel made either of fiberglass or steel. Though fiberglass is generally more expensive, it has the advantage of smaller maintenance costs. The vacuum pumps maintain a negative pressure in the top portion of the tank and transfer that pressure throughout the collection system. The portion of the tank below the invert of the incoming pipes acts as a wetwell. A vacuum reservoir is an intermediate tank between the collection system and the collection tank. This tank serves as an emergency reservoir and moisture reducer, and reduces the number of start-stop cycles for the vacuum pumps. The motor control center houses all the motor starters, control circuitry, and run-time meters. C1-10.3.3 System Design Criteria A. House Connection and Valve Sump The gravity sewer line from the dwelling to the valve sump shall be SDR 21-rated PVC pipe. The minimum valve size shall be 3 inches. Valves shall be actuated by pneumatic controllers; an electronically controlled valve system is not acceptable except where supplemental air injection is necessary, in which case electronically controlled air-injected valving is allowable. All valve sumps are to be located outside the dwelling unit. A permanent easement should be secured for the valve sump, allowing for adequate space around the sump for maintenance activities. Consideration should be given to providing a supplemental storage tank between the dwelling and the valve in the event of vacuum loss to the system. The valve sump shall be a corrosion resistant material, have a solid bottom, and be counterweighted to prevent floatation when located in an area of potential flooding or high ground water. The cover and sump material shall be of adequate strength to withstand the expected maximum dynamic and static loading conditions. Valve sumps shall be well vented to reduce condensation and constructed of corrosion resistant material. The vent system for the dwelling shall have a 4-inch or larger vent to prevent the evacuation of the traps during vacuum valve operation. The vent pipe shall be removed from the valve sump by at least 20 feet and protected from accidental damage. The vent shall be goosenecked to prevent rainfall entry and equipped with an insect screen. The sensors for the control of the valve must also be vented. Any portion of the controller venting assembly shall be vented either to the atmosphere or in certain cases vented within the sump itself. Sewers December 1998 C1-37 All materials of the valve, sensor, and controller shall be chemically resistant to sewage and sewage gases. The valve shall be manufactured such that small objects may be removed from the valve seat area by means other than complete valve removal and disassembly. The controller shall be capable of maintaining the valve fully open for a fixed period of time, adjustable over a range of 3 to 10 seconds. The controller shall be designed to allow its removal from the valve body for service without complete removal of the valve. No special tools shall be necessary to remove the controller. Sufficient valves shall be installed to isolate individual residences. B. Vacuum Collection Mainlines All buried vacuum mainlines, branch lines, and service laterals shall be SDR 21 rated PVC pipe. The use of identification tape to aid in locating this nonmetallic pipe is optional. The vacuum pipe shall meet the performance as specified in ASTM D-2241 and ASTM D-1784 Cell Classification 12454-B. The minimum pipe size for mainlines and branches shall be 4 inches. The service lines from the valve sump to the mainline or branch line shall be 3 inches. Joints shall be solvent welded, “O”-ring, or heat fusion joints that have been specifically designed to seal against vacuum. Solvent welded joints shall meet ASTM D-2672. Elastomeric seals shall meet ASTM D-3139. This material must be certified by the manufacturer that the pipe and seal will operate at 24 inches of mercury vacuum and withstand a vacuum test at 24 inches of mercury vacuum with a maximum leak rate of 1 percent per hour for a four-hour period. Fittings shall be as specified in Schedule 40 Solvent Weld Drain, Waste and Vent, and shall conform with ASTM- D2665. Wye fittings and 45-degree elbows shall be used throughout the installation. Long radius 3-inch, 90-degree elbows may be used at the entering side of the vacuum valve and at the wye connection to the vacuum main. Tee fittings and short radius elbows should not be used. Cleanouts are to be provided at the end of each branch and mainline sewer. Main sewer lines shall be buried as deeply as dictated by frost depth or load conditions but in no instance less than 3 feet deep unless otherwise and specifically approved by Ecology. All vacuum system designs shall be certified, in writing, by the system manufacturer. The manufacturer’s recommendation for lifts shall be utilized. The total available head loss from any input point shall not exceed 18 feet of water. Five feet of water shall be reserved for valve operation. During installation, the collection system shall be vacuumed to 24 inches of mercury vacuum pressure, allowed 15 minutes to stabilize, and thereafter not lose more than 1 percent vacuum pressure per hour over a minimum of a four-hour period. This testing shall be conducted prior to the installation of the vacuum valves. C1-38 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Isolation valving is recommended at an interval of no more than 1,500 feet. This inline valve is provided to help isolate any valve that has malfunctioned or has not closed completely and is therefore allowing air to enter the system for a prolonged period of time. Isolation valves should also be provided at each branch and mainline connection. It is also advisable to provide a wye and valve for future extensions. C. Sewage Collection Tank at the Vacuum Station Sewage collection tanks shall be either epoxy-coated annodically protected welded steel or fiberglass, and vacuum tight. Each inlet to the tank shall have its own isolation valve. Liquid level sensors shall be installed to operate the discharge sewage pumps and high level alarm and to interrupt the electrical power to the vacuum pumps. The collection tank shall be sized to hold a minimum of 10 minutes of average flow or three times the operating volume, whichever is greater. It is advisable to consult with the manufacturer of the system to verify collection tank sizing. D. Vacuum Pumps at the Vacuum Station Either liquid ring or sliding vane vacuum pumps shall be used as long as they are compatible with pumping moist air containing some sewer gases. A check valve shall be installed between the vacuum tank and the vacuum pumps. Dual vacuum pumps, each capable of handling the load, shall be provided. Emergency power backup shall be provided to operate the vacuum pumps and all pumping station equipment under the maximum load. Each vacuum pump exhaust shall be individually vented to the outside of the building. Consideration should be given to odor control measures to scrub the exhausted air from the vacuum pumps. E. Sewage Pumps at the Vacuum Station Dual pumps, each capable of handling the peak flows, shall be provided. Emergency power backup shall be provided to operate the sewage pumps and all pumping station equipment under the maximum load. The sewage pumps shall be capable of meeting the positive suction head requirements and of pumping the sewage flow at the desired rate. Shutoff valves shall be provided so that each pump may be isolated for repairs. The discharge piping shall incorporate check valves and gate valves consistent with requirements. Sewers December 1998 C1-39 C1-10.4 Maintenance Provisions C1-10.4.1 Maintenance Program Agencies operating alternative forms of wastewater collection shall implement a maintenance program as outlined in the O&M manual. C1-10.4.2 Personnel Qualifications Agencies operating alternative forms of wastewater collection shall employ staff members who are qualified in maintenance of alternative forms of wastewater collection. Agencies are encouraged to provide continued education and training to its employees in the operation and maintenance characteristics of alternative forms of wastewater collection. C1-10.4.3 Operation and Maintenance Agencies shall have an O&M manual for the type of system installed on file for use by staff members. C1-10.4.4 System Monitoring Each STEP, SDG, or GP unit shall be monitored at least once every three years. Monitoring shall include equipment checks and scum and sludge levels for STEP and SDG tanks. The STEP or SDG tank shall be pumped when the liquid level between the scum and sludge level is reduced to one-third of the total liquid volume. C1-10.4.5 Easements for Municipalities Agencies or municipalities that operate alternative forms of collection on private property shall secure an easement from the property owner that allows, at a minimum, access onto the property to: ? Monitor and provide routine maintenance. ? Repair or replace defective components. ? Remove and replace all on-site components, if necessary. The minimum duration of the easement shall be for the life of the system as long as it is being maintained by the responsible agency. C1-10.4.6 Replacement Parts The agencies responsible for operation and maintenance of the system shall keep on hand sufficient replacement parts to ensure that corrections to the system can be made in an expeditious manner. As a guideline, Ecology recommends the following: ? Small systems should have 5 percent parts on hand for critical components. ? Large systems should have 3 percent parts on hand for critical components. C1-40 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C1-11 References Recommended Standards for Wastewater Facilities. (10 States Standards.) 1990 Edition. US Environmental Protection Agency. Handbook for Sewer System Infrastructure Analysis and Rehabilitation. EPA/625/6-91/030. 1991. Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission. Design Criteria For Pumpout Facilities at New or Expanded Marinas. From Financial Assistance Application for Clean Vessel Funding Program. Water Environment Federation and American Society of Civil Engineers. Existing Sewer Evaluation and Rehabilitation. WEF Manual of Practice FD-6 and ASCE Manual and Report on Engineering Practice No. 62, Second Edition. 1994. Water Pollution Control Federation. Alternative Sewer Systems. 1986. WRC, Inc. Waves Multimedia CD. Contact: 2655 Philmont Ave., Huntingdon Valley, PA 19006, (215) 938-8444). 1995. December 1998 C2-1 C2 Sewage Pump Stations This chapter covers the design and construction of sewage pump stations and force mains. General requirements such as location, flows, reliability, and other special design details for pump stations are included. C2-1 General Requirements ......... 2 C2-1.1 Location, Site Selection, and Site Layout ....................................2 C2-1.1.1 Location and Site Selection.................... 2 C2-1.1.2 Flood Protection ..................................... 2 C2-1.1.3 Access for Maintenance Vehicles........... 2 C2-1.1.4 Fire Protection ........................................ 3 C2-1.1.5 Site Piping Layout.................................. 3 C2-1.1.6 Other Site Design Factors....................... 3 C2-1.2 Design Flow Rates, Hydraulics, and Number of Pump Units....................................3 C2-1.2.1 Design Flow Rates.................................. 3 C2-1.2.2 System Hydraulics.................................. 4 C2-1.2.3 Number of Pumps................................... 4 C2-1.2.4 Pump Selection....................................... 4 C2-1.2.5 Wetwells................................................. 4 C2-1.3 Grit, Grease, and Clogging Protection......................................5 C2-1.4 Flow Measurement .......................6 C2-1.5 Surge Analysis..............................6 C2-1.5.1 General ................................................... 6 C2-1.5.2 Surge Modeling ...................................... 6 C2-1.5.3 Surge Protection Facilities...................... 6 C2-1.6 Odor and Noise Control ...............7 C2-1.6.1 Odor Control........................................... 7 C2-1.6.2 Noise Control ......................................... 8 C2-1.7 Operations and Maintenance.......8 C2-1.8 Reliability ......................................9 C2-1.8.1 Objective ................................................ 9 C2-1.8.2 Equipment Redundancy.......................... 9 C2-1.8.3 Emergency Power................................... 9 A. Portable Engine Generators........................10 B. Permanent Engine Generators ....................10 C. Fuel Storage................................................10 D. Secondary Power Grid................................11 C2-1.8.4 Bypass Capability..................................11 C2-1.8.5 Overflow Storage Capability.................11 C2-1.8.6 Alarms and Telemetry ...........................12 C2-2 Special Design Details ....... 12 C2-2.1 General ....................................... 12 C2-2.1.1 Electrical Design ...................................12 A. Instrumentation...........................................12 B. Alarms ........................................................13 C. Lighting ......................................................13 C2-2.1.2 Water Supply.........................................13 C2-2.1.3 Corrosion Control..................................13 C2-2.1.4 Temperature and Ventilation.................13 C2-2.1.5 Equipment Removal and Replacement..................................................14 C2-2.1.6 Accessibility..........................................14 C2-2.1.7 Valves and Piping..................................14 C2-2.2 Wetwell/Drywell Pump Stations ...................................... 15 C2-2.3 Suction Lift Pump Stations ....... 15 C2-2.4 Submersible Pump Stations...... 15 C2-2.5 Vertical Solids Handling Line Shaft Pumps............................... 15 C2-3 Force Mains......................... 16 C2-3.1 Size ............................................. 16 C2-3.2 Velocity....................................... 16 C2-3.3 Air Relief Valve........................... 16 C2-3.4 Blow-Offs.................................... 16 C2-3.5 Termination ................................ 16 C2-3.6 Construction Materials .............. 16 C2-3.7 Pressure Tests ........................... 17 C2-3.8 Connections............................... 17 C2-3.9 Surge Control............................. 17 C2-3.10 Thrust Restraint ....................... 17 C2-3.11 Pig Launching/Retrieval Facilities ..................................... 18 C2-4 References........................... 18 C2-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C2-1 General Requirements C2-1.1 Location, Site Selection, and Site Layout C2-1.1.1 Location and Site Selection Sewage pump stations are usually located at the low point of the service area. The pump discharges to the treatment works or to a high point in the sewer system for continued conveyance by gravity. Generally, sewage pump stations should only be used when gravity flow is not possible. There is often little choice in siting sewage pump stations. Locations should be sited as far as practical from present or proposed built-up residential areas to reduce community impacts. The amount of land area required is a direct function of the station’s size and type and of the need or desire for ancillary facilities such as a maintenance building. The station should be sited to accommodate reasonable pumping head, force main length, and depth of the gravity influent sewer(s). Other considerations are: ? Local land use and zoning regulations. ? Location on public right-of-ways versus private easements or site acquisition by the sewer purveyor. ? Permits (or variances) which might be required, such as grading, building, and so on. ? Availability of needed utilities, such as water, electricity, and natural gas. ? Applicable noise ordinances, especially when an emergency backup generator will be present. ? Space for future expansion, especially if population growth or development in the drainage area may increase substantially. C2-1.1.2 Flood Protection The station shall be designed to remain fully operational during the 100-year flood/wave action C2-1.1.3 Access for Maintenance Vehicles ? Adequate access to the site is required for maintenance personnel and equipment and for visitors after construction. Adequate access during construction is required for construction equipment. ? Access road grade should not be excessively steep. The road and parking configuration should be adequate for vehicle turnaround or allow for one-way access. ? Adequate parking spaces for maintenance equipment and visitors should be provided. ? Additional easement or site acquisition may be required for the access road. ? Ingress/egress to the site near busy public right-of-ways may be affected by traffic. Sewage Pump Stations December 1998 C2-3 C2-1.1.4 Fire Protection ? Contact the local fire jurisdiction for its requirements. ? Contact the local water purveyor to determine fire flow availability. ? Conform to the requirements of Standards for Fire Protection in Wastewater Treatment and Collection Facilities (NFPA) 820. C2-1.1.5 Site Piping Layout ? Avoid installing buried pipes directly underneath each other, and minimize pipes crossing one another. ? Maintain appropriate minimum and/or maximum velocities in pipes. ? Provide appropriate restraint or thrust blocking for pressure pipe bends, etc. ? Conform to water purveyor’s requirements for meter service, backflow prevention, etc. ? Provide potable water cross-connection protection in accordance with State DOH regulations. ? Provide flexible pipe connections to pipe penetrations through vaults and other underground structures. ? Consider a pig launch facility for the force main. C2-1.1.6 Other Site Design Factors ? Landscaping may be required for aesthetic reasons or by local land-use agency codes. Use low-maintenance landscaping wherever possible. ? Provide exterior lighting, easily accessible for manual operation, in case maintenance at night is required. ? Provide appropriate security against vandalism. ? Consider intrusion telemetry alarms. C2-1.2 Design Flow Rates, Hydraulics, and Number of Pump Units C2-1.2.1 Design Flow Rates The firm capacity of a pump station shall be equal to or greater than the peak hourly design flow. This peak design flow should be based on projected growth in the tributary area, future improvements anticipated in the collection system, and any phased improvements planned for the pump station and force main. It should also allow for a reasonable amount of wear to pump equipment, particularly in a tributary area that is at or near buildout. Because mechanical and electrical equipment is typically designed for a 20-year life, it is recommended that the peak design flow be based on a 20-year forecast or greater. In addition to establishing the peak design flow, it is also necessary to review minimum flows and determine how the station will operate under low flow conditions. C2-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C2-1.2.2 System Hydraulics System hydraulics should provide an optimum balance for the project’s force main characteristics, pump selection, and minimum and maximum flows. The force main should be small enough in diameter to minimize solids deposition yet large enough that the total head permits a good pump selection and minimizes the requirements for surge protection facilities. Recommended sizing considerations for force mains are covered under the force main section (see C2-3). A cost-benefit analysis is often useful in selecting the best alternative. Pump stations shall be designed to operate under the full range of projected system hydraulic conditions. Both new and old pipe conditions should be evaluated, along with the various combinations of operating pumps and minimum and maximum flows, to determine the highest head and lowest head pumping conditions. The system should be designed to prevent a pump from operating for long periods of time beyond the pump manufacturer’s recommended normal operating range. Selection of head loss coefficients for pipes and valves should be conservative to allow for installation and equipment variations and normal aging of the pumping system. C2-1.2.3 Number of Pumps The number of pumps selected shall allow the station to provide the peak design flow with the largest pump out of order. Also, the number of pumps should correlate to the wetwell size and prevent excessively short periods between pump starts. On constant speed pump stations, the number of pumps is often based on the pumping capacity required to provide a minimum scour velocity in the force main. C2-1.2.4 Pump Selection Pumps should be designed for pumping sewage and capable of passing solids at least 3 inches in diameter. Pump suction and discharge should be 4 inches or greater. Exceptions to these criteria are discussed in the sections on grinder pumps and septic tank effluent pumps (see C1-10). C2-1.2.5 Wetwells Sewage pump station wetwells should be designed to provide acceptable pump intake conditions, adequate volume to prevent excessive pump cycling, and sufficient depth for pump control, while minimizing solids deposition. For constant speed pumps, the minimum volume between pump on and off levels can be calculated using the following general formula: V = tQ/4, where V = minimum volume (gallons) t = minimum time between pump starts Q = pump capacity (gallons/minute) Recommendations for various pump intake designs can be found in the references included at the end of this chapter. At normal operating levels, the designer should consider the following recommendations: Sewage Pump Stations December 1998 C2-5 ? Reduce or eliminate the free fall of sewage into the wetwell. ? Minimize prerotation of water at the pump intake. ? Provide adequate submergence to minimize surface vortices. ? Locate the pump intakes to minimize the forming of subsurface vortices from the walls or floor. There are exceptions, however, to these criteria. For example, a prerotation chamber can be used to swirl the water in the same direction as the pump is turning in order to reduce flow through the pump at low wetwell levels. This provides turndown ability for the pump without requiring a variable speed drive. Another exception is drawing down the water level to flush out solids buildup in the wetwell. Wetwells should be designed to minimize solids buildup. The wetwell should be either trench or hopper style with side slopes of 45 degrees or steeper (60 degrees is preferred). Maintenance procedures should be developed to remove any solids that do build up in the wetwell. A recycle pipe can be provided to temporarily route pumpage to the bottom of the wetwell to dislodge solids. Another method is to periodically operate the wetwell below its normal level, increasing velocities and allowing the pumps to pull in deposited solids. In most cases, all electrical equipment in a raw sewage wetwell should meet the requirements of the NEC Area Classification as listed in NFPA 820. Personnel entering the wetwell shall meet the requirements of current State Department of Labor and Industry confined space regulations, contained in Chapter 296-62M WAC. C2-1.3 Grit, Grease, and Clogging Protection If it is necessary to pump sewage prior to grit removal, the design of the wetwell should receive special attention. In particular, the discharge piping should be designed to prevent grit settling in discharge lines of pumps when not operating. At some pump stations it may be beneficial to use bar screens, grinders, or comminutor devices. Design of bar screen facilities should include odor control and a method for handling the screening. Grease in the flow entering sewage pump stations can present problems, both for the sewage collection pipelines (from the source to the station) and in handling or removal after flow is present in the wetwell. Grease floats on the surface of the liquid in the wetwell, and tends to cake on the walls and accumulate at the high pump start or upper level control setting. That can interfere with the pump control systems, including float switches, air bubbler controls, pressure bells (either static or encapsulated in a bulb or containment bag), and a variety of other mechanical or electrical control styles. (One control virtually free from grease-related problems is the ultrasonic level controller.) Grease can also contribute to odor in the pump station. Allowed to build up to the point of collapse from the wall or other surface, chunks of grease can clog the pump suction, restrict flow through other features such as vortex breakers and flow-directing vanes, or just increase operation or maintenance problems in the station or the force main downstream from it. Provisions to limit grease from entering the system, such as regulating the allowable fats, oils and grease by sewer ordinances, pretreatment C2-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design requirements, or other ways to put the burden for grease limits on the originator, should be considered. Adequate access to the wetwell for grease removal using mechanical means, such as vactor or septic pumping-truck suction pipes or hoses, blasting using high-pressure water to loosen the material, injecting grease control chemicals by pumping, drip, shock or maintenance dosing, or hand scraping and removal methods should be provided. C2-1.4 Flow Measurement Suitable devices for measuring sewage flow shall be provided at pump stations. Run timers should be provided on all pumps. A wide variety of pump station level and flow control devices and instrumentation exists. Consider strategies that use instrumentation, monitoring, control, or process-driven concepts to integrate flow measurement into the overall perspective of the pump station design. With complete information at hand, or data available for computer analysis, great gains can be made in operating efficiency, maintenance prediction, budgeting, coordination of treatment processes, and other useful productivity steps. C2-1.5 Surge Analysis C2-1.5.1 General Hydraulic surges and transients (water hammer) should be considered during design of pump stations and force mains. All systems should be at least conceptually reviewed for the possibility of damaging hydraulic transients. The transients can cause vapor cavities, pipe rupture or collapse, joint weakening or separation, deterioration of pipe lining, excessive vibration, noise, deformation, or displacement, and otherwise unacceptable pressures for the system. Possible sources of damaging conditions include closing or opening a valve, pump starts and stops, sudden power loss, rapid changes in demand, closure of an air release valve, pipe rupture, and failure of surge protection facilities. Particular care should be taken in design if the expected change occurs in less than two wave periods, velocities are high (greater than 4 feet per second), the force main is long, the piping system has dead ends, or significant grade changes occur along the force main. C2-1.5.2 Surge Modeling If it is not possible in conceptual design or with simple manual calculations to ensure that the system is safe from excessive water hammer conditions, the system should be computer modeled. It is important that a computer modeling program is selected that suits the complexity of the project and has proven accuracy when compared to field-test results. The design methodology should include some method of checking the model results before construction. During facility startup, modeled results should be verified by gradually generating increasingly severe conditions. In this way it can be shown that the system will work as predicted prior to generating the worst-case design conditions. C2-1.5.3 Surge Protection Facilities There are many methods to provide surge protection, including the following: Sewage Pump Stations December 1998 C2-7 ? Open surge tanks. ? Pressurized surge tanks. ? One-way surge tanks. ? Appropriate check valve attachments. ? Pump control valves. ? Surge relief valves. ? Surge anticipator valves. ? Vacuum relief valves. ? Regulated air release valves. ? Optimizing the force main size and alignment. ? Electric soft start/stop and variable speed drives for pumps. ? Electric interlocks to prevent more than one pump from starting at the same time. ? Slow opening and closing valves. ? Increasing the polar moment of inertia of the rotating pump/motor assembly. ? Different pipe material to reduce surge forces. Some of these techniques are not suitable for raw sewage. A combination of methods may be necessary to provide a safe operating system. Care must be taken in design so that adding a protection device does not precipitate a secondary water hammer equal to or worse than the original water hammer. Reliability of the surge protection facilities is critical. Routine inspection and maintenance must be incorporated into the design. Where appropriate, redundancy should be provided for essential pieces of equipment, such as vacuum relief valves. Adequate alarms should be provided on surge tanks and similar equipment to give operators early warnings. Consideration should be given to preventing the pumping system from operating if the surge protection facilities are not operable. C2-1.6 Odor and Noise Control The design of both sewage pump stations and related pipelines should incorporate planning and construction techniques that consider odor and noise-producing conditions and solutions. Gravity and pressure mains carrying wastewater to and from the station present separate problems. The physical layout of the pump station should allow a variety of accessory systems to be applied that meet whatever odor concern is indicated, either before construction, in the planning/design phase, or after starting operation. Both the expected waste load, with associated chemical or unusual physical parameters, and the detention time and hydraulic characteristics of pipes and wetwell should be considered. C2-1.6.1 Odor Control Odor control is discussed in general terms in Chapter G2. C2-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C2-1.6.2 Noise Control Noise control for sewage pump station design depends on location, type, and layout of the station components, and local conditions, such as zoning, property use, or other ordinances (see C2-1.1.1). The regulations usually are set by local government, development covenants, or simply a cooperative understanding between the station owners and adjoining properties. The WISHA standards also speak to noise and safety considerations, specifically Chapter 296-62 WAC of the General Occupational Health Standards. The most significant sources of noise are emergency generators, ventilation equipment, and, in some cases, motor or pump operations. Of these, the emergency generator is most significant. The generator may be powered by a piston internal-combustion engine, fueled by gasoline, diesel, propane, or natural gas, or powered by a rotary-power source, such as gas or steam turbine. These kinds of engines can produce mechanical, intake air, or exhaust stack noise, which may result in racking, pulsating, whining, humming, or other noises. A variety of sound insulation schemes are used to reduce the effects of these noises, and are rated by the degree of sound reduction they can achieve. Hospital-grade silencing is recommended as the design standard. Consider manufacturers’ recommendations and careful study of the rated noise production values assigned to each component of a pump station in implementing a successful noise-reduction strategy. C2-1.7 Operations and Maintenance During the design of sewer pump stations, consideration must be given to operations and maintenance (O&M) needs. This is typically documented in an O&M manual (see G1-4.4) which conforms to the operating agency’s O&M plan for the wastewater utility. The O&M manual should include provisions for: ? Detailed descriptions of all operating processes. ? Design data for pumps, motors, force main, standby power, overflow point and elevation, telemetry, and sulfide control system, as applicable. ? Pump curve with computed system curve showing design operating point. ? Startup and shutdown procedures. ? Analysis of critical safety issues. ? Inventory of critical components, including nameplate data for pumps and motors, etc. ? Description of the maintenance management system, including preventive and predictive maintenance. ? Vulnerability analysis. ? Contingency plan, including redundancy considerations. ? List of affected agencies and utilities, including after-hour contacts. ? List of local contractors for emergency repairs, including after-hours contacts. ? List of vendors and manufacturers of critical system components, including after- hour contacts. ? Staff training plan. Sewage Pump Stations December 1998 C2-9 C2-1.8 Reliability C2-1.8.1 Objective Sewage pump stations should be designed to provide enough reliability that accidental spills of wastewater into the environment or backups of sewage into structures do not occur, except under the most extreme circumstances. All pump stations should be designed to EPA Class 1 reliability standards, unless otherwise approved by Ecology. Refer to G2-8 for additional information on reliability. Reliability is achieved by: ? Specification of quality components. ? Good design. ? Redundancy of key equipment items. C2-1.8.2 Equipment Redundancy Components of the sewage pump station that should be designed with redundancy in equipment to provide capacity for peak design flows include: ? Pumps and motors. ? Motor control center components. ? Instrumentation and control for pumps and motors. ? Power supply. ? Emergency storage in lieu of permanent standby power. Sewage pumps and motors should be selected to provide one redundant unit that matches the largest pump and motor unit in the pump station, and should handle peak design flows with one of the largest units out of service. Each pump and motor unit should have a separate electrical supply, motor starter, motor sensor and alarm, electrical components, and instrumentation and control components. Each wetwell bay should have an instrumentation and control module for operation of the pumps and alarm conditions as designed. Power supply to most sewage pump stations should include the primary electrical feed as well as standby power. Standby power can include permanent generators, portable generators, or secondary electrical feeds from an independent power grid. Emergency storage should be included for all sewage pump stations that rely on portable engine generators for standby power, and should be considered for remote sewage pump stations where emergency response times may be long. At locations where severe property damage could result from sewage backups caused by a pump station failure, it is recommended that the design include a manhole with a low elevation lid or an overflow pipe in the influent gravity sewage system. C2-1.8.3 Emergency Power All sewage pump stations should be designed with capability for emergency power in case the primary electrical feed is out of service. A portable engine generator unit that is plugged into a pigtail at the pump station commonly C2-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design provides emergency power for small pump stations. Larger pump stations should have permanent engine generator units with automatic transfer switches to transfer the electrical feed from the primary to the standby unit when a power failure is detected by the instrumentation and control system. Determining the engine generator’s size should depend upon the requirements of starting and operating the pumps at peak possible load, and all ancillary equipment in the sewage pump station that could operate during a power outage. A. Portable Engine Generators Portable engine generators can be used at sewage pump stations where the total electrical demand is provided for in the wetwell; however, larger portable generators can be used if an adequate transport vehicle is routinely available during a power failure. Portable engine generators should be trailer-mounted and include adequate fuel storage. A suitable towing vehicle should be available at all times. A pump station that relies on portable engine generators needs a pigtail or proper electrical connection point for the generator. Portable engine generators most commonly use gasoline engines, but are also available with diesel engines. If portable engine generators are used, the wastewater utility needs to carefully evaluate its sewage pump stations to determine the number and size of portable engine generators needed during a major regional power failure, such as an ice storm or brownout. B. Permanent Engine Generators Permanent engine generators are recommended for larger pump stations and permanent facilities. Automatic transfer switches provide for quick transitions to standby power when the primary power fails. Permanent engine generators commonly use gasoline, diesel, or natural gas engines, depending on size. Permanent engine generators should be located inside a building, or other weather-tight enclosure. Block heaters are recommended to ensure reliable startup in cold weather. C. Fuel Storage Fuel storage for both portable and permanent engine generators should be adequate to operate the pump station for a minimum of 12 and preferably 24 continuous hours without refueling. However, the decision on storage volume should also address access to a refueling vendor, accessibility of pump station during extreme weather, and fuel storage location. Aboveground fuel storage is required to have liquid containment capability equal to the volume in the tank, and should be covered to prevent accumulation of precipitation. The fuel fill tube should be equipped to prevent overfilling of the tank. Belowground fuel storage tanks and buried piping shall have double-wall containment and a leak detection system to prevent contamination of soils and ground water. Sewage Pump Stations December 1998 C2-11 A fuel gauge can be incorporated into the instrumentation system for remote readings of the fuel supply status. D. Secondary Power Grid At some sewage pump stations, using a permanent engine generator may be undesirable because of noise impacts, exhaust emissions, concerns about fuel storage, or remote locations. In these cases, consider using a secondary power grid. A secondary power grid should only be considered if certain factors are present, as follows: ? Historical records from the power company demonstrating reliability of the secondary power grid exist. ? There is a completely separate power feeder line to the pump station from a substation or transformer that is independent from the primary feeder. ? There are independent regional transmission lines to the substation or transformer. ? A mutual understanding with the power company for priority maintenance and repair of the primary and secondary power feeds exists. If adequate historical records are unavailable, Ecology recommends that a tertiary connection be provided for connection of a portable engine generator. Also, it is recommended that a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system be installed along with telemetry to alarm all power failures and record power failures at the pump station for both primary and secondary power feeds. C2-1.8.4 Bypass Capability Pump stations shall be designed to eliminate any bypass due to power outage, mechanical failure, or unusual flow regime. This is typically accomplished by some combination of the following: ? Flow storage. ? Standby electric generator. ? Portable electric generator. ? Power from two different electrical substations. ? Extra fitting on force main to allow quick connection for a portable pump. ? Design surcharge of gravity lines. In extremely unusual circumstances Ecology may consider construction of a bypass to avoid excessive damage to adjacent properties. A manually operated valve that has a mechanical locking system shall control the bypass. The valve shall always be kept in the closed position. The keys to the lock shall be under the control of the responsible operator of the sewerage system. C2-1.8.5 Overflow Storage Capability The design of remote sewage pump stations using portable engine generators should include overflow storage. It is recommended that a minimum of 1 hour C2-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design of storage be provided for peak flow conditions, and perhaps longer if the pump station is extremely remote. Ease of access during extreme weather conditions should be considered in the design of overflow storage capacity. The sewage flows should automatically go to the overflow storage when the wetwell reaches a predetermined elevation above the normal pump operating level. Storage outlets can be automatic or controlled with valves for manual discharge into the pump station. The design should include access covers to the storage tank so the storage can be hosed and cleaned to minimize odors after a backup event. C2-1.8.6 Alarms and Telemetry All sewage pump stations should be equipped with sensors for key operational conditions and the alarm signals should be connected to telemetry. The telemetry should send alarm signals to a location that is continuously monitored, such as a fire department, police department, answering service, security office, or continuously staffed treatment facility. See C2-2.1.1B for recommended alarm conditions. The telemetry units generally include the following alternatives: ? Dedicated telephone lines. ? Dial-up telephone lines. ? Cellular telephones. ? Radio. Any agency with more than five sewage pump stations should have a formalized standby and callout program to ensure that an emergency response can be provided when alarm signals occur during nonworking hours. C2-2 Special Design Details C2-2.1 General This section describes special design details to be addressed for pump stations. C2-2.1.1 Electrical Design Electrical design for sewage pump stations shall conform to the National Electrical Code (NEC), National Electrical Safety Code (ANSI), and all federal, state, and local codes. Particular attention should be given during design to classifying the various enclosed spaces in the sewage pump station to ensure adequate ventilation, and using explosion-proof electrical equipment where necessary. A. Instrumentation Instrumentation at sewage pump stations should, at a minimum, include pump run times, pressure gauges, and voltage/ampere meters for the motors. In addition, flow meters and recorders should be considered for larger pump stations. Agencies with multiple sewage pump stations should consider installing a SCADA system to monitor and control sewage pump Sewage Pump Stations December 1998 C2-13 stations from a central location, reducing the staffing needed to visit each location each day. B. Alarms Alarms at sewage pump stations should include, in generally decreasing order of importance, the following: ? High water. ? Low water. ? Power failure. ? Pump failure. ? Surge control system failure. ? Engine generator failure. ? Fire alarm. ? Pump station intrusion. C. Lighting Sewage pump stations should include adequate lighting in all equipment areas to allow for repair and maintenance during non-daylight hours. Automatic lights should be carefully placed to avoid annoying neighbors. C2-2.1.2 Water Supply Water supply for sewage pump stations should be provided and include a reduced pressure backflow preventer with double-check valves, with an independent relief between the valves. Cross-connection control shall meet the requirements of DOH. Refer to G2-2.2.1 for information on potable water supply connection. C2-2.1.3 Corrosion Control The design of the wetwell should evaluate the potential for hydrogen sulfide in the wetwell from sewage. If low initial flows, long travel times, or high sewage temperatures could cause significant concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, it is recommended that the concrete and steel structure in the wetwell be protected from corrosion. Protection can be provided with a plastic liner or other means, such as high-rate ventilation at 30 air changes per hour with scrubbing of the exhaust through carbon canisters, or equivalent. Plastic liners can be formed into the concrete or adhered to the concrete walls after they have cured. C2-2.1.4 Temperature and Ventilation Design of the sewage pump station should also ensure that the temperature of the room that encloses the electrical and instrumentation equipment is within the equipment manufacturer’s specifications. Generally, the electrical and instrumentation room’s maximum temperature should be 104° F on the hottest summer day; design of ventilation equipment should be adequate to maintain a temperature at or below this maximum. The life of solid-state-based equipment, such as programmable logic controllers, variable frequency drives, telemetry equipment, and computers, will be increased if a lower maximum C2-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design design temperature is used. Design of louvers for ventilating rooms that enclose engine generators should follow similar guidelines. Design of all sewage pump stations shall conform to the Washington State Energy Code as defined in Chapter 51-11 WAC and codified in Chapter 19.27 WAC. C2-2.1.5 Equipment Removal and Replacement The sewage pump station design, including doors, vaults, and roof access panels, should include the capability to remove or replace all major equipment items, including the following: ? Pumps and motors. ? Electrical panels. ? Valves. ? Surge control components. ? Engine generators. For sewage pump stations with larger pumps and motors, Ecology recommends that permanent monorails and hoists be included with a lift rating at least equal to the largest piece of equipment. For smaller sewage pump stations, portable gantry-style hoists or truck-mounted hoists may be sufficient. C2-2.1.6 Accessibility The sewage pump station site layout should provide for easy access by maintenance vehicles to key equipment for removal and replacement, including access to each piece of equipment listed in C2-2.1.5. C2-2.1.7 Valves and Piping It is necessary in all pump stations to provide a valve chamber for valves, piping, air and vacuum relief valves, and surge control components. Each pump discharge should include a check valve, an isolation valve, and pressure gauge. Sewage pump stations that discharge into long force mains in which there is high likelihood of grease buildup or where the force main will have low velocities should be equipped with valves, piping, and end cap for launching of a pig to remove buildups of undesirable materials in the force main. Pig launchers typically include three valves so that a pig launcher can be isolated from the force main. After the pig is inserted into the line, the valves are adjusted to drive the pig through the force main using the force of the pumps. Additional water may be added to the wetwell to decrease the travel time in the force main. If a pig launcher is included in a sewage pump station design, special care needs to be given to designing the force main terminus to include a pig catcher and the ability to remove materials driven out of the force main by the pig. See C2-3.11 for additional information about pig launching and retrieval. Sewage Pump Stations December 1998 C2-15 C2-2.2 Wetwell/Drywell Pump Stations Wetwell/drywell pump stations site the pumps below grade in a drywell immediately adjacent to the wetwell. Design should incorporate the latest standards from NFPA 820, the NEC, and L&I confined space regulations (Chapter 296-62 WAC, Part M). To provide an unclassified space, the facility should provide complete separation between the wetwell and drywell, meeting requirements in NFPA 820. Continuous positive pressure air ventilation from a source of clean air, with effective safeguards against failure, should be provided in the drywell, in accordance with the NEC and NFPA 820. No transfer of air should occur between classified and unclassified spaces. Air quality in the drywell space should be tested and recorded on a regular basis, in accordance with Chapter 296-62 WAC, Part M. The drywell should be provided with at least one sump pump and a float switch alarm. Discharge should be into the wetwell or sewer pipe. C2-2.3 Suction Lift Pump Stations Suction lift pump stations incorporate self-priming pumps in order to locate the pumps above the water level and either eliminate or decrease the depth of the drywell. Priming tanks or vacuum priming systems are not recommended for raw, unscreened sewage on new installations. Maximum suction lift should not exceed the pump manufacturer’s recommendations and should be based on a net positive suction calculation with a generous factor of safety. Typically suction lift should not exceed 15 feet. An air release valve should be provided at the high point in the discharge piping and should vent into the wetwell above maximum water level. Any structure housing the pumps or the motor control center should be physically separated from the wetwell and meet the requirements of NFPA 820 and NEC. C2-2.4 Submersible Pump Stations Submersible pump stations provide submersible pumps in the wetwell with the motor control center mounted above grade. Pumps should be readily removable and replaceable without dewatering the wetwell or requiring personnel to enter the wetwell. Check valves and isolation valves should be mounted outside the wetwell to facilitate access and contained in a structure suitable for protection against vandalism. Control panels shall be physically separated from the wetwell, meet the requirements of the NEC, and be suitably protected from the weather, humidity, and vandalism. The pumps should be explosion-proof unless the control system can provide adequate assurance that pump motors in operation are submerged at all times. Electrical junction boxes should be easily accessible without entering the wetwell. C2-2.5 Vertical Solids Handling Line Shaft Pumps Vertical solids handling line shaft pumps (also referred to as vertical turbine solids handling pumps) hang into the wetwell with the motor and discharge connection above the wetwell in a dry room or outdoors. Generally, no drywell is needed. Like other types of pump stations, the design is subject to the requirements of NFPA 820 and the NEC. C2-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C2-3 Force Mains C2-3.1 Size Except for small grinder and effluent pump installations, piping for force mains should not be less than 4 inches in diameter. As a general rule, whenever the velocity exceeds 8 fps, a larger pipe should be used. C2-3.2 Velocity At pumping capacity, a minimum self-scouring velocity of 2 fps should be maintained unless flushing facilities are provided. Velocity should not exceed 8 fps. Optimum velocities for reducing maintenance costs and preventing accumulation of solids range between 3.5 and 5 fps. C2-3.3 Air Relief Valve An air relief or air/vacuum valve should be placed at high points in the force main to relieve air locking. The surge effect on the system should be considered when sizing these valves. Air relief and air/vacuum valves should be designed with cleanout or flushing attachments to facilitate maintenance. These valves should be protected from freezing and from damage by heavy equipment. Since they are subject to grease and scum accumulations, these valves should be inspected periodically to determine the need for flushing. C2-3.4 Blow-Offs A blow-off should be installed at low points of force mains where gritty material can accumulate and restrict flow. Blow-off valves also allow for removing raw wastewater before maintenance operations that involve opening the force main. C2-3.5 Termination The force main should enter the receiving manhole with its centerline horizontal and an inverted elevation that will ensure a smooth transition of flow to the gravity flow section. In no case, however, should the force main enter the gravity system at a point more than 1 foot above the flow line of the receiving manhole. The design should minimize turbulence at the point of discharge. Consideration should be given to the use of inert materials or protective coatings for the receiving manhole to prevent deterioration from hydrogen sulfide or other chemicals. Such chemicals are especially likely to be present because of industrial discharges or long force mains. C2-3.6 Construction Materials Materials used for force mains include ductile iron, steel, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), fiberglass or reinforced plastics, and prestressed and reinforced concrete. The pipe material and interior lining should be selected to adapt to local conditions, including industrial waste and soil characteristics, exceptionally heavy external loading, internal erosion, corrosion, and similar problems. The system design and surge allowances may preclude the use of some materials. Sewage Pump Stations December 1998 C2-17 Installation specifications should contain appropriate requirements based on the criteria, standards, and requirements established by the industry in its technical publications. Requirements should be set forth in the specifications for the pipe and methods of backfilling to preclude damage to the pipe or its joints, impede future cleaning operations, prevent excessive side pressures that may create ovulation of the pipe, or seriously impair flow capacity. All pipes should be designed to prevent damage from superimposed loads. Proper allowance for loads imposed on the pipe should be calculated for the width and depth of the trench. Use WSDOT specifications and refer to Chapter G2 for additional information. C2-3.7 Pressure Tests All force mains should be hydrostatically tested at a minimum pressure of at least 50 percent above the design working pressure. The method of testing should be in accordance with Section 7-11.3(11) of the Washington State Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction, “Pipe Installation for Water Mains- Hydrostatic Pressure Test” or AWWA 906 test pressures. Leakage shall not exceed the amount given in the following formula: L = ND√P 7,400 L = allowable leakage, gallons per hour N = number of joints in length of pipeline tested D = nominal diameter of the pipe in inches P = average test pressure during the leakage test (psi) C2-3.8 Connections In order to avoid shearing force main pipes because of differential settlement, flex couplings should be used on force main pipes between the pump station structures, such as the pump station and the valve box. Flex couplings should also be used between the final pump station structure and the force main. C2-3.9 Surge Control Hydraulic surges and transients (water hammer) are dependent on a force main’s size, length, profile, and construction materials. Surge analysis, possible causes, and types of protection facilities for transient conditions are discussed in C2-1.5. Pipe pressure tests and thrust restraint should be based on maximum transient conditions, including an appropriate margin for safety. C2-3.10 Thrust Restraint Thrust forces in pressurized pipelines shall be restrained or anchored to prevent excessive movement and joint separation under all projected conditions. Common methods include thrust blocking and various types of restrained joints. C2-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C2-3.11 Pig Launching/Retrieval Facilities Provisions for launching and retrieving cleaning pigs should be considered in the design of a force main. See C2-2.1.7 for a discussion of when pig-launching capability is advised. Pig launching facilities may be as simple as a pipe wye or more elaborate, with a special launch chamber, bypass piping, and valves. In either case, provisions should be made for attaching gauges to monitor pressure. Retrieval facilities may also be elaborate or simple. Elaborate retrieval devices are usually mirror images of the launch device; baskets, traps, or screens placed in the receiving manhole are among the simpler retrieval methods. C2-4 References American National Standard Institute/Hydraulic Institute (ANSI/HI). Centrifugal Pumps- Nomenclature, Definitions, Application and Operation. 1994. ANSI/HI. Centrifugal and Vertical Pumps—Definitions, Application and Operation. 1998. ANSI/HI. Vertical Pumps—Nomenclature, Definitions, Application and Operation. 1994. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering—Collection and Pumping of Wastewater. Third Edition, New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991. National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) Standard 820. Standard for Fire Protection in Wastewater Treatment and Collection Facilities. 1995. Prosser, M.J. The Hydraulic Design of Pump Sumps and Intakes. BHRA. 1977. Sanks, Robert L., et al. Pumping Station Design. Second Edition. Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers. 1998. Sanks, Robert L., et. al. Improvements in Pump Intake Basin Design. EPA/600/R-95/041. 1995. Underwriters Laboratories 1207. Sewage Pumps for Use in Hazardous (Classified) Locations. 1996. Water Environment Federation. Design of Wastewater and Stormwater Pump Stations. Manual of Practice FD-4. 1993. December 1998 C3-1 OCS C3 Combined Sewer Overflows This chapter primarily deals with combined sewer overflows (CSOs). Information is included on the CSO requirements of Ecology and the federal government. Planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance, and reporting considerations and requirements are also included. Other wet weather flow control issues include sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs) and stormwater. These are defined in C3-1.1 but are not discussed further in this chapter. C3-1 General................................... 3 C3-1.1 Definitions and General Description of the Various Wet Weather Related Flows.................3 C3-1.2 Background...................................3 C3-1.2.1 Washington State CSO Program ............ 3 C3-1.2.2 National CSO Control Effort.................. 4 C3-1.2.3 CSO Discharges and Water Quality Standards........................................................ 5 C3-2 CSO Reduction Plans........... 5 C3-2.1 Problem Assessment ...................5 C3-2.1.1 System Mapping/Inventory .................... 6 C3-2.1.2 Flow Monitoring and Sampling for CSO Reduction Plans..................................... 6 A. Combined Sewer Overflow Discharge (Whole Effluent) ....................................... 6 1. Basins with Commercial/Industrial Zoned Areas.......................................... 6 2. Basins with Residential Zoning ............... 6 B. Receiving Water Sediments......................... 6 1. Basins with Commercial/Industrial Zoned Areas.......................................... 6 2. Basins with Residential Zoning ............... 7 C. Access.......................................................... 7 D. Data Analyses.............................................. 7 1. Discharge ................................................. 7 2. Receiving Water Sediments..................... 8 E. Exemption as Allowed by WAC 173- 245-040(2)(a)(iv) ...................................... 8 F. Additional Characterization ......................... 8 C3-2.1.3 Baseline Annual CSO Volume and Frequency....................................................... 8 A. Modeling ..................................................... 8 B. Calibration................................................... 9 C. Data Analysis............................................... 9 C3-2.1.4 Receiving Water....................................10 C3-2.1.5 Sensitive Areas......................................10 C3-2.1.6 Site Ranking and Prioritization..............11 C3-2.2 Development of CSO Control Alternatives ................................ 11 C3-2.3 Evaluation of CSO Control Alternatives ................................ 13 C3-2.4 Use of Models ............................ 13 C3-3 Design Guidelines .............. 14 C3-3.1 System Characterization ........... 14 C3-3.2 Structural Controls .................... 14 C3-3.2.1 Sewer System Controls..........................14 C3-3.2.2 Reduction of Inflow Volume or Peak Rate ...............................................................15 C3-3.2.3 Storage...................................................15 A. Sizing..........................................................15 B. Impact on Downstream Treatment Facilities...................................................16 C. Soil conditions............................................16 D. Cleaning .....................................................16 E. Circular tanks..............................................16 F. Rectangular tanks........................................16 C3-3.2.4 Floatable Materials Control...................17 C3-3.3 CSO Treatment........................... 17 C3-3.3.1 Permitting Issues ...................................18 C3-3.3.2 Primary Sedimentation ..........................18 C3-3.3.3 Vortex Separation..................................18 C3-3.3.4 High Rate Filtration...............................20 C3-3.3.5 Microscreening......................................20 C3-3.3.6 Inclined Plate Separators .......................20 C3-3.3.7 Chemical Treatment ..............................20 C3-3.3.8 Disinfection ...........................................21 C3-3.4 Operations and Maintenance Considerations........................... 21 C3-3.4.1 Frequency and Timing...........................21 C3-3.4.2 Access....................................................22 C3-3.4.3 Cleaning and Maintenance Considerations...............................................23 C3-3.4.4 Monitoring.............................................23 C3-3.5 Redundancy ............................... 23 C3-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C3-4 Submittal Requirements .... 24 C3-4.1 CSO Reduction Plan...................24 C3-4.2 Engineering and Construction Submittals ...................................24 C3-4.2.1 Engineering Reports for CSO Projects..........................................................24 C3-4.2.2 Source Control and BMP Requirements ................................................25 C3-4.2.3 Environmental Assessment ...................25 C3-4.3 Annual CSO Report ....................25 C3-4.4 CSO Plan Update/Amendment...26 C3-5 References........................... 26 Figures C3-1. Rectangular Storage Tank Configuration.......17 C3-2. Schematic of the Swirl Concentrator .............19 Tables C3-1. Comparison of EPA and Ecology CSO Requirements ................................................... 4 C3-2. Issues to Consider When Developing CSO Control Alternatives........................................11 C3-3. Issues Affecting Evaluation of Final CSO Control Alternatives........................................13 Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-3 C3-1 General This chapter addresses primarily combined sewer overflows (CSOs). See C3-1.1 for definitions of terms used in this chapter and elsewhere in this manual to describe wet weather flow concerns. C3-1.1 Definitions and General Description of the Various Wet Weather Related Flows Combined sewer systems (CSS) are wastewater collection systems designed to carry sanitary sewage (consisting of domestic, commercial, and industrial wastewater) and stormwater in a single pipe to a treatment facility. In periods of rainfall or snowmelt, total wastewater flows can exceed the capacity of the sewer collection systems and/or treatment facilities. When this occurs, the combined sewer system is designed to overflow directly to nearby streams, lakes, and harbors, discharging untreated sewage and stormwater. These overflows are called combined sewer overflows (CSOs). No new combined sewers may be built. Sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs) occur when the capacity of a separate sanitary sewer is exceeded, normally during storm events due to inflow and infiltration. There are several factors that may contribute to SSOs from a sewerage system, including pipe capacity, operations and maintenance effectiveness, sewer design, age of system, pipe materials, geology, and building codes. SSOs are considered unauthorized discharges not covered by NPDES permits, and must be reported to Ecology as spills. For a discussion of hydraulic design issues for collection systems, see Chapter G2. Separate storm sewer systems collect and convey runoffs from rainfall or snowmelt to a stormwater outfall. Ecology has prepared a technical manual titled “Stormwater Management Manual for the Puget Sound Basin (SWMM),” 1992. This manual contains descriptions of and design criteria for best management practices to prevent, control, and treat pollutants in stormwater. Therefore, SWMM may be used for guidance on separate storm sewer systems. C3-1.2 Background Because CSOs contain untreated domestic sewage, commercial and industrial wastewater, as well as surface runoff, many different contaminants may be present. Contaminants may include pathogens, oxygen consuming pollutants, solids, nutrients, toxics, and floatable materials. Because of these contaminants and the volume of the flows, CSOs can cause a variety of adverse impacts on the receiving waters, such as shellfish harvesting restrictions, impairment of the aquatic habitat, and aesthetic degradation due to unsightly floating materials associated with raw sewage. C3-1.2.1 Washington State CSO Program Due to their intermittent nature and variable pollutant and flow characteristics, CSOs are very difficult to control. In 1987, the state legislature amended its Water Pollution Control Act (Chapter 90.48 RCW) requiring Ecology and local governments to develop reasonable plans and compliance schedules for the greatest reasonable reduction of CSOs at the earliest possible date. To implement this legislation, Ecology adopted a regulation (Chapter 173-245 WAC) which defines the greatest reasonable reduction as “control of each CSO such that an average of one untreated discharge may occur per year.” This regulation also defines performance standards for the primary treatment of CSOs as “the removal of at least 50 percent of TSS (total suspended solids) C3-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design from the waste stream and less than 0.3 mL/L/hr of settleable solids in the discharge.” No new combined sewer overflows are allowed. C3-1.2.2 National CSO Control Effort In 1994, the US EPA published its CSO control policy (59 Federal Register, 18688). The policy establishes guidelines for CSO communities to develop CSO controls. It requires CSO communities to implement, as appropriate, the nine minimum controls specified in the policy, and develop comprehensive long-term control plans tailored to their site-specific conditions. The long-term CSO control plans must achieve a level of CSO discharge control such that the state water quality standards will not be violated. Table C3-1 presents a summary of the EPA CSO Control policy requirements and compares them with requirements under Ecology’s CSO regulations. Table C3-1. Comparison of EPA and Ecology CSO Requirements Category EPA CSO Control Policy Requirements Ecology Requirements Immediate CSO Control Measures Implementation and documentation of the following nine minimum controls (NMC) for CSOs: 1. Proper operation and regular maintenance programs for the sewer system and CSOs; 2. Maximum use of the collection system for storage; 3. Review and modification of pretreatment requirements to assure CSO impacts are minimized; 4. Maximization of flow to the treatment plant for treatment; 5. Prohibition of CSOs during dry weather; 6. Control of solid and floatable materials in CSOs; 7. Pollution prevention (programs that focus on contaminant reduction activities); 8. Public notification to ensure that the public receives adequate notification of CSO occurrences and CSO impacts; and 9. Monitoring to effectively characterize CSO impacts and the efficacy of CSO controls. ? Chapter 173-245 WAC explicitly requires NMC Nos.1-4. ? Chapter 173-245 WAC also requires the monitoring of CSO frequency and volume. ? To comply with the EPA CSO policy, the appropriate NMC requirements are added to the municipalities’ NPDES permit when reissued. Final Standard The policy provides several options: ? One of the options under the “Presumption Approach” is to reduce the average number of untreated CSOs to 4-6 events per year, and ? CSOs shall not violate water quality standards. (The policy recommends adopting appropriate standards that will be protective of the water body’s beneficial uses.) ? One untreated CSO/year; and ? CSOs shall not violate water quality standards (numeric standards or the beneficial uses). Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-5 Category EPA CSO Control Policy Requirements Ecology Requirements Long-Term Control Plan 1. Characterization, monitoring, and modeling of the combined sewer system; 2. Public participation. (See Note A.) The permittee must employ a pubic participation process that actively involves the affected public in decision making to select the long-term CSO controls; 3. Consideration of sensitive areas. (See Note A.) Controlling overflows to sensitive areas must be given the highest priority; 4. Evaluation of alternatives; 5. Cost/performance considerations; 6. Operational plan; 7. Maximizing treatment at the existing treatment plant; 8. Implementation schedule. The Long-Term Control Plan must include pertinent information to develop the construction and financing schedule for implementation of CSO controls; and 9. Post-construction compliance monitoring program. (See Note A.) The monitoring program should be adequate to verify compliance with water quality standards and protection of designated uses as well as to ascertain the effectiveness of CSO controls. ? The state CSO reduction plan requirements include all except 2 and 9. ? The CSO communities in the state have already developed CSO reduction plans. However, public participation as envisioned by the EPA’s CSO policy was not a requirement for the development of the CSO reduction plans. ? Also, the CSO reduction plans were not required to propose a program for post- construction receiving water quality monitoring. Note A: States are given discretion not to require these steps for small CSO jurisdictions with populations under 75,000. C3-1.2.3 CSO Discharges and Water Quality Standards Compliance with the state water quality standards is a requirement that must always be achieved under both the state CSO regulation and EPA national CSO control policy. Compliance with the state water quality standards regulation, Chapter 173-201A WAC, is achieved by meeting the quantifiable standards as well as protecting the designated use of a water body. C3-2 CSO Reduction Plans To fulfill the requirements of Chapter 173-245 WAC, municipalities have to develop and receive Ecology approval for CSO reduction plans and for engineering reports. The regulation outlines the ultimate goal of the regulation, the data collection requirements, the acceptable types of control alternatives, the required comparative analyses of alternatives, and requirements for ranking and scheduling CSO reduction projects. Municipalities with CSOs should have approved CSO reduction plans. If they do not, they should have an administrative order from Ecology which stipulates a deadline to submit such a plan. Once a CSO reduction plan is approved, any projects or actions which are scheduled for construction or implementation within the five-year life of the existing sewage treatment plant permit must be incorporated into the NPDES permit or an administrative order. CSO plans are to be amended every five years in conjunction with the municipality’s NPDES permit. Reduction schedules in CSO reduction plans should incorporate the time necessary to prepare and receive approval for project-specific engineering reports before design. C3-2.1 Problem Assessment Existing information must be assessed and data needs identified before ranking sites in priority order. Prioritization will determine the order and timing of CSO control projects. Where significant data voids exist, ranking and prioritization will need to be iterative. C3-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Plans and schedules can be modified in the CSO Control Plan Update for each NPDES permit renewal (see C3-4.4). Information requirements to support ranking, prioritization, and project alternative development include the following: C3-2.1.1 System Mapping/Inventory ? Map of receiving waters and collection system. ? Natural resources. ? Recreational areas. ? Special fish, shellfish, and habitat areas. ? Beneficial uses. ? Public water supply intakes. ? Existing discharge structures. C3-2.1.2 Flow Monitoring and Sampling for CSO Reduction Plans To comply with WAC 173-245-040(2)(a) municipalities should have accomplished at least the following programs. A. Combined Sewer Overflow Discharge (Whole Effluent) 1. Basins with Commercial/Industrial Zoned Areas ? Sample each site at least twice, using a flow-paced composite sample. ? Analyze for: heavy metals (total, or dissolved and particulate) (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, Ni, Ag, Zn); total suspended solids; settleable solids; base/acid and neutrals (BAN) (US EPA method 624); organo-chlorine pesticides and PCBs (US EPA method 625); and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (US EPA method 625). ? Record all discharge volumes and frequency. 2. Basins with Residential Zoning ? No quality sampling required if strictly residential basin. ? If a small commercial and/or industrial area is included, consider whether the businesses could generate discharge other than sanitary sewage and normal storm runoff. If so, see sampling requirements in C3-2.1.2A.1. Also consider whether past practices within the basin could contaminate stormwater runoff. ? Record all discharge volumes and frequency. B. Receiving Water Sediments 1. Basins with Commercial/Industrial Zoned Areas ? Establish extent of sludge deposit by visually observing sediment samples or by diver inspection. ? Analyze at least one sample of the deposit for percent solids, total organic carbon, grain size distribution, and heavy metals Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-7 (for totals, see C3-2.1.2A.2.). Also run BAN, volatiles, pesticides, and PCBs (use Puget Sound Estuary Program (PSEP) Protocols Manual). Be sure to report the total concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). 2. Basins with Residential Zoning Establish extent of sludge deposit by visually observing sediment samples or by diver inspection. This information may be used for qualitatively assessing the relative environmental impacts of CSOs from residential zones. C. Access Sampling and flow recording the actual discharge is preferable. If the discharge is not accessible, establish a relationship between flow in the sewer trunk and flow in the discharge pipe to which the trunk overflows. A sampler in the trunk could initiate when depth of flow in the trunk reaches overflow level. D. Data Analyses Sampling and laboratory analysis should conform to techniques in the PSEP Protocols Manual. 1. Discharge Note that C3-2.1.2A about discharge sampling indicates total metals, or dissolved and particulate metals. Analyses for dissolved and particulate metals would provide a clearer picture of potential sediment impacts and water quality impacts. If only total metals is available, compare the total metals data against water quality standards, sediment values, and criteria identified below. Because the medium (water or solids) in which the metals are carried is not known, compare the data against the regulatory standards for both. This gives a worst case comparison. Note that both the total metals concentration and the total suspended solids data are necessary to derive the maximum estimate of the metals concentration (mg/Kg) in the particulate fraction. The organics analyses should be done on whole effluent samples or separately on the dissolved and particulate fractions. Note that because typical concentrations in wastewater are relatively low the laboratory may need a large sample. This is necessary to provide results in the parts-per-billion range for whole effluent samples and in the 100- and 1,000-microgram-per-kilogram range for particulates. For estimating water quality impacts, compare the discharge’s dissolved (or total) heavy metals and organics concentrations to water quality standards (Chapter 173-201A WAC). For estimating sediment impact, compare the discharge’s particulate (or total) metals concentrations to the sediment management standards (Chapter 173-204 WAC). C3-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 2. Receiving Water Sediments The receiving water sediments’ heavy metals and organics concentrations should also be compared to the sediment management standards. If sediments show a high level of contamination, compare the sediment data against the hazardous waste regulations and the dredged material management standards. Locations exceeding the hazardous waste standards should be reported to the Superfund staff in the Ecology regional office. If the samples exceed Ecology’s sediment management standards but not any other standards, additional sampling should be done to determine the extent of sediments which exceed those criteria. The additional sampling should occur no later than the next five-year CSO reduction plan update if the overflow has not yet been completely eliminated. It can be assumed that the sample results reflect the relative contamination of each site. These data are being used not only for determining environmental impacts, but for prioritizing CSO sites for correction, and evaluating the appropriateness of different control measures. E. Exemption as Allowed by WAC 173-245-040(2)(a)(iv) This paragraph in the WAC allows suspension of the requirement to analyze receiving water sediments. The exemption can apply if other nearby sediment sources or activities (such as dredging) obscure or have disrupted CSO sediment deposition. The decision whether to require sediment analysis is the responsibility of Ecology’s regional office. F. Additional Characterization Water quality sampling of overflows for characterization and estimate of receiving water impact should cover a range of overflow volumes, seasonal periods, and tidal conditions. More sophisticated characterizations such as biological characterization, fate and transport modeling, and source comparisons may be useful for later refinement of project alternatives. C3-2.1.3 Baseline Annual CSO Volume and Frequency WAC 173-245-040 requires identification of the baseline annual volume and frequency of each discharge. The regulation defines baseline annual CSO volume and frequency as “the annual CSO volume and frequency which is estimated to occur based upon the existing sewer system and the historical rainfall record.” Section 090 requires that any CSO not increase above this baseline annual condition. C3-2.1.3A to C3-2.1.3C describe how the baseline annual condition is established, and how to determine whether that level is being exceeded. A. Modeling The baseline annual condition is established by correlating rainfall with overflow volume and frequency. The literature contains many examples of mathematical models that correlate rainfall with runoff. Some models Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-9 include programs that simulate routing the storm runoff and sewage flows through the sewer system. From these models, we can estimate overflow occurrence and volumes for storm events. Large communities with numerous overflow sites should use more sophisticated models. These models use hourly rainfall data to generate unit hydrographs, and routing models to lag and combine hydrographs and simulate flow backups. For small communities with only one or two discharge points, correlation of rainfall and overflow occurrence and volume may be demonstrated with simpler models or by graphical correlation of observed rainfall amounts and overflow quantity. The sophistication of the model chosen to analyze the system must be matched to the requirements. In a complex system, preliminary screening can be conducted with simplified models, but final alternative testing and design will require use of sophisticated dynamic models (such as EPA’s Stormwater Management Model EXTRAN block). In outlying tributary basins far upstream in the network, simplified models (such as EPA’s Stormwater Management Model RUNOFF and TRANSPORT blocks) may be used. In larger diameter sewers and in cases where the depth of flow is important (critical overflow weirs, pump stations, storage within the sewer network), a fully dynamic model must be used. B. Calibration Flow and rainfall monitoring should be conducted to collect data for calibration of runoff and infiltration/inflow models. Generally, a minimum of four to six months of continuous monitoring during the wet weather period is needed to collect sufficient information. The number of monitor locations will depend on the layout of the sewer system. Monitors should be placed at key manholes where it is most important to have calibration information, or where it is necessary to define the characteristics of differing basins. Model calibration is the critical step. For a particular storm event, you can compare the model-simulated overflow volumes and frequency to observed volumes and frequency observed in the field. The model’s input co-efficients can be adjusted until the predicted overflows reasonably agree with the overflows of at least a few storms of varying size. C. Data Analysis The next step is to use the calibrated model to estimate total system and individual annual overflow frequency and volume for each year of rainfall record. The longer the reliable rainfall records, the better. (Note that the model uses the existing sewer system and the historical rainfall. So the results estimate the annual volumes which would have occurred for each year had the sewer system been as it is today.) Plot the annual estimated overflow volume versus annual rainfall. One graph could display the model’s estimated correlation between rainfall and total CSO volume. Other graphs could address each individual CSO. The next step is to draw confidence limits lines on the graph; for example, a 95-percent confidence limit line. (The overflow volume for any C3-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design particular rainfall amount should not exceed a certain value 95 percent of the time.) This is used to compare future CSO volumes to that which the graph predicts based upon a particular annual rainfall total. The regulation requires municipalities to measure and report their annual CSO volume. If the actual annual CSO volume for a few years exceeds a high confidence limit line, that should indicate that the CSO has increased above its baseline condition. Ecology would have a basis for requiring a municipality to accomplish a project to reduce the offending CSO to below its baseline condition. For communities which (1) have little or no growth, and (2) are not scheduled to accomplish any significant sewer rehabilitation, construction, or CSO projects in the next few years, there is a simpler way to establish the baseline condition. Just monitor the overflow volumes and the rainfall. Draw the graph of rainfall versus overflow volume from the data. Draw the “baseline condition” line just above the data points. The drawbacks of this latter approach are (1) it will have a limited number of data points from which to determine the baseline condition; and (2) it will not have the benefit of a model to help find cost effective reduction alternatives. C3-2.1.4 Receiving Water The objectives of receiving water monitoring generally include the following: ? Assess the attainment of water quality standards, including designated uses. ? Establish the baseline conditions in the receiving water. ? Evaluate the impacts of CSOs. ? Gain sufficient understanding of the receiving water to support evaluation of proposed CSO control alternatives, including any receiving water modeling that may be needed. ? Support the review and revision of water quality standards. Identification and use of existing receiving water data can reduce the cost and effort of developing the CSO reduction plan. Often, pollutant source discharge, hydraulic, chemical, sediment, and biological data will exist because of past studies conducted in the watershed. C3-2.1.5 Sensitive Areas In developing CSO reduction plans, CSO communities are expected to give the highest priority to controlling overflows in sensitive areas, including: ? Designated outstanding national resource waters. ? National marine sanctuaries. ? Waters with threatened or endangered species and their habitats. ? Waters used for contact recreation, such as swimming and diving. ? Public drinking water intakes or their designated protected areas. ? Shellfish beds. Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-11 When physically and economically possible, eliminate or relocate those overflows that discharge to sensitive areas, treated or untreated. C3-2.1.6 Site Ranking and Prioritization Using the above information, a site ranking procedure should be developed that complies with WAC 173-245-040(d) and reflects the technical considerations discussed in this chapter and the larger needs of the community. Example approaches are given in EPA’s document, “Combined Sewer Overflows—Screening and Ranking Guidance,” 1995. C3-2.2 Development of CSO Control Alternatives Issues to consider when developing CSO control alternatives are listed in Table C3-2. Table C3-2. Issues to Consider When Developing CSO Control Alternatives Issue Additional Comments Identify ways to structure the alternatives, given the geographic layout of the CSO, as well as hydraulic and other constraints. Specific items to identify: ? Opportunities for consolidation of projects and regional solutions. ? Projects common to all alternatives. ? Projects requiring outfall-specific alternatives. ? Opportunities to utilize treatment plant capacity—full secondary or CSO-treatment only using excess primary treatment capacity. ? Sensitive receiving water areas: Outstanding National Resource Waters, National Marine Sanctuaries, waters with threatened or endangered species and their habitat, waters supporting primary contact recreation (e.g., bathing beaches), public drinking water intakes or their designated protection areas, and shellfish beds. Institutional controls: consideration must be given to strengthening institutional controls over sources. Institutional controls include: ? Sewer use ordinances. ? Industrial/commercial pretreatment programs. Source controls: consideration must be given to methods to control the sources of volume and pollutants. Source controls include: ? Porous pavements. ? Flow detention. ? Area drain and roof leader disconnection. ? Use of pervious areas for infiltration. ? Air pollution reduction. ? Solid waste management. ? Street sweeping. ? Fertilizer and pesticide control. ? Snow removal and de-icing control. ? Soil erosion control. ? Commercial/industrial runoff control. ? Animal waste removal. ? Catch basin cleaning. C3-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Issue Additional Comments Collection system controls: consideration must be given to methods to control the sources of volume and pollutants. Collection system controls include: ? Sewer line flushing and maintenance programs. ? Maximizing use of existing system. ? Sewer separation. ? Infiltration/inflow control. ? Polymer injection. ? Regulating devices and backwater gates. ? Inflatable dams. ? Motor or hydraulically operated sluice gates. ? Elastomeric tidegates. ? Real-time control. ? Flow diversion. Storage technologies: consideration must be given to methods to store flows. Methods of storage include: ? Inline storage. ? Offline near surface storage. ? Deep tunnel storage. ? Other (proven innovative or pilot-tested technologies). Treatment technologies: consideration must be given to methods of treatment of overflows. Methods of treatment include: ? Centralized treatment ? Maximization of transfer of flows to the central treatment plant. ? Use of excess primary treatment capacity. ? Addition of primary or secondary capacity. ? On-site treatment ? Offline near surface storage/sedimentation. ? Coarse screening. ? Swirl/vortex technologies. ? Disinfection. ? Dechlorination. ? Dissolved air floatation. ? High-rate filtration. ? Fine screens and microstrainers. ? Submerged discharge. ? Other (proven innovative or pilot-tested technologies). Preliminary sizing considerations must be included in alternative development. Preliminary sizing considerations include: ? Predicted CSO flow rates, volumes, and pollutant loads under selected hydraulic conditions. ? Level of abatement of predicted CSO volumes and pollutant loads necessary to meet CSO control goals. Cost/performance considerations must be included in alternative development. Cost/performance considerations include: ? Comparing performance versus cost and identifying the point of diminishing returns, or “knee” of the curve. ? Optimal combinations of storage, separation, and treatment facilities. Preliminary siting issues must be included in alternative development. Preliminary siting issues include: ? Availability of sufficient space for the facility on the site. ? Distance of the site from CSO regulator(s) or outfall(s) that will be controlled. ? Environmental, political, or institutional issues related to locating the facility on the site. Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-13 Issue Additional Comments Preliminary operating strategies must be included in alternative development to ensure that the alternative can function reasonably in the context of its geographic location and relationship to the collection system. C3-2.3 Evaluation of CSO Control Alternatives Final decisions on CSO control alternatives should take into account items listed in Table C3-3. Table C3-3. Issues Affecting Evaluation of Final CSO Control Alternatives Issue Additional Comments Project Costs ? Capital ? Annual operations and maintenance ? Life-cycle costs Performance ? CSO control project performance ? Impact on central plant performance Cost/Performance Evaluations Technical Issues ? Constructibility ? Reliability ? Operability Implementation Issues ? Adaptability to phased implementation ? Institutional constraints ? Multiple use considerations Public Review and Comment Rating and Ranking of Alternatives A system of rating and ranking project alternatives, based on consistent criteria such as described above should be developed as an evaluation tool. Examples are provided by EPA in section 3.4.5 of “Combined Sewer Overflows—Guidance for Long-Term Control Plan,” 1995. C3-2.4 Use of Models Narrowing of alternatives should include detailed simulation of performance under a variety of actual storm conditions. Storms representing various return intervals should be selected from the record, with concentration on a storm selected to predict peak flows and volumes associated with approximately a once-per-year return period. The storms of interest can be selected from long-term monitoring records if available, or can be selected from a simulation of a long-term rainfall record using a simplified model. The use of synthetic design storms developed from intensity-duration-frequency curves should be avoided because they will over-predict the peak flow and under-predict the volume of runoff. Confirmation of the expected performance of final alternatives should include detailed dynamic simulation of the system over several years of rainfall record. To ensure that an C3-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design adequate once-per-year statistic is determined, the record should span at least five to six years with average annual rainfall approximately equal to the long-term average. (The rainfall during the late 1980s and early 1990s was below average while including several significant events with return periods on the order of 25 years or more. This period should be used with caution in long-term simulations.) C3-3 Design Guidelines The purpose of this section is to provide guidelines for the functional design of CSO control facilities. C3-3.1 System Characterization Functional design of CSO control facilities requires extensive understanding of the behavior of the system. Accurate assessment of overflow volumes and frequencies at all points in a complex system may require extensive monitoring of flows and rainfall, and use of a sophisticated mathematical model to analyze the data. In addition, data on the expected quality of combined sewer overflows is required to define the necessary reduction levels to meet water quality objectives and in design of quality control features. C3-3.2 Structural Controls C3-3.2.1 Sewer System Controls Sewer system controls refer to utilization of the volume inherent in the sewer system to reduce overflows. For the majority of rainfall events, only a fraction of the depth in large diameter systems is occupied by the flow. Various devices have been used to take advantage of this “in-line” storage volume, including vortex throttle valves, inflatable dams, mechanical regulating gates, float operated gates, and static and bending weirs. This approach is the most cost- effective method to reduce overflow volumes. Vortex throttle valves utilize flow resistance from a vortex action to effectively reduce the co-efficient of discharge in the standard orifice equation by a factor of approximately four. At heads up to about 150 percent of the valve diameter, the device behaves as a pipe with a diameter approximately twice that of the valve itself. Storage in upstream sewers, tanks, or on the streets (if installed in catch basins), is achieved with a significantly lower tendency for clogging than a standard orifice. Design considerations for sewer system controls include the following: ? For static systems (weirs, throttle valves), consider optimal placement or sizing to minimize overflow volumes or frequency. This will require multiple analyses with continuous simulation models. With vortex throttle valves, consider the need for air venting and slide gates for clearing clogs and facilitating maintenance. Consideration should also be given to potentially serious plugging problems that could occur with the use of vortex valves. ? Installing a centralized computer control system with predictive models to adjust set points and flows within the system will optimize mechanical systems and maximize use of existing facilities. Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-15 ? Emergency overflows must be provided to prevent backups in the system. This can include weirs upstream of control devices to bypass flow around the device when the storage reaches a maximum acceptable level. ? All overflows should be designed to retain solids and floatable materials within the sewer system. C3-3.2.2 Reduction of Inflow Volume or Peak Rate Inflow reduction includes stormwater separation that may include redirection of rooftop drainage to percolation areas or surface drainage systems. Reduction of peak flow rates can be accomplished by restricting flow at catch basin inlets, forcing storage in the streets or in small offline tanks associated with the catch basins, and utilizing available volume in the sewers. ? Partial separation for interception of street drainage only may be combined with programs for removal of rooftop drainage or additional storage for the remaining CSO. The total cost of separation with additional activities can be optimized. Consideration must be given to the regulatory requirements for stormwater discharge and the operational and maintenance costs associated with the new sewers. ? Removal of rooftop drainage design considerations includes the soil and drainage conditions at individual sites (avoid in landslide prone areas, or where drainage will collect in yards). ? Restricting or eliminating catch basin inlets can be used to store runoff on the streets or offline storage tanks. The streets and curb and gutter system can be used to direct surface drainage downstream to existing or new drainage systems. This technique, known as flow slipping, can reduce the total cost of stormwater separation. Design considerations include the additional depth of flow in gutter systems, and flooding of intersections (modifications may be required to allow flow to proceed downstream) and private property. These techniques are most effective when applied high in the tributary system. C3-3.2.3 Storage Storage (detention) of a large fraction of the CSOs for transfer to the central treatment plant may provide the greatest overall system pollutant reduction. Storage of combined sewage takes place in either inline or offline tanks. Inline systems have the storage tank as a part of the normal sewage flow path (tanks, enlarged sewer sections) with a flow control device at the downstream end. Offline systems require that excess flows enter the tank over a weir. A disadvantage of inline systems is that grit in the flow must pass through the system and may collect in the enlarged low velocity storage zone. Because the flow usually enters an offline system over a weir, grit is preferentially retained in the normal flow path, which may reduce operational cleanup efforts. Principal design considerations for storage are described in the following paragraphs. A. Sizing The volume of storage provided must be sufficient to result in overflows on an average of once per year. Since it may be difficult to provide additional storage in the future, the flow characterization of the network C3-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design must be extensive enough to ensure selection of the proper sizing. Continuous simulation with several years of rainfall should be conducted to confirm sizing. The modeling should include the impacts of any upstream storage, which may affect the downstream units during tank drainage. The simulation should incorporate various drainage scenarios in order to optimize the overall system operation. B. Impact on Downstream Treatment Facilities Networks dominated by storage for CSO control will result in prolonged periods of higher-than-normal flow at downstream treatment plants. The impact of this operation must be assessed. It may be that this impact will necessitate holding stored flows until treatment plant flows have subsided significantly, which could result in large storage volumes to achieve overflow objectives. C. Soil conditions In poor soils, piling may be required to support the structures. In cases of high ground water, offline tanks will need provisions to prevent uplift. This may require that they be constructed near the ground surface, which may require that influent flows be pumped. D. Cleaning Storage facilities must be cleaned at various intervals ranging from immediately following each filling event to one time per year or longer. E. Circular tanks Introducing influent flows in a tangential manner facilitates cleanup of circular storage tanks. This sets up secondary currents that move solids to the center of the tank. The system may include recirculation pumps that maintain the vortex motion after flow subsides to further facilitate cleanup. F. Rectangular tanks Rectangular tanks should be constructed with multiple cells that are filled sequentially as the overflow event progresses. This minimizes the volume that must be cleaned up in smaller events, and concentrates heavier materials in the first cell. The arrangement is shown in Figure C3-1. Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-17 Sluice gate open for drainage CSO influent Overflow weir Control room and odor control Storage overflow Drainage pumped to combined sewer Drainage flow Transfer between cells during filling Figure C3-1. Rectangular Storage Tank Configuration C3-3.2.4 Floatable Materials Control Removing floatable materials is accomplished by using screens, fabric nets, rotary sieves, systems operating on the vortex principle, traps in catch basins, and simple underflow baffles in the overflow path. Floatable materials captures of up to 70 percent are expected. Some example rotary sieve (similar to drum screens) specifications are as follows: sieve openings of 20 to 30 mm by 2 to 4 mm. Hydraulic loading rates of 100 L/m 2 are typical. C3-3.3 CSO Treatment Ecology permits the “equivalent” of primary treatment to achieve control of CSOs. Primary treatment is defined by Ecology as 50 percent suspended solids removal and an effluent settleable solids concentration less than 0.3 ml/L. Treatment of CSOs to remove suspended solids and associated pollutants is typically accomplished using plain (or primary) sedimentation, combinations of storage and treatment, vortex separation, inclined plate separation, high rate filtration, and microscreening. These methods can be supplemented by chemical addition (including ballast agents) and dissolved air floatation. (See C3-3.3.7 and Chapter T4.) CSO treatment facilities may operate only a few times each year. This intermittent operation must be considered in the design and measurement of performance. C3-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C3-3.3.1 Permitting Issues Ecology’s policy is to interpret an annual mass balance approach for suspended solids. In this approach, suspended solids in CSOs stored in the treatment facility and pumped to a downstream secondary treatment plant after storm flows subside are credited as being removed according to the removal that occurs at the secondary plant. Removal is then calculated as the sum of suspended solids discharged from the CSO treatment facility and the mass of suspended solids discharged from the secondary facility in the transferred volume, divided by the mass of solids entering the CSO treatment facility, all on an annual basis. C3-3.3.2 Primary Sedimentation Design of primary sedimentation tanks is discussed in Chapter T2. In addition to those guidelines, information specifically for designing CSO treatment facilities is given below. ? The liquid depth in tanks for CSO treatment should be at least 9 feet, and consideration should be given to 15 feet to provide for storage of solids accumulated during a treatment event. Continuous sludge removal is not warranted due to the intermittent nature of operation and the short duration of discharge events. Continuous removal equipment would also interfere with cleanup after events. ? The removal of suspended solids by plain sedimentation is strongly dependent on the influent solids concentration and only moderately dependent on surface overflow rate. Experience with full-scale primary sedimentation plants and intermittent wet weather treatment plants indicates that the effluent TSS concentration remains essentially constant over a wide range of surface overflow rates. Ideally, the settling properties of solids in the specific CSO would be measured to select a peak overflow rate. In the absence of such data, a peak hourly overflow rate of 4,000 gpd/sf for the once-per-year design storm is recommended. ? The removal of suspended solids in any specific event depends mostly on the influent concentration and the portion of influent solids that are nonsettleable. Plain sedimentation is expected to achieve 50 percent suspended solids removal when averaged over an annual period. ? Settleable solids values resulting from primary treatment vary widely from day to day almost regardless of the flow and solids loading. Values have been observed ranging from nondetectable (less than 0.1 ml/L/hr) to over 5.0 ml/L/hr, but with a long-term average less than 0.3 ml/L/hr. C3-3.3.3 Vortex Separation Vortex solids separators use the vortex principle to move settleable solids to the bottom center of a circular chamber (see Figure C3-2). Flow is introduced on the tangent to induce the vortex motion. Solids-laden underflow is removed constantly at a rate of 5 to 15 percent of the influent flow. The relatively small diameter (40-foot maximum) and the steeply sloping sides provide an advantage in cleanup after treatment events. Enhancement of performance by addition of dissolved air floatation is also facilitated by the configuration. Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-19 Foul sewer outlet Influent Overflow Inlet ramp Flow deflector Floor gutters Secondary floor gutter Secondary overflow weir Overflow weir and weir plate Scum ring Floatables trap Spoiler Downshaft Source: Sullivan et al., 1982. Figure C3-2. Schematic of the Swirl Concentrator There are two commercially available vortex separators and the US EPA Swirl Concentrator. The vendors furnish design considerations. Additional design issues are as follows: ? Suspended solids removal above 50 percent on the basis of influent and effluent concentration has been reported for surface overflow rates less than about 7,500 gpd/sf (5 gpm/sf). Performance reported in the literature ranges from 5 to 80 percent. Most data from the literature is taken from tests at influent suspended solids concentrations greater than 200 mg/L. In the absence of site specific testing or enhancements C3-20 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design (e.g., dissolved air floatation), a peak surface overflow rate of 4,000 gpd/sf during the one-year design event is recommended. ? Vortex separators require a constant removal of settled solids from the bottom of the unit. This flow stream is usually 10 to 15 percent of the influent flow rate. This stream can be returned to the sewer system if there is sufficient capacity. Otherwise, it must be stored in offline tanks until capacity exits. C3-3.3.4 High Rate Filtration Filtration, using deep bed dual media, shallow bed sand, and compressed synthetic media filters, has been used to treat CSOs. Shallow bed filters have been tested extensively on primary effluent and found to generally reduce suspended solids by 50 percent. See Chapter T4 for further information. C3-3.3.5 Microscreening Microscreens with 23-mesh screen materials have exhibited effluent suspended solids concentrations in the range of 40 to 60 mg/L with influent CSO concentrations of 50 to 300 mg/L. Thus, the performance of the screen is dependent on the influent concentration, and, like primary sedimentation, 50-percent removals will not occur if the influent concentration drops much below 100 mg/L. See Chapter T4 for further information. C3-3.3.6 Inclined Plate Separators The use of inclined plate separators increases the effective settling area of a sedimentation unit. Inclined plates can be used to increase the allowable surface overflow rate on a sedimentation unit. A significant increase in suspended solids removal should not be expected, however, unless this technique is combined with chemical treatment. See Chapter T2 for further information. C3-3.3.7 Chemical Treatment Chemical treatment is the addition of coagulants to enhance sedimentation, filtration, and dissolved air flotation. Coagulants normally used include aluminum, iron salts, and/or polymers. The precipitates formed are coagulated together with CSO particulates into larger, rapidly settling floc. Coagulating otherwise nonsettleable solids increases suspended solids removal. In addition, ballast agents (fine sands) can be added to enhance the settling velocity of the flocs, increasing the allowable surface overflow rates needed in sedimentation processes. Chemical treatment is often combined with inclined plate separation to further reduce unit sizes. Chemical treatment with metals salts will achieve a high degree of removal of heavy metals, high molecular weight organic pollutants, and coliform bacteria. Adding microsands to enhance the settling velocity of chemical flocs is a recent advancement. When combined with ferric chloride, polymer, and inclined plate separation, suspended solids removals from stormwater of 80 to 90 percent have been reported at surface overflow rates up to 60,000 gpd/sf. The disadvantage of these processes is the chemical usage (up to 100 mg/L ferric chloride) and loss of fine sand. The sand is recycled, but losses up to 2 mg/L of treated CSO are reported. Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-21 See Chapter T4 for further information. C3-3.3.8 Disinfection On-site treatment of CSOs may include a disinfection requirement at CSO sites that are near or that impact water supply intakes, potentially harvestable shellfish areas, and primary contact recreation areas. Disinfection of CSOs is accomplished with oxidizing chemicals (chlorine, calcium, or sodium hypochlorite), chlorine dioxide, bromine based compounds, ozone, or ultraviolet light. Contact time may be provided in CSO treatment or storage facilities by dosing ahead of the tanks. The following criteria are appropriate for performance: ? End-of-pipe fecal coliform concentration of 400 counts/100 ml. ? Receiving water quality requirements met by ensuring that bacterial counts at the boundary of the chronic mixing zone are within water quality criteria. ? Regulatory flows for dilution calculations are as follows: ? Maximum day: average discharge rate during the one-per-year design event. ? Maximum month: compute average monthly discharge as the sum of discharge volumes during each month divided by the number of discharges in that month. Select the 95th percentile value from long-term simulations as the maximum monthly flow. ? Unless initial dilution is sufficient, dechlorination will be required to meet water quality standards for chlorine. See Chapter T5 for further information. C3-3.4 Operations and Maintenance Considerations The purpose of this section is to provide considerations for operations and maintenance for CSO control, including the following: ? Frequency and timing. ? Access. ? Cleaning and maintenance considerations. ? Monitoring. Operation and maintenance considerations of CSO facilities will be largely dependent on site-specific factors. A program should be developed that clearly establishes operation, maintenance, and inspection procedures to ensure the specific system will function to maximize treatment of combined sewage and comply with NPDES permit limitations. Proper design of CSO facilities necessitates consideration of operation and maintenance requirements. C3-3.4.1 Frequency and Timing It can be anticipated that maintenance of CSO facilities will include inspections after each wet weather event. Additionally, inspection on an established schedule (weekly, monthly, etc.) between events is advisable. Frequency of inspection will depend on the type of facilities, historic records C3-22 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design of performance and reliability, sensitivity of nearby surface waters to CSOs, adequacy of maintenance program, and other items. Detention-type facilities may only require an inspection at the beginning of each wet season and after each wet weather event. However, if the facilities have not been designed to provide some level of self-cleaning, it will be necessary to provide for settled solids removal after each event to control odors and corrosive gases. Facilities incorporating processes beyond detention, such as intermittently operated CSO treatment plants and regulator structures, should have routine scheduled visits and equipment checks by maintenance personnel or operators. Maintenance of the facilities would be as established by the equipment requirements. An operator may be assigned to the facility when the plant becomes active. The operator generally is not required to activate the plant but is required to monitor the operation to assure continuous operation in the event of a device malfunction. Plants using reliable equipment and which are totally automatic may not require inspection during operation unless equipment malfunction alarms a central location whereby maintenance personnel could be notified. Following a wet weather event it would be typical for maintenance personnel to dewater and wash down the facility to prepare for the next event unless provisions in the facility design accommodate these functions (such as automatic washdown). A properly developed operation and maintenance program should be integral to the overall operation of the system. While some operational problems may be mitigated by appropriate design, regular inspection and maintenance must be provided if the system is to function satisfactorily. C3-3.4.2 Access Normal inspection and maintenance of CSO facilities requires that adequate access be provided. Access openings are required for: ? Personnel entry. ? Transportation of equipment and materials. ? Ventilation. ? Light shafts. Personnel access at larger detention-type facilities may be provided by incorporation of a permanent stairway in the design. For smaller detention-type facilities a permanently installed ladder may adequately serve the purpose. Applicable fall protection considerations should be incorporated. If possible, access from an aboveground building which might also house electrical controls and valving might provide the most convenient option. Larger facilities may be also be provided with inspection walkways inside the basin. These walkways provide a convenient method of inspection and will promote more frequent visits and better maintenance. Intrusion alarms on access openings should be considered if a high level of protection and security is desired. Access openings may be required above basin inlets and outlets and at other locations where settled solids may necessitate cleaning. These openings should provide capability to unplug the outlet when the basin is full. Consideration Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-23 should be given to locating these openings to provide ventilation and light shafts. C3-3.4.3 Cleaning and Maintenance Considerations When a CSO facility is designed, consideration must be given to cleaning. If the facility remains full of solids or overflow for long periods of time due to lack of automated controls or personnel, septic conditions and odor problems will occur. The following design factors should be considered: ? Manual or automated washdown. ? Potable or nonpotable water available. ? Use of decant water off storage tank for rinsing and cleaning. ? Tank bottom sloped for ease of cleaning and solids removal. ? Floatable materials: ? Retain in storage/treatment tank. ? Remove, dewater, and haul to landfill. ? Dewater and transport to wastewater treatment plant. ? Assess whether solids can be pumped to the wastewater treatment plant for processing. ? Degrit solids at CSO facility and transport grit to landfill. ? Use permanent or portable pumps to dewater facility. ? Transport all floatable materials, solids, and liquid to wastewater treatment plant after CSO event. C3-3.4.4 Monitoring Monitoring CSO occurrences is used to assess the extent of and changes in pollutant loading or receiving water characteristics. Visual inspections and other simple methods may be used to determine the occurrence and apparent impacts of CSOs. Recording of overflow volume and frequency for each outfall is required by Ecology (Chapter 173-245 WAC) and EPA (59 FR 18688). At a minimum, the date, time, and duration of each overflow event should be recorded by visual observation or flow or level sensor. Total daily rainfall for that event should also be measured and recorded. Magnitude of the overflow event ideally should be measured and characterized by flowmeter. C3-3.5 Redundancy The purpose of this section is to clarify application in a wet weather intermittent flow system. Redundancy and reliability are generally covered in Chapter G2. Redundancy in the CSO context refers to mission-critical facilities necessary to protect equipment, human life, and public health. This would include systems necessary to ensure that excessive pressures do not occur in sewers; for example, emergency overflows, backup power systems to operate flow regulating valves, etc. In addition, systems for drainage of tanks should also have redundancy in the form of multiple units. C3-24 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design CSO control systems should be designed for operation of all associated equipment at the once-per-year frequency level. This means that under most operating conditions, not all the equipment (pumps, tanks, valves, etc.) will be in use. In addition, the frequency of operation is intermittent. As a result, the treatment equipment will not normally require redundant units because there will be units not in operation during the majority of events (for example, a spare pump or primary sedimentation unit). Spare influent or effluent pumps are not required unless flow conditions are such that all the pumps are required to operate several times per year. C3-4 Submittal Requirements Ecology’s CSO reduction program requirements are included in Chapter 173-245 WAC, “Submission of Plans and Reports for Construction and Operation of Combined Sewer Overflow Reduction Facilities.” The following paragraphs summarize the submittals which are unique to CSO projects. C3-4.1 CSO Reduction Plan Municipalities were mandated to obtain Ecology’s approval for CSO reduction plans by Jan. 1, 1988. This deadline was extended in many cases. The CSO reduction plan should be sufficiently complete so that plans and specifications can be developed from it for projects that may proceed into design within two years of plan submittal. Sufficient detail of any remaining projects should be provided such that detailed engineering reports can be prepared. Further requirements for the contents of a CSO reduction plan may be found in WAC 173-245-040. C3-4.2 Engineering and Construction Submittals The following requirements are the same as the general engineering requirements. See Chapter G1. ? Engineering reports. ? Plans and specifications. ? Construction quality assurance plan. ? Operation and maintenance manual. ? Declaration of construction completion. ? Requirements for certified operator(s). ? Ownership and operation and maintenance. C3-4.2.1 Engineering Reports for CSO Projects In adopting a CSO Reduction Plan, a municipality should identify a schedule for its projects. Before implementing any of those projects, a municipality must submit a project-specific engineering report or facility plan. The facility plan is a prerequisite to applying for a grant or loan for design and construction. Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-25 The engineering report or facility plan should be at a level of detail equivalent to that outlined in WAC 173-240-060. For instance, it should include an identification of the site, a general site layout, and the design criteria for any on-site CSO treatment project. For a sewer separation project, it should include a plan view of the new storm or sanitary sewer layout for the basin, and the sizes and preliminary elevations of the sewers. In addition, the report should include an assessment of the environmental impacts of the proposed projects. C3-4.2.2 Source Control and BMP Requirements Engineering reports for sewer separation projects should also include a scope of work to accomplish a drainage basin survey and source control effort for all direct and indirect (such as an industrial storage yard runoff into the street) industrial and commercial stormwater contributions. The purpose of the survey and source control efforts is to reduce the pollutant load into the new storm sewer. The municipality should substantially complete its initial source control effort before submitting plans and specifications for the separation project to Ecology for approval. A source control report should accompany the plans and specifications submittal. These source control efforts should be integrated with the municipality’s stormwater NPDES permit and/or comprehensive stormwater program. C3-4.2.3 Environmental Assessment The engineering report for a CSO project should document the extent of the sediment impacts of the existing CSO discharge. These studies will establish an environmental baseline against which to monitor the extent of water quality improvements gained by the project. The municipality may have reported sediment quality analyses as part of their CSO reduction plan. As allowed by the rule and guidance, residential basins may have had only a qualitative assessment of sediment impacts in the CSO reduction planning stage. The report should also include a discussion of the estimated environmental impacts of the project (i.e. new storm sewer outfall, on-site treatment, or reduced CSO frequency because of storage). Those portions of the environmental assessment done for the CSO reduction plan could be referenced. If an environmental assessment of the proposed project was not done for the CSO reduction plan, it should certainly be done now. The municipality should give at least a qualitative discussion of the stormwater quality improvements expected as a result of implementing source control measures and BMPs. C3-4.3 Annual CSO Report Municipalities with approved CSO reduction plans are required to submit annual CSO reports to Ecology. This report must include the past year’s frequency and volume of combined sewage discharged from each CSO site, or group of CSO sites in close proximity. Field monitoring will be necessary to estimate these parameters. If there is a statistically significant increase in the CSO volumes above the baseline over a few years, the municipality must propose a project and schedule to reduce the CSO site or group of sites to or below its baseline condition. C3-26 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design For CSO on-site treatment and discharge, monitoring and reporting requirements will be included in the appropriate sewage treatment plant NPDES permit or in a separate permit for that discharge. The total treated and untreated annual discharge from an on-site treatment plant may not increase above the baseline annual level. The annual report should explain the previous year’s CSO reduction accomplishments and list the projects planned for the next year. C3-4.4 CSO Plan Update/Amendment In conjunction with its application for renewing its NPDES permit, a municipality with CSOs must submit an amendment which updates its CSO reduction plan. The amendment should include: ? An assessment of the effectiveness of the CSO reduction plan to date. ? A reevaluation of the CSO site’s project priority ranking. ? A listing of projects to be accomplished in the next five years based on priorities and estimated revenues. C3-5 References Al-Layla, M. Anis, Shamin Ahmad, and E. Joe Middlebrooks. Handbook of Wastewater Collection and Treatment—Principles and Practice. New York: Garland STPM Press, 1980. Clark, John W., Warren Viessman, Jr. and Mark J. Hammer. Water Supply and Pollution Control. Third Edition. New York: Harper & Row Publishers Inc., 1977. Culp, Wesner, Culp Consulting Engineers. Estimating Construction Costs and Operating and Maintenance Requirements for Combined Sewer Overflow Storage and Treatment Facilities. Cincinnati, Ohio: US EPA, Office of Research and Development, May 1976. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering—Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. Third Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991. Sullivan, R.H., et al. Swirl and Helical Bend Pollution Control Devices. EPA-600/8-82-013. NTIS No. PB82-266172. 1982. Urbonas, Ben, and Peter Stahre. Stormwater—Best Management Practices and Detention for Water Quality, Drainage, and CSO Management. New Jersey: PTR Prentice Hall, 1993. US Environmental Protection Agency. 1995c. Combined Sewer Overflow—Guidance for Long- Term Control Plan. EPA/832-B-95-002. Washington D.C., May 1995. US Environmental Protection Agency. 1995d. Combined Sewer Overflow—Screening and Ranking Guidance. EPA/832-B-95-004. Washington D.C., August 1995. US Environmental Protection Agency. Combined Sewer Overflow Control Policy. 59 Fed. Reg. 18688. April 19, 1994. US Environmental Protection Agency. Combined Sewer Overflow—Guidance for Monitoring and Modeling. EPA/832-B-95-003. Washington D.C., May 1995. US Environmental Protection Agency. Combined Sewer Overflow—Guidance for Permit Writers. EPA 832-B-95-008. Washington D.C., September, 1995. Combined Sewer Overflows December 1998 C3-27 US Environmental Protection Agency. Combined Sewer Overflows—Guidance for Nine Minimum Controls. EPA/832-B-95-003. Washington D.C., May 1995. Washington State Department of Ecology. Technical Manual: Stormwater Management Manual for the Puget Sound Basin (SWMM). Publication No. 91-75, 1992. December 1998 T1-1 T1 Preliminary Treatment/ Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes This chapter describes those processes, generally at the head end of the wastewater treatment plant, that are designed to remove material from the wastewater to protect equipment and processes downstream. The preliminary treatment processes described in this chapter are screening, comminution, grinding, and grit removal. A section is also included on design and handling considerations for preliminary treatment of septage and other hauled wastes delivered to wastewater treatment plants for treatment and disposal. T1-1 Preliminary Treatment .......... 3 T1-1.1 Scope and Objectives...................3 T1-1.2 Screening ......................................3 T1-1.2.1 Introduction ............................................ 3 T1-1.2.2 Coarse Screens Including Bar Racks ...... 3 A. Manually Cleaned ....................................... 3 B. Mechanically Cleaned ................................. 4 T1-1.2.3 Fine Screens............................................ 4 A. Mechanical Bar ........................................... 4 B. Rotary Drum................................................ 4 C. Static............................................................ 4 T1-1.2.4 Screen Design Criteria............................ 4 T1-1.2.5 Screenings Handling Equipment ............ 5 A. Belts and Dumpsters.................................... 5 B. Washers ....................................................... 5 C. Compactors.................................................. 5 D. Design Considerations................................. 5 T1-1.2.6 Screenings Disposal................................ 5 T1-1.2.7 Safety Considerations ............................. 6 T1-1.3 Grinders and Comminutors..........6 T1-1.3.1 Grinders .................................................. 6 T1-1.3.2 Comminutors .......................................... 6 T1-1.3.3 Safety Considerations ............................. 6 T1-1.4 Sampling and Flow Measurement ................................7 T1-1.4.1 Introduction ............................................ 7 T1-1.4.2 Flow Measurement Location .................. 7 T1-1.4.3 Flow Measurement Methods .................. 7 T1-1.4.4 Flow Sampling Design Considerations................................................ 7 T1-1.5 Grit Removal..................................7 T1-1.5.1 Introduction ............................................ 7 T1-1.5.2 Aerated ................................................... 8 T1-1.5.3 Vortex..................................................... 8 T1-1.5.4 Horizontal Flow...................................... 8 T1-1.5.5 Hydrocyclone.......................................... 9 T1-1.5.6 Grit Removal Design Criteria................. 9 A. Location....................................................... 9 B. Number of Units.......................................... 9 C. Inlet.............................................................10 D. Drains .........................................................10 E. Flow and Internal Effects on Grit Removal Efficiency..................................10 F. Grit Removal Control Systems ...................10 T1-1.5.7 Grit Handling.........................................10 A. Inclined Screw Conveyors..........................10 B. Chain and Buckets......................................10 C. In Deep Pits ................................................11 D. Pumping .....................................................11 T1-1.5.8 Grit Washing/Dewatering......................11 T1-1.6 Odor Control............................... 11 T1-1.7 Flow Equalization....................... 11 T1-1.7.1 Introduction ...........................................11 T1-1.7.2 Types .....................................................12 T1-1.7.3 Design Considerations...........................12 A. Basin Volume.............................................12 B. Mixing Requirements .................................12 C. Flow Control...............................................13 D. Basin Dewatering and Cleaning .................13 T1-2 Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes ................... 13 T1-2.1 Scope .......................................... 13 T1-2.2 Characterization of Waste ......... 13 T1-2.2.1 Septage ..................................................14 A. BOD 5 ..........................................................14 B. TSS .............................................................14 C. Fats, Oils, and Grease.................................14 T1-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design D. Grit .............................................................14 E. Odor............................................................14 F. Nutrients......................................................14 G. Heavy Metals..............................................15 T1-2.2.2 Chemical Toilet Waste ..........................15 T1-2.2.3 Recreational Vehicle (RV) Waste..........15 T1-2.2.4 Marine Holding Tank Waste .................15 T1-2.2.5 Vactor Waste .........................................15 T1-2.2.6 Waste from Other Wastewater Treatment Works...........................................15 T1-2.2.7 Marine Bilge Water ...............................15 T1-2.2.8 Water from Soil Remediation................15 T1-2.3 Waste Design Criteria .................16 T1-2.3.1 BOD 5 .....................................................16 T1-2.3.2 TSS ........................................................16 T1-2.3.3 Fats, Oils, and Grease ............................16 T1-2.4 Receiving Facility Design Criteria.........................................17 T1-2.4.1 Storage Volume .....................................17 T1-2.4.2 Flow Control..........................................17 T1-2.4.3 Washwater .............................................17 T1-2.4.4 Odor Control..........................................17 T1-2.4.5 Preliminary Screening and Grit Removal ........................................................18 T1-2.4.6 Sampling and Flow Recording ..............18 T1-2.4.7 Location of Receiving Station ...............18 T1-3 References........................... 18 Tables T1-1. Requirements for Aerated Grit Removal Chambers and Typical Results......................... 8 Preliminary Treatment/Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes December 1998 T1-3 T1-1 Preliminary Treatment T1-1.1 Scope and Objectives Preliminary treatment processes include screening, comminution, grinding, and grit removal. These processes remove or change those materials that may foul or wear out pumps and plug piping and process units. Flow equalization, flow measurement, flow sampling, chlorine addition, and odor control are also included in this chapter because these are generally located at the head end of the plant. T1-1.2 Screening Screens should be placed in the influent flow at the head end of the plant to remove debris that may harm other process units. Ecology requires that this material be removed, and a screening device meets this requirement. T1-1.2.1 Introduction Screen size openings vary from 2 to 3 inches in coarse screens to .008 inches in very fine screens. The type of screen chosen for the plant depends on the downstream processes and how the plant’s biosolids program is managed. The main advantage of screens over grinders is that they remove incompatible objects from the wastewater stream. Generally, wider openings are used to protect plant equipment and smaller screen openings are used to actually treat wastewater, sometimes eliminating the need for primary treatment. Wider, coarse screens are always used ahead of plant process units such as influent pumping and grit removal. Smaller, finer screens can be used before or after influent pumping. Some screens cannot handle rocks, so rock removal must be considered separately in the design. Another important part of screen design is handling the screened material and its disposal. Disposal availability and costs may influence screen size. T1-1.2.2 Coarse Screens Including Bar Racks Coarse screens are at the head of process equipment to protect the equipment from being damaged by debris found in sewage flows, or are used in bypass channels. Openings in the screens generally range from one-half to 3 inches. A. Manually Cleaned Manually cleaned bar racks or screens have larger openings (one and one- half to 3 inches) and are used to protect equipment or are placed in bypass channels. The larger openings reduce head loss but are labor intensive. These screens should be designed with a way of ensuring sewage overflow should the screen become plugged when no operator is available. A high- water alarm in front of the screen will alert operators that the screen needs raking. The bars are typically set at 30 to 45 degrees from vertical to facilitate cleaning. The top of the screen should have a perforated plate or continuous bars to drain the debris after removal and before being placed in a dumpster. The bars should be designed to be removable so they can be cleaned when rags build up behind them. T1-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design B. Mechanically Cleaned Mechanically cleaned coarse screens have smaller openings (one-half to one and one-half inches) and are used to remove unwanted solids from sewage. These smaller openings create head loss that must be accounted for in the channel design. There are many ways that mechanical screen bars can be cleaned. Generally, the more moving parts that contact the sewage the more maintenance the unit will take because of the abrasive grit in sewage. Some screens are designed to also remove rocks as well as debris. T1-1.2.3 Fine Screens Fine screens are used to remove very fine materials such as plastics and cigarette filters from sewage, or they can be used in place of primary clarification. These screens have a large head loss, which must be accounted for in the design. The volume of material removed by these screens, including fecal material, should be taken into consideration during design. A. Mechanical Bar Some bar screens are made with an opening as small as one-quarter inch. The bars are set from 0 to 30 degrees from vertical. These smaller-opening screens are susceptible to rock damage so the design should place rock removal ahead of the screens. B. Rotary Drum Rotary drums are very efficient in removing small debris from the wastewater; however, because they are prone to grease plugging, the amount of grease in the wastewater should be taken into consideration. C. Static Static screens have no moving parts and must have flow pumped to the top of the screen. The material left on top of the screen as the flow passes through is removed from the screen by gravity. These screens have the smallest openings and are sometimes used instead of primary treatment. They have also been used to remove solids when cleaning digesters. T1-1.2.4 Screen Design Criteria If the screens are placed in a building or a deep channel, the area must be designed for adequate explosion-proof equipment and ventilation to control odors. A screenings building should be separate from other plant processes. All screening devices must have a backup screen or bypass channel. Each screen channel needs to be able to be isolated and have provisions for dewatering for maintenance. Channel design for bar rakes should take into consideration whether the rake will remove rocks or is susceptible to rocks. Adequate clearance and water for cleaning the equipment must be addressed in room design. Motors on mechanically cleaned screens need to be waterproof if they have a chance of being submerged during a high flow condition or electrical loss. Maintenance can be reduced on bar screens by activating the rake only when the screen becomes blinded. Generally, screens have a timed sequence and a channel head differential to activate the rakes. All screen Preliminary Treatment/Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes December 1998 T1-5 devices must have a local control switch so they can be taken off automatic mode and operated manually or locked out for maintenance. Manufacturers of screens will recommend flow velocities for their equipment. Velocities generally are 1 to 3 fps at the average flow rate. Velocities are calculated from a vertical projection of the screen openings on the cross- sectional area between the invert of the channel and the flow line. T1-1.2.5 Screenings Handling Equipment The design of screenings handling equipment will be dictated somewhat by disposal practices. Landfill practices are changing, and some landfills do not accept material containing free water or fecal material. Screenings disposed of through a transfer station may require additional considerations. A. Belts and Dumpsters Screenings may be moved to a dumpster by belts. The belts will need to be cleaned, so a nearby wash station should be included in the design. Because screenings in the dumpster will generate odors and attract insects, enclosing the dumpster should be considered. B. Washers Screenings from screens with half-inch or smaller openings will contain fecal material. There are several washers on the market that will remove fecal material from the screenings. Most washers are combined with compactors that remove excess water from the rags. C. Compactors Compactors, when used with screenings, will remove excess water so landfills will accept the waste. If the compactor is placed outside, the discharge tube should be heat-taped and insulated. Large amounts of rock in screenings will cause binding problems in the discharge tube. Flushing or an alternative means of dewatering should be considered. D. Design Considerations Most screenings storage will produce odors, insect problems, and drainage. Odor control and proper ventilation should be addressed in all storage container siting decisions. Dumpsters that receive screenings should have a way to be dewatered with a floor drain to the sanitary sewer, as close as possible to the dumpster. Drainage from dumpsters may damage concrete floors because of acidity, so the floor should have a protective coating. A cleanup station should be in the immediate area for cleaning when the dumpster is picked up. Redundancy or another method of screenings handling should be considered in case of equipment failure. Because screenings and storage rooms have corrosive atmospheres, all equipment should be of noncorrosive design. T1-1.2.6 Screenings Disposal Disposal of screenings is the most critical design consideration. Most landfills cannot accept waste that contains free water. Some will not accept waste with visible fecal material. The design of the dumpster box and the type of screen handling will be dictated, in most cases, by these landfill requirements. T1-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Estimated screenings quantities and landfill acceptance shall be confirmed prior to design. T1-1.2.7 Safety Considerations If any equipment used in the screening process has a tendency to spill water or product on the floor, a decision must be made whether to design the floor with a smooth surface for ease of cleaning or a rough surface so employees do not slip. A designer should consider a smooth surface under machinery sloping to drains and nonskid surfaces in traffic areas. All areas need adequate ventilation to keep odors and moisture at a minimum. The building design should address the explosive atmosphere surrounding screens and related equipment inside buildings. T1-1.3 Grinders and Comminutors Grinders and comminutors reduce the size of particles or debris in wastewater to three- quarter-inch or smaller, but do not remove this material from the flow. Channel units must have a way to isolate the channel for maintenance. The channel should also have a means of dewatering for worker entry. Design of the drain must take the amount of grit in the wastewater into consideration. Velocity in the channel should be a minimum of 2 fps to keep grit moving. If the grinders or comminutors are installed in a room, they should receive the same considerations given to bar screen design. T1-1.3.1 Grinders Slow-speed wastewater grinding equipment typically has two sets of counter- rotating blades, which trap and shear the solids into quarter-inch particles. These grinders can usually handle small rocks and, if jammed, reverse to clear. Grinders generally do not cause roping and rag balls to form. If combining grinders with a pump, it is better to put the grinder on the suction side of the pump. Grinders have also been used in sludge lines to grind up plastics so the biosolids will not contain any noticeable debris. A bypass line will need to be installed for each unit. These units contribute some head loss, which must be accounted for in the hydraulic design. Manufacturers can provide appropriate design data. T1-1.3.2 Comminutors Comminutors are susceptible to rock damage, so rock sumps or screens should be installed upstream. These units need redundancy or a bypass channel with screening. Improperly maintained cutters on the comminutors cause string-like material to pass to other process units, which may form ropes or balls of material that can clog equipment. It is not advisable to place comminutors ahead of biotowers or trickling filters because of plugging problems. Grinders generally do not cause these problems because most are designed to grip and tear up the material. T1-1.3.3 Safety Considerations Comminutors and grinders should have a local, manual, and lockout switch for jamming or maintenance of the equipment. Open channel design must consider odor and explosive atmosphere if the units are installed inside buildings. Preliminary Treatment/Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes December 1998 T1-7 T1-1.4 Sampling and Flow Measurement Ecology requires that flow from a wastewater plant be accurately measured and sampled. Design of the headworks must include provisions for the accurate measurement of flows and the ability to collect a representative sample of a treatment plant’s influent. It is recommended that a continuous recording of flows be maintained. T1-1.4.1 Introduction Flow components must be measured and sampled at wastewater plants throughout the process units for compliance, operational control, and future expansion data. Designers need to look closely at sampling locations to make sure samples are representative. It is best to place samplers close to what is being sampled because sample lines tend to develop growths that may alter the sample. T1-1.4.2 Flow Measurement Location Measurement devices must be placed where recycle flow streams will not affect the measurement, if possible. In open channel measurement, consider the unit processes before and after the measuring device. A backup from a downstream process unit may cause a high reading at the flow-measuring meter. Likewise, equipment upstream that causes surges or uneven flow across the channel will be difficult to measure. T1-1.4.3 Flow Measurement Methods Provisions need to be made for flow measurement in open channels, enclosed pipes, and levels in tanks. See Chapter G2 for additional information on flow and level measurement. T1-1.4.4 Flow Sampling Design Considerations Flow samplers must meet certain requirements and sampling must be done in such a manner that accurate flows and levels are measured. See Chapter G2 for additional information on flow sampling. T1-1.5 Grit Removal T1-1.5.1 Introduction Grit chambers are provided to remove coarse inorganic solids such as sand, cinders, rocks, cigarette filter tips, and heavy, inert, organic solids such as coffee grounds and fruit seeds from flow. Grit may be removed by settling in square, rectangular, or circular chambers or by centrifugal force. Grit removal protects equipment by: ? Reducing clogging in pipes; ? Protecting moving mechanical equipment and pumps from abrasion and accompanying abnormal wear; ? Preventing accumulations of material in aeration tanks and digesters or other solids-handling processes that result in loss of usable volume; and ? Reducing accumulations at the bases of mechanical screens. T1-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Grit chambers should be generally designed to remove grit of 65-mesh size and larger. Grit removal facilities should be provided for all sewage treatment works unless there is evidence to indicate the grit in the wastewater will not cause an operation and maintenance problem or the sewage will flow directly to a lagoon. Grit removal may be accomplished by primary settling tanks when grit removal is not provided in preliminary treatment. Refer to the requirements in T2-2.2.5 and T2-3.2.6. See G2-7 for safety considerations. T1-1.5.2 Aerated Aerated grit chambers provide a period of wastewater detention to trap grit through air-induced rotation of the wastewater at approximately 1 fps. Aerated grit chambers should be sized to provide a detention time of 3 to 5 minutes at the peak-design flow. Air requirements vary, depending on the basin geometry and wastewater characteristics. Typically 1 to 5 scfm of air per foot of length is required for proper aerated grit operation. Skimming equipment must be provided in aerated grit chambers if the outlet is below the water surface. For typical operating requirements and results, see Table T1-1. Table T1-1. Requirements for Aerated Grit Removal Chambers and Typical Results Parameter Typical Operating Ranges Transverse velocity at surface 2 to 2.5 fps Depth-to-width ratio 1.5:1 to 2:1 Air supply 3 to 5 cf per min/ft 0.04 to 0.06 cf/gal Detention time 3 to 5 min peak Quantity of grit 1 to 10 cf/mil gal Quantity of scum (skimmings) 1 to 6 cf/mil gal T1-1.5.3 Vortex Vortex grit chambers are gravity-type chambers that swirl the raw wastewater in the chamber. The inorganic matter settles to the tank hopper section and the organic matter remains in suspension where it is carried out by the tank effluent. Some vortex tank designs rely on natural hydraulics to achieve the proper rotational rate. Other designs use natural hydraulics and a slow, rotating paddle-type mixer to achieve the proper separation. The grit that settles in these tanks can be removed by an airlift pump or a nonclogging, recessed propeller-type pump. The grit removed from these tanks can be transferred to a grit dewatering channel, cyclone degritter, grit classifier, or other grit-handling equipment. T1-1.5.4 Horizontal Flow Horizontal-type chambers should be designed to control the flow-through velocity to approximately 1 fps over the entire flow range. A Sutro weir or Preliminary Treatment/Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes December 1998 T1-9 other proportional weir is normally used to control velocities for rectangular channels. Parshall flumes are used to provide uniform velocity distribution with parabolic-shaped channels. Length of the channels depends on the size of grit to be removed and the maximum depth for flow. On the basis of a grit specific gravity of 2.65, settling velocities would be 3.7 fpm for 65-mesh and 2.5 fpm for 100-mesh grit. Grit can be removed mechanically or manually. Mechanically cleaned grit chambers are recommended for plants with greater than 2.0 mgd average design flow. Two grit chambers should be provided, each designed for peak design flow. T1-1.5.5 Hydrocyclone Cyclone degritters use centrifugal force in a cone-shaped unit to separate grit from the wastewater. A pump discharges a slurry of grit and organics into the degritter at a controlled rate. The slurry enters the degritter tangentially near its upper perimeter. This feed velocity creates a vortex that produces a grit slurry at the lower, narrower opening and a larger volume of slurry containing mostly volatile material at the upper port. The grit stream falls into a rake screen washer. The degritted flow leaves the cyclone through the opening near the top of the unit, moving downstream for further treatment. In some systems, a mechanical mixer induces the centrifugal effect. The cyclone degritting process includes a pump as an integral part of the process because the cyclone has no moving parts and depends on a steady supply of liquid. The volume of pumped slurry and the resultant pressure at the degritter are critical requirements specified by the cyclone manufacturers. The temperature, solids concentration, and other characteristics of the slurry may require changes in the sizes of the upper and lower orifices after installation and some initial operating experience. In some designs, the orifices are manually adjustable. The grit flow stream from the cyclones should be washed before final disposal. T1-1.5.6 Grit Removal Design Criteria A. Location Grit chambers may be located ahead of or after comminution. Rock traps must be provided ahead of comminutors if the grit chambers follow comminution. Grit chambers located upstream of comminutors should have coarse bar racks preceding them. Grit removal should be installed downstream of the screening devices to prevent clogging of grit aeration diffusers and other problems associated with rags and other trash in the wastewater. Whenever possible, grit removal facilities should be located in open areas with easy access. B. Number of Units For large treatment plants, at least two units should be provided for grit removal facilities. However, for small facilities (less than 2 mgd average design flow), only one unit may be installed, with provisions for bypassing. T1-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C. Inlet The inlet should be carefully designed to minimize turbulence so the flow is evenly distributed among channels and does not promote “dead spots.” D. Drains Provisions are required for dewatering each unit. Drain lines should discharge to points within the system such that the contents of the drained units received maximum treatment. E. Flow and Internal Effects on Grit Removal Efficiency Flow rates and short-circuiting are two factors that may affect the performance of grit removal systems. When designing a grit removal system, it is important to consider these factors and provide control devices to regulate the wastewater velocity at approximately 1 fps and baffling as a way to control short-circuiting. F. Grit Removal Control Systems Either a computer system or the operators at the facility may provide control of the grit removal system. Both require an operator to determine the proper grit removal for the facility to achieve peak performance of the grit removal system. T1-1.5.7 Grit Handling Impervious surfaces with drains should be provided for all grit-handling areas. If grit is to be transported, conveying equipment should be designed to avoid accidental leakage or loss of material. Grit storage facilities are often the source of odor and grease accumulation. Clean grit can help minimize odor and extra-large drains can prevent grease from clogging floor drains. Drain flows shall be routed back into the plant for treatment. When unwashed grit must be transported, the utility may have to provide odor control during transportation. Grit disposal by landfill or burial with capacity for disposing of 1 cu yd/day/mgd shall be provided. Grit should not be introduced into the treatment or digester units. A. Inclined Screw Conveyors Inclined screw conveyors remove the grit from the sump and drop it into a classifier or washer that removes most of the organic matter collected with the grit. In larger plants with wider channels, screw conveyors move grit to a central sump. B. Chain and Buckets Most rectangular grit tanks have a chain-and-flight mechanism to move the grit to a sump. A bucket elevator removes the grit from the sump and drops it into a classifier or washer that removes most of the organic matter collected with the grit. Preliminary Treatment/Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes December 1998 T1-11 C. In Deep Pits Grit removal facilities located in deep pits should be provided with mechanical equipment for pumping or hoisting grit to ground level. Such pits should have a stairway, elevator, or lift and shall have adequate ventilation and lighting. Mechanical and electrical equipment in deep pits should be submersible and explosion-proof. D. Pumping Air lift pumps are preferred to pump the grit to a classifier or washer that removes most of the organic matter collected with the grit. T1-1.5.8 Grit Washing/Dewatering Grit washing effectively removes organics from the grit. Screw and rake grit washers have proved to be reliable and usually produce a material low in organics. To ensure a low volatile content, however, ample dilution water may be required. Pumps normally provide sufficient dilution water, but bucket elevators may not, especially during periods of peak grit capture. Consequently, they may require supplementary liquid to function properly. T1-1.6 Odor Control Odors are released at the headworks of a plant, particularly at points of turbulence. Preventing or controlling these odors is important in preventing complaints from neighbors, providing a reasonable working environment, and avoiding corrosion of the equipment. See Chapter G2 for detailed information on odor prevention and treatment. T1-1.7 Flow Equalization Flow equalization is an optional process used to accommodate wide variations in flow rates and organic mass loadings. T1-1.7.1 Introduction Flow equalization’s primary objective is to dampen the diurnal flow variations and as a result achieve a nearly constant flow through the series of treatment processes. A secondary objective is to dampen the concentration of wastewater loadings and provide a more uniform concentration of organics, nutrients, and other suspended and dissolved constituents. Flow equalization should be provided for treatment plants that may experience unusual flow variations that affect process efficiency, such as large commercial or industrial facilities. In addition, flow equalization should be a consideration for many advanced wastewater treatment operations, such as filtration and chemical clarification, which are adversely affected by flow variations and solids loading. Equalization basins are typically placed after the screening and grit facilities and before the primary tanks; however, they can be placed at other locations within the treatment process. In some instances, the large interceptors entering the treatment facility can be used as an effective storage basin to dampen the diurnal flows. See Chapter C3 for additional information. T1-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T1-1.7.2 Types Equalization basins are designed either in-line or side-line. For an in-line design, all flow passes through the basin and results in significant flow and concentration dampening. In the side-line design, only flow exceeding the average daily flow is diverted into the basin. This type of design will dampen flow but not necessarily dampen the pollutant concentrations. T1-1.7.3 Design Considerations Design of an equalization basin should incorporate the evaluation and selection of a number of features, as follows: ? In-line versus side-line basins. ? Basin volume. ? Degree of compartmentalization. ? Type of construction (earthen, concrete, or steel). ? Aeration or mixing equipment. ? Pumping and control concept. ? Degree of flow modulation desired. The design decision should be based on the nature and extent of the treatment processes used, the benefits desired, and local site conditions and constraints. A. Basin Volume Sufficient basin volume should be provided to allow those parts of the treatment process that follow storage to operate equal to or less than their rated design capacity. The first step in determining the amount of volume required is to determine the diurnal variation of the wastewater flow. This should be determined from actual flow data when available. Diurnal flow variations will vary from day to day, depending on many factors such as seasonal residences, commercial and industrial sources, etc. Additional equalization basin volume should be provided to accommodate the continuous operation of the aeration and mixing equipment, and unforeseen changes in the diurnal flow. Where data are not available, an evaluation of the infiltration/inflow should be conducted with a basin volume equal to 8 hours of the estimated daily maximum flow being provided. B. Mixing Requirements Proper mixing and aeration in an equalization basin will prevent the solids deposition and the contents from becoming septic. Mixing requirements for preventing solids deposition should range from 0.02 to 0.04 horsepower per 1,000 gallons of storage volume. To maintain aerobic conditions in the basin, air should be supplied at a rate of 1.25 to 2.0 cf/min per 1,000 gallons of storage. Mechanical aerators are a typical method of providing mixing and aeration to a basin. Provisions such as low level shutoff and supports for the unit when the basin is dewatered should be provided. Mixing requirements often exceed the requirements for oxygen and in such cases it may be advantageous to provide both a mixing and a diffused Preliminary Treatment/Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes December 1998 T1-13 aeration system. The diffused aeration system can be either a fine or coarse bubble type system. Ceramic diffusers are not recommended because of possible biological slime growth and inorganic deposits that can cause clogging. C. Flow Control The design shall provide for multiple pumping units capable of delivering the desired flow rate from the equalization basin with the largest unit out of service. Gravity discharge from equalization basins shall be regulated by an automatically controlled flow-regulating device. A flow-measuring device shall be provided downstream of the basin to monitor and control the equalization basin discharge. Instrumentation should be provided to control the discharge rate by automatic adjustment of the basin effluent pumps or flow-regulating device. Basins used for waste strength equalization generally require constant volume and may require pumping into the basin with a variable outflow equal to the influent flow. D. Basin Dewatering and Cleaning All equalization basins should have provisions for dewatering. Facilities shall be equipped to flush solids and grease accumulations from the basin walls as well as withdraw floating material and foam. Bottoms of basins should be sloped to facilitate dewatering and cleaning. A sump could also be installed to facilitate these processes. T1-2 Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes This section provides guidelines for the design and handling of septage and other hauled waste at wastewater treatment plants. Introducing these wastes into treatment works places demands on the processes that are disproportionate to typical hydraulic and organic loadings. Smaller systems need to be aware, before they accept septage, that a single load of septage may overload their processes and cause permit violations. Treatment system operators are encouraged to calculate the BOD and TSS loading for each anticipated load of hauled waste before accepting the waste. T1-2.1 Scope The term “septage” is used here to mean wastewater that is hauled to the treatment plant by trucks and discharged at a receiving station ahead of primary treatment. Although this wastewater is assumed to consist primarily of domestic septage, other types of waste are also possible. Some of the more common types are described below. T1-2.2 Characterization of Waste The general characteristics for the more typical wastes that may be hauled to a treatment plant are discussed below. Treatment plant officials should carefully evaluate the potential impacts of these characteristics on the capacities of their system. T1-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T1-2.2.1 Septage In many respects, septage is similar to domestic sewage, except that septage is significantly more concentrated. A. BOD 5 The BOD 5 of septage can be as much as 30 to 50 times or more concentrated than normal domestic sewage. Although literature values for BOD 5 concentrations are available, the basis for design must be an assessment of the actual waste that is expected locally. B. TSS Compared to domestic sewage, septage can be very high in suspended solids (e.g., 10 to 50 times typical influent). Evaluation of solids characteristics of local septage waste is recommended and should include total solids (TS), total suspended solids (TSS), total volatile solids (TVS), and settleable solids. C. Fats, Oils, and Grease Almost no decomposition of grease occurs at a wastewater treatment works, and the expense of handling and disposing grease can be considerable. If possible, avoid allowing haulers to bring the contents of grease traps for discharge to a publicly owned treatment works. Rendering and other recycling options are often available and preferable to handling at a wastewater treatment works. D. Grit A household septic tank will accumulate grit, rocks, and other dense material in its sediment layer over the years. After cleaning many septic tanks, the accumulation of this sediment load in the septage hauling tank can be several hundred pounds. Because of this concern for downstream sedimentation, discharge into a wastewater collection system should be avoided. The septage receiving station should have provisions for an adequate rock sump. Even with an adequate rock sump, dense grit can form a compacted layer in a sewer main after several years of routine septage discharge into the collection system. E. Odor Due to the anaerobic nature of a septic tank system and the mixture of organic materials, septage is probably one of the most offensive smelling domestic wastes. Design should include means to control these potential sources of offensive odor. F. Nutrients The concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus in septage is high compared to typical domestic wastewater. Preliminary Treatment/Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes December 1998 T1-15 G. Heavy Metals Metals in septage may come from household chemicals, leaching of plumbing pipes and fixtures, and possible contamination from previous industrial loads hauled in the septage hauling truck. Because metals do not decompose and the interval between septic tank pumpings can be several years, metals tend to accumulate in septage. T1-2.2.2 Chemical Toilet Waste Materials from portable toilet facilities are commonly called chemical toilet waste. Portable toilets are pumped similarly to septic tanks and transported to a treatment works for discharge. Commonly a chemical is added to the portable toilet’s holding tank to control odors. Because chemical toilet waste is similar to aerobic sanitary waste, it should contain less BOD 5 , TSS, grease, grit, rocks, and odor than domestic wastewater. However, since there is little time for digestion and little turbulence in the holding tank, the amount of undigested paper may exceed that found in normal sanitary wastewater. T1-2.2.3 Recreational Vehicle (RV) Waste The characteristics of RV waste are similar to chemical toilet waste (see T1-2.2.2). T1-2.2.4 Marine Holding Tank Waste The characteristics of marine holding tank waste are similar to chemical toilet waste (see T1-2.2.2). T1-2.2.5 Vactor Waste Many sanitary sewer collection systems use vacuum maintenance equipment to clean sewer lines, catch basins, manholes, and pump station wetwells. Depending upon the source, the resulting composition of the vactor load can vary widely. A full vactor truck may contain materials from several different types of cleaning assignments. Any vactor spoils contaminated with wastewater should be properly treated and disposed. If vactor wastes are received from sources other than sanitary sewers, these wastes need to be characterized before being accepted. T1-2.2.6 Waste from Other Wastewater Treatment Works Waste received from other wastewater treatment facilities must be assessed on a case-by-case basis. T1-2.2.7 Marine Bilge Water Bilge is water that has accumulated in the hulls of marine vessels. Depending on the location of the vessel, the bilge volume may be either fresh water or salt water. Contamination of the water can come from deteriorating or rusting hulls and spills aboard the vessel, and is difficult to reliably typify from ship to ship. Individual characterization of bilge water is necessary for each reception. T1-2.2.8 Water from Soil Remediation A requirement to clean contaminated soil is becoming an increasingly frequent practice in restoring industrial and commercial properties. Water that is the T1-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design byproduct of the soil remediation process (mostly ground water) is often discharged to a treatment works by a tank truck. The regulatory mechanism for receiving this hauled waste is often a discharge authorization issued by the industrial pretreatment program. T1-2.3 Waste Design Criteria The decision to treat septage flows as a part of the conventional municipal treatment process has several significant effects. ? Treating septage flows increases the load on both the liquid and solids stream treatment systems with resulting increases in operating costs, solids production, solids handling, and utilization costs. ? Accepting this loading consumes a greater proportion of the capacity than similar volumes of normal sanitary flow. ? Treating septage flows can affect the ongoing operation and, ultimately, the quality of effluent and biosolids produced at a given facility. WEF Manual Of Practice No. 24 and other references provide ranges of design values. Although literature values for BOD 5 and other waste constituent concentrations are available, assessment of the actual waste that is expected locally must be the basis for design. Design of the treatment plant process must account for septage loading as a part of the complete design. The design criteria used to provide for septage receipt shall be listed on the plans, as required by WAC 173-240-070. Loading assumptions and design criteria for septage receiving should be indicated separately, under a septage heading, in addition to the agglomerate loading assumptions. Minimum waste criteria which need to be addressed are as follows: T1-2.3.1 BOD 5 Strength of BOD 5 from septage ranges from 500 mg/L to more than 75,000 mg/L. The designer is responsible for determining anticipated loadings. Loading values must be supported by calculations and assumptions. The design criteria should indicate what rate in pounds per day will be assumed from septage, and what period during the day this will be applied. This calculation will need to be added to the other BOD 5 contributions addressed in the plant process design. T1-2.3.2 TSS Strength of TSS from septage ranges from 1,100 mg/L to more than 90,000 mg/L. The designer is responsible for determining anticipated loadings. Loading values must be supported by calculations and assumptions. The design criteria should indicate what rate in pounds per day will be assumed from septage, and what period during the day this will be applied. This calculation will need to be added to the other TSS contributions addressed in the plant process design. T1-2.3.3 Fats, Oils, and Grease The amount of fats, oils, and grease in septage ranges from 200 mg/L to more than 20,000 mg/L. The designer is responsible for determining anticipated loadings. Loading values must be supported by calculations and assumptions. Preliminary Treatment/Septage and Other Liquid Hauled Wastes December 1998 T1-17 The design criteria should indicate what rate in pounds per day will be assumed from septage. This calculation will need to be added to the other fats, oils, and grease contributions addressed in the plant process design. T1-2.4 Receiving Facility Design Criteria Design of the receiving station requires addressing several areas of concern. These include how the odors will be controlled; how preliminary treatment will remove rocks, rags, and plastics; and how equalization of the flow will be achieved. In addition, designers should address how to control access, identify septage dischargers, and measure septage discharge volumes. When answering these questions the cost impacts specifically attributable to the septage operation should ultimately be reflected in the septage treatment charge. See EPA’s “Technology Transfer Handbook—Septage Treatment and Disposal,” Chapter 4, 1984 (or latest revision) and WEF’s “Manual of Practice No. 24,” 1997 (or latest revision), for additional design concerns. T1-2.4.1 Storage Volume Septage holding tanks are used for storage, equalization, mixing, and aeration of the septage prior to further treatment. Such holding facilities allow a controlled outflow of septage to downstream treatment processes to prevent hydraulic and organic shock loading. Holding tanks function to equalize flows and attenuate variations in septage characteristics among loads. A holding facility is necessary to allow proper metering of septage as a proportion of plant flow. Provide volumetric holding as necessary to avoid adverse impacts. Holding tanks, if used, should have provisions for interior washdown with chlorinated water or chlorinated secondary effluent after transfer of the septage to the treatment plant is complete. T1-2.4.2 Flow Control Flow from the receiving facility to the treatment plant should be controlled. Smaller capacity treatment plants may need variable frequency drive or variable flow pumps, pinch valves or throttling valves, or other devices. These devices can be programmed or manually operated to deliver waste to the treatment plant at times and transfer rates that are not disruptive to the treatment process. Flow control should provide flow volume and velocity to facilitate cleaning pipelines where this may be a problem. T1-2.4.3 Washwater Provide a pressurized water supply for adequate washdown of spillage in the unloading area, and for dilution if needed. Water supply may be clean water with appropriate backflow prevention devices or disinfected secondary effluent. Water supply should be capable of providing disinfection. Operators must be able to vary the disinfectant applied to adequately provide for disinfection and odor control. T1-2.4.4 Odor Control The design should provide capability to add odor-reducing chemicals to the holding tank, or provide other odor-reducing measures such as activated carbon filters, compost filters, or other odor-scrubbing devices. Odors from T1-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design septage handling operations should be limited to the same acceptable detection level allowed for the wastewater treatment plant. See Chapter G2 for odor prevention and treatment. T1-2.4.5 Preliminary Screening and Grit Removal The receiving facility should be able to screen and recover stones and other nontreatable objects so they do not damage the pumps or grinders. At a minimum, the design should include a provision for sedimentation of rocks and other heavy objects, and access by a vactor truck for periodically recovering those objects. An additional approach is to provide a separate rock and grit dump facility for haulers to use to purge their vehicles of rock and grit after discharging their waste loads. T1-2.4.6 Sampling and Flow Recording The facility should allow access for sampling. Volumetric delivery rates and totals should be recorded by log entries or appropriate flow monitoring devices whenever the facility operates. T1-2.4.7 Location of Receiving Station The septage receiving facility should be located in a secure area at or near the treatment area. A water supply and hose bibb must be available so the facility can be hosed down following a delivery. The facility should be under the control of the treatment plant operator and be subject to the same fencing and siting restrictions as the wastewater treatment plant if the facility is not within the plant boundaries. See EPA’s “Technology Transfer Handbook—Septage Treatment and Disposal,” Chapter 4, 1984 (or latest revision) and WEF’s “Manual of Practice No. 24,” 1997 (or latest revision), for additional design considerations. T1-3 References US Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Technology Transfer. Handbook—Septage Treatment and Disposal. Chapter 4, EPA-625/6-84-009. 1984. Water Environment Federation. Manual of Practice No. 24. 1997. December 1998 T2-1 T2 Primary Treatment This chapter describes the primary sedimentation process that typically follows preliminary treatment of influent wastewater. Primary sedimentation is the quiescent detention of wastewater in specially designed settling tanks to remove settleable and floating solids. Settling tanks remove solids from liquid by sedimentation and flotation, and thicken solids for removal and subsequent processing. Design considerations and descriptions of the different types of settling tanks as well as primary sludge and scum collection and removal systems are all included in this chapter. T2-1 General................................... 2 T2-1.1 Objectives......................................2 T2-1.2 Types of Settling Tanks................3 T2-1.2.1 Circular Primary Settling Tanks ............. 3 T2-1.2.2 Rectangular Primary Settling Tanks ....... 4 T2-1.2.3 Square Primary Settling Tanks ............... 5 T2-1.2.4 Stacked Primary Settling Tanks.............. 5 T2-2 Primary Settling Tanks ......... 5 T2-2.1 Design Loading .............................5 T2-2.1.1 Surface Overflow Rates.......................... 5 T2-2.1.2 Weir Loading Rates ................................ 6 T2-2.1.3 Detention Time....................................... 6 T2-2.2 Design Considerations .................6 T2-2.2.1 Depth and Dimensions............................ 6 T2-2.2.2 Flow-Splitting and Inlets ........................ 7 T2-2.2.3 Baffling and Short-Circuiting................. 7 T2-2.2.4 Outlets..................................................... 8 T2-2.2.5 Grit Removal .......................................... 8 T2-2.2.6 Scum Removal........................................ 8 T2-2.2.7 Co-Thickening........................................ 8 T2-2.2.8 Submerged Surfaces ............................... 9 T2-2.2.9 Multiple Units......................................... 9 T2-2.2.10 Protective and Servicing Facilities ....... 9 T2-2.2.11 Sludge Removal.................................... 9 T2-2.2.12 Tank Dewatering .................................. 9 T2-2.2.13 Odor Control......................................... 9 T2-2.2.14 Chemical Addition...............................10 T2-3 Primary Sludge Collection and Removal ...................... 10 T2-3.1 Disposition of Primary Sludge ...10 T2-3.2 Design Considerations ...............10 T2-3.2.1 Collectors...............................................10 T2-3.2.2 Sumps ....................................................11 T2-3.2.3 Sludge Depths........................................11 T2-3.2.4 Removal Rates.......................................11 T2-3.2.5 Pumping and Conveyance .....................11 T2-3.2.6 Grit.........................................................12 T2-4 Scum Collection and Removal.............................. 12 T2-4.1 Disposition of Scum................... 12 T2-4.2 Design Considerations .............. 12 T2-4.2.1 Collectors...............................................12 T2-4.2.2 Sumps ....................................................12 T2-4.2.3 Removal Rates.......................................13 T2-4.2.4 Conveyance ...........................................13 T2-5 References........................... 13 Figures T2-1. Typical Circular Primary Settling Tank .......... 3 T2-2. Typical Rectangular Primary Settling Tank .... 4 Tables T2-1. Special Treatment Functions Provided by Primary Settling Tanks..................................... 2 T2-2. Surface Overflow Rate for Primary Clarifiers. 5 T2-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T2-1 General This chapter applies to primary sedimentation, which typically follows preliminary treatment of influent wastewater. Primary sedimentation refers to the quiescent detention of wastewater in a specially designed settling tank to remove settleable and floating solids. “Settling tanks,” “sedimentation basins,” and “clarifiers” are considered equivalent terms and can be used interchangeably. Information on secondary settling tanks that follow biological treatment processes is provided in Chapter T3. T2-1.1 Objectives The objective of primary settling tanks is to perform three main functions, as follows: ? Remove solids (sludge) from liquid by sedimentation; ? Remove solids (scum, grease, and floating debris) from liquid by flotation; and ? Thicken solids for removal and subsequent processing. By removing solids from the raw wastewater, primary settling tanks also remove a portion of the suspended solids and BOD 5 , thereby reducing organic loading on downstream biological secondary treatment processes. This reduction of organic loading decreases the energy required in the secondary process to supply oxygen for biological oxidation of the remaining biodegradable matter. Also, reduced organic loading to the secondary treatment process decreases the amount of waste activated sludge that is produced. By removing scum from the raw wastewater, primary settling tanks decrease the amount of foam and Nocardia generation in downstream aeration basins and secondary clarifiers. In addition, primary settling tanks can be used to provide special treatment, as listed in Table T2-1. Table T2-1. Special Treatment Functions Provided by Primary Settling Tanks Function Effects Equalize raw wastewater quality and flow Improves the performance of downstream secondary treatment processes by producing a more constant loading. Remove grit Combines sludge and grit removal when grit removal is not included in an upstream preliminary treatment process. Chemically treat raw wastewater to enhance BOD 5 and suspended solids removal and remove nutrients Uses chemical addition to the primary settling tank influent to increase BOD 5 and suspended solids removal and to precipitate and separate certain nutrients, usually phosphorus, from the liquid. Primary settling tanks are normally installed at larger capacity wastewater treatment plants (greater than 1 mgd) to provide the objectives and effects listed in Table T2-1. Smaller plants may not include primary treatment if the secondary treatment process can adequately treat the additional loading and if the scum, grease, and floating debris in the raw wastewater will not produce operational problems. Primary settling tanks or fine screens should always precede secondary treatment using fixed-film processes (trickling filters, rotating biological contactors (RBCs), and submerged biological contactors (SBCs) to remove solids and scum that can plug the equipment media. Primary Treatment December 1998 T2-3 T2-1.2 Types of Settling Tanks Settling tanks are typically either circular or rectangular. Less common configurations of settling tanks include square and stacked types. Selecting a particular type for use in a treatment facility depends on a number of factors, including the size of the plant, local site conditions, existing primary treatment equipment, judgment of the engineer, preference of the owner, and economics of construction and operation. All these types of settling tanks, when properly designed and operated, should be capable of providing acceptable performance. T2-1.2.1 Circular Primary Settling Tanks Circular primary settling tanks normally have a center feed well with raw wastewater traveling from the center inlet toward the outer wall and discharging over peripheral overflow weirs into the effluent collection trough (see Figure T2-1). Settled sludge is transported to a center collection sump by means of rotating scraper arms moving across the tank floor, driven by a central platform-mounted motor and gear assembly. A surface skimmer mechanism attached to the submerged sludge scraper arm rotates around the tank water surface and conveys floating material to a collection box. Scum drawoff Influent Peripheral overflow weir Drive motor mechanism Scum trough Mechanism access bridge Sweeping sludge collecting arm Effluent Peripheral overflow weir Sludge drawoff Influent well Skimmer blades Figure T2-1. Typical Circular Primary Settling Tank T2-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T2-1.2.2 Rectangular Primary Settling Tanks Rectangular primary settling tanks normally have feed ports at one end, with raw wastewater traveling along the length of the tank to the overflow weirs and collection troughs located at the far end of the tank (see Figure T2-2). Settled sludge is transported to a collection sump at one end of the tank by means of board-like scrapers (flights) moving across the floor perpendicular to the wastewater flow path, from one end of the tank to the other. The scrapers are connected at each end to a chain that travels in an endless loop across the bottom and water surface of the tank as guided and supported by a number of rotating shafts and drive sprockets. Top-mounted drives are usually provided for both the chain/flight assembly and for a separate scraper or screw located in the sludge sump. The flights perform as skimmers when traveling along the water surface and convey floating material to a collection trough near the overflow weirs. Effluent channel Effluent collector Scum skimmer Scum trough Scum well Scum trough Scum skimmer Sludge cross collector Sludge collector drive unit Cross collector drive unit Sludge hopper Sludge cross collector Influent weir Settling tank Influent channel Influent channel Head shaft sprocket Wood flights Wood flights Section View Plan View Effluent channel Sludge collector Figure T2-2. Typical Rectangular Primary Settling Tank Primary Treatment December 1998 T2-5 T2-1.2.3 Square Primary Settling Tanks These tanks are square in configuration but equipped with circular sludge removal mechanisms and operate similar to a circular settling tank. Special sludge scraper arm extensions are required to remove sludge that settles in the tank corners. T2-1.2.4 Stacked Primary Settling Tanks Stacked rectangular tanks are constructed with one tank above another in a vertical arrangement. This configuration results in significant space savings but usually costs more to construct and restricts access to the lower tank for maintenance. T2-2 Primary Settling Tanks T2-2.1 Design Loading Primary settling tanks shall be sized mainly on the basis of surface overflow rate, though other design factors, such as tank depth, detention time, and sludge scraper conveyance capacity, should also be considered to ensure the clarifier design provides acceptable process performance. Surface overflow rate is the clarifier influent flow rate, including any plant recycle streams, divided by the total tank area within the outer walls, including the area of the effluent collection troughs within the outer walls. T2-2.1.1 Surface Overflow Rates The surface overflow rate for primary clarifiers will depend on the function of the settling tank (Table T2-2). Table T2-2. Surface Overflow Rate for Primary Clarifiers Surface Overflow Rate Type of Settling Average Design Flow (gpd/sf) Peak Design Flow (gpd/sf) Primary solids settling only 800 to 1,200 2,000 to 3,000 Primary and waste activated sludge settling (co-thickening) 400 to 600 1,200 to 1,500 Chemical sludge settling See Note A See Note A Note A:Acceptable surface overflow rates will depend on the particular chemical treatment and should be determined by pilot plant testing or the results of similar applications. At these loading rates, a well designed and properly operated primary clarifier, providing primary solids removal or co-settling, should remove 30 to 35 percent of the BOD 5 and 50 to 60 percent of the suspended solids from raw domestic wastewater. Removal rates for nondomestic wastewater, which may have a different fraction of soluble BOD 5 than normal domestic wastewater, may differ from these typical rates. Removal rates for chemically enhanced T2-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design primary treatment will also vary from these typical rates, with the removal of BOD 5 and suspended solids usually greater than for primary treatment without chemicals. Other operational factors, such as settling tank hydraulic short- circuiting, highly fluctuating influent flow rates, extreme high or low water temperatures, and large plant recycle flow proportions can decrease BOD 5 and suspended solids removal rates below typical values. The effect of a poorly performing or overloaded primary clarifier is the resultant increase in BOD 5 and suspended solids loading on the downstream secondary treatment process. This additional loading on the secondary treatment process may be acceptable if that process is adequately designed to handle the greater load. Surface overflow rates higher than those recommended above for primary settling tanks may be acceptable if the secondary treatment process, including the waste activated sludge system, is able to satisfactorily treat the greater amount of organic loading that passes through the primary treatment process. T2-2.1.2 Weir Loading Rates Although weir hydraulic loading rates have little effect on the performance of primary settling tanks, these rates should range from 10,000 to 40,000 gpd/lf. Adequate tank depth and spacing between effluent troughs should be provided to prevent excessive water velocities that can entrain solids from the tank floor and produce solids carryover in the effluent. T2-2.1.3 Detention Time Liquid detention times should not be greater than 2.5 hours at average design flow since septic conditions with associated poor clarifier performance and odor generation may occur. Excessive sludge detention time can result in solubilization of settled organic solids, resulting in higher BOD 5 loading on downstream processes. Properly designed sludge collectors with adequate conveyance capacity should be provided to prevent sludge buildup on the tank floor. Sludge blanket depth should be minimized to avoid septic conditions and long sludge detention times. Prevention of excessive sludge detention times may allow liquid detention times greater than the recommended maximum value without causing operating and performance problems. T2-2.2 Design Considerations T2-2.2.1 Depth and Dimensions Primary settling tanks should have a side water depth of 8 to 14 feet. Depths at the tank inlet will be greater than at the outlet due to the floor slope. This depth range should provide adequate space for solids flocculation, mechanical sludge removal equipment, inlet feed well or baffle depth, and settled solids storage. Deeper tanks prevent scour and resuspension of settled solids and avoid washout or carryover of solids with the effluent. Rectangular tanks should be designed with a minimum length from inlet to outlet of 10 feet, with additional tank length required to provide space for the effluent trough area. Rectangular tank widths are typically limited to the maximum length of manufactured flights, or 24 feet, although multiple, parallel chain and flight assemblies can be installed in a wider tank. Primary Treatment December 1998 T2-7 T2-2.2.2 Flow-Splitting and Inlets Inlets should be designed to dissipate the inlet velocity, to distribute the flow equally, and to prevent short-circuiting. Flow to multiple, parallel primary settling tanks should be split in a way that equalizes design loadings to the tanks and avoids hydraulic short-circuiting and velocity currents at the clarifier inlet. Typically, the flow-splitting device should be adjusted to produce the desired flow distribution at peak design flow, since lower flow rates will not degrade clarifier performance if the flow- split is not ideal. Proper balancing of hydraulic loading among the tanks is necessary. Flow-splitting structures should have surface discharge to prevent the accumulation of floating material. Inlet channels or pipes should be designed to maintain a velocity of at least 2 fps at one-half design flow to prevent solids deposition. Aeration of the inlet channel to prevent solids deposition may be used where off-gassing of odors or VOCs (volatile organic compounds) will not be a problem. Corner pockets and dead ends should be eliminated and corner fillets or channeling used where necessary. Provisions shall be made for eliminating or removing floating materials in inlet structures that have submerged ports. For rectangular tanks, inlet channels and pipes should convey the raw wastewater to the tank to allow the flow to enter the tank parallel and symmetrical with the tank center line. For a common inlet channel that provides right-angle entries to parallel rectangular tanks, flow control devices should be provided in the channel to prevent a greater proportion of the flow from entering the end tanks. Multiple inlet ports should be provided for rectangular tanks to distribute the flow across the tank width, with open surface flow provided to allow floating material to enter the clarifier. Inlet port openings should be sized large enough to decrease channel velocities and prevent jetting action of flow into the tank. For circular tanks, influent feed wells should be designed to also flocculate solids to increase settling efficiency. This performance can be achieved by baffling the inlet ports to bring the wastewater into the tank feed well in a manner that produces a spiral flow pattern, promoting contact between suspended solids. T2-2.2.3 Baffling and Short-Circuiting Short-circuiting of flow from the inlet to the outlet results in poor performance since the available hydraulic detention time of the clarifier is not fully used to capture and separate solids from the liquid. Short-circuiting should be prevented by internal tank baffling that distributes the flow equally across the tank’s cross-sectional area, dissipates water velocity currents, and directs the flow parallel to the tank center line. In a circular primary settling tank, this function should be provided by the center, circular feed well. In rectangular tanks, submerged baffle walls should be provided downstream of inlet ports to minimize short-circuiting. The bottom edge of baffle walls and feed wells should not be deep enough to cause acceleration of liquid velocity under the baffle or to result in entrainment of settled solids in the sludge blanket. Baffle walls and feed wells should also allow floating material to pass over them or through openings to prevent accumulation. T2-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T2-2.2.4 Outlets Effluent should be uniformly withdrawn at the outlets to prevent short- circuiting and localized, high-velocity currents than can scour settled solids and cause solids carryover. The overflow weir at the effluent trough (launder) or channel should be level, and may be either V-notched or straight-edged. (Weir loading rate is discussed in T2-2.1.2.) For circular clarifiers, effluent troughs and overflow weirs should normally be located along the circumference of the outer wall, with submerged, horizontal baffling extending outward from the wall to prevent carryover of solids in wall currents. Consider use of weir squeegees to reduce maintenance. In-board launders may also be used to avoid these wall effects. For rectangular clarifiers, effluent launders should be arranged at the outlet area of the tank to cover 33 to 50 percent of the basin length, and spaced to minimize velocity currents between troughs. Effluent trough depths shall be adequate to carry peak flow without submerging the launders. Where problem odors or VOCs are produced by the off-gassing from the effluent drop into the outlet trough, covered launders or submerged launders with orifices should be considered. All effluent launder design shall accommodate the collection and removal of scum by the clarifier skimmer system. T2-2.2.5 Grit Removal Primary settling tanks may be used to collect and remove grit from influent wastewater when grit removal is not provided in preliminary treatment. Tanks used to remove grit shall have sludge collector equipment materials that can withstand the abrasive effects of grit handling. Grit removal in the primary settling tank requires a downstream sludge treatment system to separate the grit from the primary sludge. A hydrocyclone or other vortex-inducing equipment shall be used to separate the grit from sludge, with the hydrocyclone grit discharge further washed and dewatered by a rake or screw classifier device. Grit-removal system designs should minimize the amount of organic solids that remain in the separated grit that requires disposal. Refer also to the requirements in T2-3.2.6. T2-2.2.6 Scum Removal Effective scum collection and removal facilities, including baffling, shall be provided ahead of the outlet weirs on all primary settling tanks. Refer to the requirements in T2-4. T2-2.2.7 Co-Thickening Biological sludge from the downstream secondary treatment process may be discharged to the primary settling tank for co-thickening with the primary sludge. Sludge collector equipment for these tanks shall be designed for more rapid sludge removal than for conventional primary settling tanks to prevent septic conditions and to avoid solubilization of BOD 5 due to the decomposition of the biological waste solids. The lower specific gravity of the biological solids, as compared to primary settleable solids, requires the use of lower surface overflow rates (see T2-2.1.1). Sludge pumping and treatment systems shall be sized to handle the larger volumes and reduced thickness of primary sludge due to the additional biological sludge. Primary Treatment December 1998 T2-9 T2-2.2.8 Submerged Surfaces The tops of beams and similar construction features that are submerged shall have a minimum slope of 1.75 vertical:1 horizontal. The underside of such features should have a slope of 1:1 to prevent the accumulation of scum and solids. T2-2.2.9 Multiple Units Multiple units capable of independent operation should be provided at all plants. The number of units required shall satisfy Ecology requirements for reliability (see G2-8) and shall provide for economical construction and operation and maintenance. With tanks out of service, the remaining in-service settling tanks shall be capable of passing the peak design flow without exceeding the allowable surface overflow rate, causing tank wall overflow, or producing hydraulic backup that would impair the proper operation of upstream facilities. T2-2.2.10 Protective and Servicing Facilities All settling tanks shall have features providing easy access for maintenance and protection of operators (such as stairways, walkways, and handrails). If side walls are extended some distance above the liquid level to provide flood protection or for other purposes, convenient walkways shall be provided to facilitate housekeeping and maintenance. Provision shall be made to provide easy, safe access for cleaning and maintenance of weirs. Adequate area lighting shall be provided around access paths and at the clarifier drive mechanism. T2-2.2.11 Sludge Removal Provisions shall be made to permit continuous sludge removal from primary settling tanks using positive scraping mechanisms. Refer to other requirements in T2-3. T2-2.2.12 Tank Dewatering All clarifiers shall be provided with means for tank dewatering. The capacity of dewatering pumps or gravity drainage systems should be such that the tank can be dewatered in 24 hours. The contents of the basin should be discharged to the closest process upstream from the unit being dewatered that can accept the flow. Draining the clarifier shall not cause tank buoyancy because of high ground water levels. Tank internal components (troughs, pipes, etc.) shall also drain when the basin is dewatered, or these components shall be designed to support the weight of any contained water. T2-2.2.13 Odor Control Primary settling tanks and associated structures should be designed to minimize the generation of odors and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Turbulence at tank inlets, effluent launders, and weirs should be minimized to prevent the release of noxious gases. Where excessive turbulence cannot be avoided, such as at a water drop of over 8 inches, covers should be placed over the turbulent area and positive ventilation to an odor control system should be considered. Settled sludge should be prevented from becoming septic by providing adequate sludge collection and removal equipment capacity to avoid T2-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design sludge buildup and excessive detention time. Sludge detention time shall be less than 1 hour at average design flow and loading. Plant recycle streams to the primary settling tanks should enter the basins below the water line. Surface skimming equipment should withdraw scum to prevent its accumulation on the surface of the liquid. Preaeration of raw wastewater upstream of the primary settling tanks and treatment of gases stripped from the liquid should be considered where significant odor or VOC problems exist. See G2-5 for additional information on odor prevention and treatment. T2-2.2.14 Chemical Addition Chemical coagulants (such as iron salts, aluminum salts, lime, and polymers) may be added to raw wastewater entering primary clarifiers to increase removal of BOD 5 , suspended solids, and phosphorus above levels normally achieved in standard settling tanks without chemical addition. Removal efficiencies and design surface overflow rates should be based on jar tests, pilot plant testing, and/or results from similar plants treating wastewater with similar characteristics. Positive control of chemical feed rate shall be provided. Clarifier sludge handling equipment and downstream sludge pumping and processing facilities shall be capable of handling the increased mass and composition (density, dewaterability, abrasiveness, scaling, pH, corrosivity, inert concentration) of primary sludge produced due to the chemical addition. Additional requirements of chemical addition systems are described in Chapter T4. T2-3 Primary Sludge Collection and Removal T2-3.1 Disposition of Primary Sludge Clarifier sludge collectors, sumps, and pumps shall be designed to remove primary sludge from settling tanks and transport it to sludge processing facilities for further treatment and disposal or reuse. (See Chapter S for requirements of sludge processing facilities.) Settling tanks shall not be designed to store primary sludge longer than the time required to transport settled solids to the tank sump. T2-3.2 Design Considerations T2-3.2.1 Collectors Primary settling tanks shall be provided with mechanical sludge collectors to transport settled solids along the basin floor to the withdrawal sump or hopper. Rectangular clarifiers shall be equipped with chain and flight or traveling bridge-type sludge collectors. Circular clarifiers shall be equipped with plow or spiral scraper-type sludge collectors. For all tanks, the scraper size, quantity, configuration, and travel speed shall be adequate to convey the maximum expected amount of settled solids accumulation to the sludge removal sump. The required sludge conveyance capacity of the collector system shall exceed the maximum settled solids flux loading rate on the tank floor. Collectors shall be designed to provide continuous sludge supply to the primary sludge pump to prevent short-circuiting of water directly to the pump. Suction-type Primary Treatment December 1998 T2-11 collectors should not be used in primary settling tanks to avoid plugging sludge withdrawal pipes. T2-3.2.2 Sumps For rectangular tanks, the sump should be located at the inlet end of the basin to minimize travel time to the sump, though very long tanks may require intermediate sumps. Intermediate sumps in rectangular tanks should be spaced to allow removal of transported sludge prior to overloading of the collector scraper. For circular tanks, the sump should be located at the center of the tank. Sumps shall have steep sides with a minimum slope of 1.7:1 and smooth wall surfaces to prevent solids accumulation. Each sump shall be equipped with a single sludge withdrawal pipe to the primary sludge pump. Sumps shall be sized to avoid plugging by solids and shall provide enough storage volume to maintain continuous sludge supply to the pump between collector scraper passes. Sumps for larger rectangular clarifiers (20 feet in width or greater) should have separate mechanical collector mechanisms to convey sludge to the withdrawal pipe entrance. The conveyance capacity of the sump collector shall be adequate to continuously supply sludge to the pump to prevent short- circuiting of water directly into the withdrawal pipe entrance. T2-3.2.3 Sludge Depths Sludge collector and withdrawal systems shall have adequate capacity to prevent the accumulation of primary sludge above a 2-foot depth and avoid septic conditions. T2-3.2.4 Removal Rates Sludge removal equipment shall be designed to prevent accumulation of primary sludge and avoid septic conditions in the tank. Design of removal equipment (collectors and pump) shall consider the maximum rate of settled solids flux on the floor of the tank. Removal rates shall not exceed the ability of downstream sludge processing facilities to accept the sludge loading. T2-3.2.5 Pumping and Conveyance Primary sludge pumps and withdrawal equipment shall be designed to transport the maximum sludge density and flow expected. Withdrawal systems may be designed for either continuous or intermittent operation but shall operate frequently enough to prevent excessive sludge accumulation in the tank. Sludge withdrawal and conveyance piping shall be at least 4 inches in diameter and should include adequate cleanouts, flush connections, and pigging ports to allow access for clearing obstructions. Sludge lines should also include a sight glass on the suction side of the pump, sampling port, and flowmeter. Minimum velocity in sludge lines shall be 2 fps to prevent solids deposition. Where grease in the primary sludge lines may accumulate and cause flow restrictions, consideration should be given to the use of epoxy or glass-lined pipe. Use of long-radius elbows in piping systems is also recommended to prevent plugging and to reduce head loss. Primary sludge shall be removed from clarifiers and discharged to sludge processing facilities by pumping. Primary sludge pumps shall be a type and size capable of pumping primary solids without plugging and should be equipped with both suction and discharge isolation valves. Pumps should be T2-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design located to maintain a net positive suction head and suction lines should be short and straight to minimize friction losses and plugging. A 100-percent capacity standby pump should be provided. Pump selection should consider the effect of pumped flow characteristics on downstream sludge processing facilities. T2-3.2.6 Grit Sludge collector and conveyance systems for primary clarifiers providing grit removal shall be constructed of materials that resist abrasion. Sludge collection and removal capacity shall be adequate to handle high loadings of grit associated with peak wet weather flows to the plant. Primary sludge pumps shall have adequate capacity and controls to remove and pump sludge at a constant rate that feeds downstream grit-removal equipment at a flow and sludge concentration that maximizes grit separation. T2-4 Scum Collection and Removal T2-4.1 Disposition of Scum Clarifier scum collectors, sumps, pumps, and withdrawal systems shall be designed to remove floating materials from settling tanks and transport it to scum processing facilities for further treatment and disposal. (See Chapter S for requirements of scum processing facilities.) T2-4.2 Design Considerations T2-4.2.1 Collectors Primary clarifiers shall be provided with scum collection equipment to concentrate and transport floating material to the withdrawal system. Collection equipment may be either automatic or manually operated. For rectangular primary settling tanks, sludge collector flights should be designed to convey floating material along the water surface to the scum removal device. The scum withdrawal device for rectangular tanks should be either a trough or slotted pipe which should extend the full width of the tank to prevent the overflow of the floating material into the liquid effluent launder. For circular tanks, a radial skimmer arm rotating around the tank at the water surface should be provided to convey floating material to a withdrawal hopper. For all tanks, water sprays should be provided to direct the scum to the removal location. Baffles should be provided between the scum collection area and the effluent weirs to prevent overflow into the troughs. Withdrawal devices should be designed to allow sufficient water to overflow with the scum to convey the scum to the collection sump or conveyance system. T2-4.2.2 Sumps Sumps may be provided to collect scum and provide a surge volume for removal pumps. Sumps shall provide adequate storage capacity to avoid too- frequent pump operation. Sump walls shall be steep and smooth to prevent scum accumulation that creates septic conditions. Covers or grating should be Primary Treatment December 1998 T2-13 installed over the sump to control odors and prevent access for insects and birds. Mixing, water sprays, or withdrawal ports should be provided to prevent surface crusting or coning of scum in the sump. T2-4.2.3 Removal Rates Scum removal equipment shall be designed to prevent accumulation of floating material, avoid septic conditions, and prevent attraction of insects and birds in the tank. Removal rates shall not exceed the ability of downstream scum-processing facilities to accept the scum loading. T2-4.2.4 Conveyance Scum pumps and withdrawal equipment shall be designed to transport the anticipated maximum scum density and flow. Withdrawal systems may be designed for either continuous or intermittent operation, but shall operate frequently enough to prevent excessive accumulation of scum in the sump or backup in the clarifier. Scum withdrawal and conveyance piping shall be at least 4 inches in diameter and should include adequate cleanouts and flush connections to allow access for clearing obstructions. Minimum velocity in scum lines shall be 2 fps to prevent solids deposition. Pipes should be epoxy or glass-lined to prevent grease accumulation. Heat tracing of exposed lines should be considered in cold temperature locations. Scum shall be removed from clarifiers and discharged to scum processing facilities by gravity flow or pumping. Gravity removal systems shall have sufficient slope to convey the maximum scum flow. Scum pumps shall be a type and size capable of pumping scum solids without plugging. Pumps should be located to maintain a net positive suction head and suction lines should be short and straight to minimize friction losses and plugging. Pump selection should consider the effect of pumped flow characteristics on downstream scum processing facilities. Larger plants should have a flow meter on the scum pipe leading to these processing facilities. T2-5 References Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering—Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. Third Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991. Water Environment Federation and American Society of Civil Engineers. Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants. Manual of Practice No. 8, Chapter 10. 1991. Water Environment Federation. Operation of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants. Manual of Practice No. 11, Chapter 19. 1996. December 1998 T3-1 T3 Biological Treatment This chapter describes biological treatment processes and includes design, construction, and operational considerations for these treatment processes. Suspended growth (continuous flow) using the activated sludge process, batch treatment (sequencing batch reactor) modification of the activated sludge process, and biological nutrient removal are the principal processes described in this chapter. T3-1 Objective ................................ 3 T3-2 General Process Design ..... 3 T3-2.1 Mass Balances ..............................3 T3-2.1.1 General Description and Objectives ....... 3 T3-2.1.2 Application of Mass Balance.................. 3 T3-2.1.3 Setup of Process Configurations............. 4 T3-2.1.4 Model Inputs........................................... 4 T3-2.2 Process Flow Diagram..................4 T3-2.3 Process and Instrumentation Diagrams .......................................5 T3-2.4 Hydraulic Profile............................5 T3-2.5 Design Criteria ..............................7 T3-3 Design Guidelines................. 8 T3-3.1 Activated Sludge...........................8 T3-3.1.1 Continuous Flow..................................... 8 A. Carbonaceous BOD Removal...................... 8 1. Overview.................................................. 8 2. General Design Considerations................ 8 a. Specific Process Selection ................... 8 b. Submittal of Calculations .................... 8 c. Primary Treatment ............................... 8 d. Winter Protection................................. 8 3. Process Design......................................... 9 a. Volume of Aeration Tanks................... 9 b. Oxygen Requirements ......................... 9 c. Sludge Recycling Requirements .........10 d. Sludge Production and Wasting..........10 4. Equipment Selection ...............................11 a. Aeration Equipment............................11 b. Diffused Air Systems..........................11 c. Mechanical Aeration Systems.............12 d. Sludge Recycle Equipment.................12 e. Waste Sludge Equipment....................12 B. Sedimentation.............................................13 1. Overview.................................................13 a. General................................................13 b. Applicability.......................................13 2. Process Design Considerations ...............13 a. Overflow Rate.....................................13 b. Solids Loading Rate............................14 c. Sludge Settleability.............................15 d. Return Sludge Pumping Rate..............15 C. Bioselector..................................................15 1. General....................................................15 2. Foaming and Bulking Control.................16 3. Nutrient Control......................................17 4. Discussion...............................................18 T3-3.1.2 Batch Treatment (Sequencing Batch Reactor).........................................................18 A. Carbon Removal.........................................18 1. Overview: Process Description and Applicability ........................................18 2. Advantages..............................................19 3. Disadvantages .........................................19 4. Systems Available and Selection Considerations .....................................20 5. Process Design........................................21 a. Basis of Design ...................................21 b. Aeration Tank Sizing..........................21 c. Aeration Supply Sizing.......................21 d. Nutrient Removal ...............................22 e. Scum and Foam Control .....................22 6. Equipment Design...................................22 a. Solicitation Methods...........................22 b. Aeration Equipment............................22 c. Decanting Equipment .........................23 d. Mixing Equipment..............................23 e. Motor Operated Valves.......................23 f. Control Systems ..................................23 T3-3.1.3 Extended Aeration .................................24 A. Application for Municipal and Industrial Treatment Systems...................................25 B. Design Considerations................................25 1. General Design Considerations...............25 2. Consideration of Oxygen Transfer..........25 T3-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 3. Consideration of Secondary Clarification.........................................26 T3-3.2 Biological Nutrient Removal.......27 T3-3.2.1 Objective................................................27 T3-3.2.2 Processes Available ...............................27 A. Activated Sludge Plants..............................27 B. Oxidation Ditches.......................................27 C. Trickling Filters..........................................27 D. Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC).......27 E. Lagoons ......................................................28 F. A/O Process ................................................28 G. Phostrip Process .........................................28 T3-4 Construction Considerations.................... 28 T3-4.1 Objective......................................28 T3-4.2 Settling and Uplift .......................28 T3-4.3 Secondary Clarifier Slab.............29 T3-4.4 Aeration Piping ...........................30 T3-4.5 Control Strategy..........................30 T3-5 Operational Considerations.................... 31 T3-5.1 Objective......................................31 T3-5.2 Plant Hydraulics..........................31 T3-5.2.1 Flow Splitting ........................................31 T3-5.2.2 Activated Sludge Pumping/Conveyance ...................................31 A. Purpose.......................................................31 B. Types and Their Application ......................31 1. Centrifugal Pumps ..................................31 2. Gravity Flow...........................................32 3. Combination............................................32 C. Problems.....................................................32 1. Inadequate Suction Head ........................32 2. Inadequate Head .....................................32 3. RAS Lines Not Hydraulically Independent (Common Header and Line) ....................................................32 4. Plugging of Gravity Systems ..................33 5. Lack of Turndown Capability.................33 6. Flow Range.............................................33 T3-5.3 Reactor Issues ............................33 T3-5.3.1 Feed/Recycle Flexibility........................33 T3-5.3.2 Tank Dewatering/Cleaning....................34 T3-5.3.3 Multiple Tanks for Seasonal Load Variation........................................................34 T3-5.3.4 Suspended Growth Back Mixing...........34 T3-5.3.5 Fixed Film Prescreening........................34 T3-5.4 Secondary Clarifier Issues ........ 34 T3-6 Reliability ............................. 35 T3-6.1 General........................................ 35 T3-6.2 Secondary Process Components............................... 35 T3-6.2.1 Aeration Basins......................................35 A. Reliability Class I and Class II ...................35 B. Reliability Class III.....................................35 T3-6.2.2 Aeration Blower and Mechanical Aerators.........................................................36 A. Reliability Class I and Class II ...................36 B. Reliability Class III.....................................36 T3-6.2.3 Air Diffusers..........................................36 T3-6.2.4 Sequencing Batch Reactors ...................36 T3-7 References........................... 36 Figures T3-1. Hydraulic Profile for a Major Mechanical Treatment Plant ................................................ 6 Tables T3-1. Sample Worksheet Showing Input Data Requirements for Biological Systems .............. 9 T3-2. Typical Process Design Values for Sedimentation Overflow Rate .........................14 Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-3 T3-1 Objective This chapter is intended to help engineers, operators, and local wastewater officials understand and efficiently implement biological treatment requirements. Because various professional societies and the US EPA develop and routinely update design manuals for wastewater treatment, this chapter will not address general design criteria contained in other design manuals, but will instead reference those manuals. It is the intention of this chapter to: ? Provide additional information pertinent to Washington State regulatory and environmental requirements. ? Illustrate and/or elaborate specific information. ? When appropriate, highlight items needing additional considerations applicable to smaller communities. ? Excerpt selected material to facilitate discussions and illustrate principles to assist local decision-makers. T3-2 General Process Design The general process design will provide the design considerations that should be reviewed when designing any biological treatment facilities. T3-2.1 Mass Balances T3-2.1.1 General Description and Objectives A mass balance is a set of calculations used to account for the mass flows of various parameters among the different process units in a system. A mass balance model can be used to track such parameters as chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids (TSS), and total Kjeldahl oxygen (TKN) in the liquid and solids stream treatment processes in a wastewater treatment plant. Mass balances may be developed to assess equipment performance based on existing plant data or to project future solids loadings throughout an expanded facility. T3-2.1.2 Application of Mass Balance Mass balance calculations are typically applied based on steady-state plant operations. Although a treatment plant is never truly operating at steady state, pseudo-steady-state conditions can be assumed by using data averaged over a certain time period. The appropriate averaging time period for mass balances is plant-specific and may vary from year to year, even for the same plant. Annual or monthly average plant data are often used. The model is not suitable for assessing plant performance and predicting solids loads under short-term, highly variable conditions, such as during shock loading conditions or storm events. Therefore, plant data such as peak-day or peak-hour flow and loadings should not be used. The mass balance for each process unit is written by equating the input minus the output to the conversion (removal or addition due to physical, chemical, or biological processes). The plant is assumed to be in equilibrium, so that there is no net accumulation or loss in each process unit. T3-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Results of the mass balance calculations can only be as accurate as the values of the input variables. Because parameters such as TKN and total phosphorus are often not measured on a regular basis, especially in the solids handling area, developing the proper mass balances for these parameters may become difficult. T3-2.1.3 Setup of Process Configurations In order to accurately account for the mass flows of the tracked parameters, all unit processes that may either add to or reduce the mass flow should be incorporated. These may include primary sedimentation, secondary treatment (including biological treatment and secondary sedimentation), sludge thickening, sludge digestion, and sludge dewatering. Recycle streams such as thickener overflow, dewatering centrate/filtrate, and digester supernatant should be included. The routing of the recycle streams should be accurately represented in the mass balance model. T3-2.1.4 Model Inputs Inputs to the mass balance model generally consist of plant influent flow, influent loadings (i.e., BOD, TSS, and VSS), and effluent concentrations. Influent concentrations may also be used but should be converted first to mass loading rates in the model, since mass is a conserved property and is more appropriately tracked in mass balance calculations. The solids measurement method should be clarified to determine if a difference between total (TS, VS) and suspended solids (TSS, VSS) exists in the given data. In this text, it is assumed that TSS and VSS refer to the sum of the suspended and settleable solids. Sometimes the plant flow is measured just upstream of the primary clarifiers. In that case, the flow input to the model will be the primary influent flow, while the plant raw influent flow will be back-calculated from the primary influent flow and possibly any recycle flows. Mass balance models do not predict the effluent quality, which must be provided to calculate the waste sludge production rate or yield ratio. T3-2.2 Process Flow Diagram A process flow diagram shall be prepared to show the general, schematic interrelationship between major liquid and solids handling processes, beginning with influent wastewater conveyance and concluding with the final treated effluent. A typical process flow diagram is shown in Figure G1-2. The level of detail for the process flow diagram will vary with the complexity of the treatment facility. The following guidelines shall apply to all process flow diagrams: ? The process flow diagram should be presented on a single sheet whenever possible. The diagram need not be drawn to scale. ? Treatment units and major equipment should be shown by schematic outline shapes and symbols. All major process units and flow streams shall be identified. Symbols and abbreviations used in the process flow diagram shall be defined in the drawings. ? The process flow diagram shall show the routine or normal routing of flows and solids streams along with important bypass routings. Arrowheads shall be used to indicate the normal direction of flow. Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-5 ? The process flow diagram shall show a schematic representation of major interconnecting piping between treatment units. Varying line weights and styles shall be used to distinguish between liquid and solids process stream piping, gas piping, and other ancillary systems. Valves, gates, and similar flow controls need not be shown. ? Where provisions are made for the addition of future treatment units, the future process trains should be considered, and future tie-in points identified. T3-2.3 Process and Instrumentation Diagrams Plans for wastewater treatment facilities that involve automated controls, instrumentation systems, telemetry, and/or other remote monitoring or control shall include process and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs). P&IDs shall show the interrelationships between mechanical equipment, local and remote controls, alarms, and instrumentation systems. The level of detail for P&IDs will vary with the complexity of the treatment facility, controls, and instrumentation systems. The following guidelines shall apply to all P&IDs: ? Unlike process flow diagrams, P&IDs for a typical mechanical treatment plant may require multiple sheets. The diagrams need not be drawn to scale. ? Symbols and abbreviations shall comply with standards of ISA. ? Numbering conventions for equipment, alarms, instrumentation, and appurtenances shall utilize a system acceptable to the owner of the treatment facility. ? Treatment units and major equipment shall be shown by schematic outline shapes and symbols. All major process units and flow streams shall be identified. Piping shall be labeled with respect to diameter and type of conveyed fluid. Arrowheads shall be used to indicate the normal direction of flow. ? Valves (including any automated controls) should be shown schematically, and indicate normal positions. ? Symbols and abbreviations used in P&IDs shall be defined in the drawings. ? P&IDs shall show local and remote controls and protective devices/alarms for all mechanical equipment items, including interconnecting control signals and logic. ? The sampling locations and metering should allow for routine verification of the plant operating mass balance. T3-2.4 Hydraulic Profile A hydraulic profile drawing shall be prepared to show the water surface profile in cross- section view through the liquid treatment facilities. The hydraulic profile shall be calculated and shown for both peak hourly (or instantaneous) flow and design flow (maximum month) conditions. The peak hourly and average dry weather flow rates shall be clearly stated on the drawing, along with any critical assumptions used in developing the hydraulic profile. An excerpt of a hydraulic profile for a major mechanical treatment plant is presented in Figure T3-1. T3-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design W aste activated sludge (W AS) Return activated sludge (RAS) Secondary diversion line Raw sewage pump station Bar screens Emergency bypass Preaeration tanks Primary sedimentation tanks Primary sludge Screenings Grit Influent control structure Primary ef fluent weir gates PRIMAR Y TREA TMENT SECONDAR Y PRELIMINAR Y TREA TMENT Elevation 11 0 100 120 8090 130140 Elevation 11 0 100120 8090 130140 1 12.00 98.00 98.00 107.00 EPS weir El 107.50 105.00 1 17.00 1 17.00 109.00 129.50 1 12.00 EPS weir El 107.50 129.50 1 12.00 99.50 95.00 To outfall 108-inch ef fluent line Ef fluent pump station Static mixers Contact channel Gravity flow bypass 99.50 95.00 109.50 102.00 Peak flow (440 mgd) Normal flow (0-300 mgd) Elevations at: LEGEND 1 17.00 109.00 TREA TMENT DISINFECTION Chlorine solution injection Secondary diversion gates Flow diversion structure Intermediate pump station Oxygen Aeration tanks High purity oxygen (HPO) aeration tanks Secondary sedimentation tanks Mixers Dechlorination Figure T3-1. Hydraulic Profile for a Major Mechanical Treatment Plant Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-7 Hydraulic profile drawings shall be developed in accordance with the following criteria: ? The hydraulic profile should be presented on a single sheet if possible. An exaggerated vertical scale shall be used to emphasize water surface elevations. The hydraulic profile need not be drawn to accurate horizontal scale. ? For small or simple facilities, the hydraulic profile may be combined with other sheets, such as the listing of design criteria. ? Treatment units and flow control structures shall be shown schematically in cross-section views and labeled. ? Water surface elevations shall be calculated (and shown) to the nearest 0.01 foot. The hydraulic profile shall present water surface elevations at all major treatment units, flow control structures, weirs and gates, and the point of effluent discharge. ? Top of wall elevations for hydraulic structures shall be drawn to scale and labeled showing elevations. ? Where a treatment plant has multiple parallel process trains with similar hydraulics, the hydraulic profile need only show one typical train. T3-2.5 Design Criteria A complete detailed listing of design criteria shall be provided for the entire plant during wet-weather and dry-weather flow conditions, including the following: ? Flows (peak hour, maximum month, average daily). ? Loadings. ? Anticipated effluent quality. ? Treatment units, size, depth, detention, overflow, etc. ? Equipment HP, rated capacity, size, RPM, etc. ? Outfall length, material, diameter. ? Diffuser ports, depth, minimum dilution. ? Solids handling process units, equipment, metering, etc. ? Reliability class. ? Standby power type, capacity, fuel consumption and storage, etc. T3-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T3-3 Design Guidelines This section is intended to provide guidance for a designer when designing biological treatment facilities. T3-3.1 Activated Sludge T3-3.1.1 Continuous Flow A. Carbonaceous BOD Removal 1. Overview This section provides design guidelines for carbonaceous BOD removal using the activated sludge process. 2. General Design Considerations a. Specific Process Selection The activated sludge process and its many modifications may be used to accomplish various degrees of removal of suspended solids and reduction of carbonaceous and/or nitrogenous oxygen demand. Choosing the most applicable process will be influenced by the degree and consistency of treatment required, type of waste to be treated, proposed plant size, anticipated degree of operation and maintenance, and operating and capital costs. All designs shall provide for flexibility in operation and should provide for operation in various modes, if feasible. For a discussion of characteristics and features of process modifications, refer to WEF Manual of Practice No. 8 or other textbooks. b. Submittal of Calculations Calculations shall be submitted, upon request, to justify the basis of design for the activated sludge process. The calculations shall show the basis for sizing the aeration tanks, aeration equipment, secondary clarifiers, return sludge equipment, and waste sludge equipment. c. Primary Treatment Where primary settling tanks are not used, effective removal or exclusion of grit, debris, excessive oil or grease (greater than 100 mg/l), and screening of solids shall be accomplished prior to the activated sludge process. Fine screens (6 mm or less) should always be used if primary clarifiers are not provided. d. Winter Protection In severe climates, consideration should be given to minimizing heat loss and protecting against freezing. Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-9 3. Process Design Table T3-1 is a sample worksheet showing the data requirements typically necessary for designing biological systems processes. Table T3-1. Sample Worksheet Showing Input Data Requirements for Biological Systems Parameter Units Average Annual Maximum Month Maximum Day Peak Hour Flow MGD BOD 5 lb/day COD (1) lb/day TSS lb/day VSS lb/day TKN (2) lb/day TP (2) lb/day Minimum Temperature °F (1) If COD:BOD 5 ratio is not 1.9-2.2:1.0, the conventional design equation can be in error. See WEF MOP No. 8, pgs. 11-20, notes on graphs 11.7a and 11.7b. (2) If nutrient removal is required, TKN and/or TP will be needed. a. Volume of Aeration Tanks The volume of the aeration tanks for any adaptation of the activated sludge process shall be determined based on full scale experience, pilot plant studies, or rational calculations. Design equations based on mean-cell residence time (sludge age) can be found in WEF Manual of Practice No. 8, Chapter 11. When aeration tanks are sized for carbonaceous BOD removal using rational calculations, the ability to maintain a flocculent, well settling mixed liquor must be considered. The use of selectors, as described in this chapter, may be desirable or necessary. For carbonaceous BOD removal, sludge age values in the range of 5 to 15 days are typical, with the lower values used for high temperatures and the higher values used for low temperatures. Significant levels of nitrification will generally occur at 5-day SRT and temperatures of 61° F or greater. Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) concentrations in the range of 1,500 to 3,500 mg/L are often used. Because the mixed liquor concentration affects the solids loading on the secondary clarifiers, selection of the MLSS concentration must be coordinated with the secondary clarifier design. b. Oxygen Requirements Oxygen requirements for carbonaceous BOD removal include oxygen to satisfy the BOD of the wastewater plus the endogenous T3-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design respiration of the microorganisms. Additional oxygen is required if nitrification occurs. Oxygen requirements depend on the influent loading to the aeration tank as well as the process design and should be determined using rational calculations. Calculations should be based on the peak hourly BOD loading to the aeration tanks. Recycle flows from solids processing operations must be considered since these streams often have high BOD concentrations. Refer to WEF Manual of Practice No. 8, Chapter 11, for equations. Oxygen requirements for carbonaceous BOD removal are dependent on the SRT and are typically 0.9 to 1.3 pounds of O 2 per pound of BOD removed. Provisions for nitrogenous oxygen demand should be considered separately and are typically 4.6 pounds of O 2 per pound of TKN applied. c. Sludge Recycling Requirements Sludge recycle rates can be calculated using the rational equations referenced above. The recycle rate deserves careful consideration since it affects the size of the secondary clarifiers without influencing the size of the aeration tanks. Because the recycle requirements also depend on the sludge settling and thickening characteristics, which may change, the rate of sludge recycle should be variable. The range is typically from 25 to 100 percent of the average design flow, though peak hourly flow needs must be accommodated. d. Sludge Production and Wasting When full scale or pilot plant data is not available, net sludge production can be estimated using the rational calculation procedures referenced above. In order to obtain a reasonable estimate of the total sludge production, it is important to include solids present in the influent to the plant. Refer to WEF Manual of Practice No. 8 for more details. Net sludge production increases with decreasing temperature and sludge age. In plants with primary sedimentation and operating at a sludge age of 15 days, net sludge production can be expected to be approximately 0.60 pounds of TSS per pound of BOD removed (0.48 lb VSS/lb BOD) at temperatures near 68° F. If the sludge age is decreased to 5 days, the net sludge production can be expected to increase slightly, to about 0.75 lbs/lb BOD removed (0.60 lb VSS/lb BOD). In plants without primary sedimentation, net sludge production can be expected to range from 1.2 lbs TSS/lb BOD removed (0.92 lb VSS/lb BOD)to 1.0 lbs TSS/lb BOD removed (0.75 lb VSS/lb BOD) at sludge ages from 5 to 15 days at 68° F. The net yields given in WEF Manual of Practice No. 8 are based on VSS. This value must be divided by the percent VSS/TSS in Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-11 the mixed liquor to generate net yields of lb TSS/lb BOD. The values given in WEF Manual of Practice No. 8 are conservative and 85 to 90 percent of the facilities are expected to have lower yields. Net yields at existing facilities should be developed when plants are expanded. 4. Equipment Selection a. Aeration Equipment Aeration equipment must be selected to satisfy the maximum oxygen requirements and provide adequate mixing. In processes designed for carbonaceous BOD removal, oxygen requirements normally control aeration equipment design and selection. Consideration for aeration and mixing requirements should always be reviewed independently. Aeration equipment should be designed to maintain a minimum dissolved oxygen concentration of 2 mg/L at maximum monthly design loadings and 0.5 mg/L at peak hourly loadings. Because aeration consumes significant energy, careful consideration should be given to maximizing oxygen utilization and matching the output of the aeration system to the diurnal oxygen requirements. b. Diffused Air Systems Air requirements for diffused air systems should be determined based on the oxygen requirements and the following factors, using industry-accepted equations: ? Tank depth. ? Alpha value. ? Beta value of waste. ? Aeration-device standard oxygen-transfer efficiency. ? Minimum aeration tank dissolved oxygen concentration. ? Critical wastewater temperature. ? Altitude of plant. Values for alpha and the transfer efficiency of the diffusers should be selected carefully to ensure an adequate air supply. For all the various modifications of the activated sludge process, except extended aeration, the aeration system should be able to supply 1,500 cf of air (at standard conditions) per pound of BOD applied to the aeration tank. This aeration rate assumes the use of equipment capable of transferring at least 1.0 pound of oxygen per pound of BOD loading to the mixed liquor. Air required for other purposes, such as aerobic digestion, channel mixing, or pumping, must be added to the air quantities calculated for the aeration tanks. Multiple blowers must be provided. The number of blowers and their capacities must be such that the maximum air requirements T3-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design can be met with the largest blower out of service. Because blowers consume considerable energy, the design should provide for varying the volume of air delivered in proportion to the demand. Flow meters and throttling valves, where applicable, should be provided for air flow distribution and process control. c. Mechanical Aeration Systems In the absence of specific performance data, mechanical aeration equipment should be sized based on a transfer efficiency of 2.0 lbs of oxygen per hp/per hr in clean water under standard conditions. Mechanical aeration devices must be capable of maintaining biological solids in suspension. In a horizontally mixed aeration tank, an average velocity of not less than 1 fps must be maintained. Provisions to vary the oxygen transferred in proportion to the demand should be considered in order to conserve energy. Protection from sprays and provisions for ease of maintenance should be included with any mechanical aeration system. Where extended cold weather conditions occur, the aeration device and associated structure should be protected from freezing due to splashing. Freezing in subsequent treatment units must also be considered due to the high heat loss resulting from mechanical aeration equipment agitation, i.e., splash and wave action. d. Sludge Recycle Equipment The sludge recycle rate should be variable over the range recommended in T3-3.1.1A.3.c. When establishing the flow range, initial operating conditions should be considered. Sludge is normally recycled using pumps, and the most common method of controlling the sludge recycle rate is with variable speed pump motors. When pumps are used, the maximum sludge recycle flow shall be obtained with the largest pump out of service. Sludge return pumps should operate with positive suction head and should have suction and discharge connections at least 3 inches in diameter. One pump should not be connected to two clarifiers for continuous withdrawal. Air-lift pumps may also be used to return sludge. When air-lift pumps are used to pump sludge from the hopper in each clarifier, it is not practical to install standby units. Therefore, the design should provide for rapid and easy cleaning. Air-lift pumps should be at least 3 inches in diameter. Flow meters should be provided for process control. e. Waste Sludge Equipment The sludge wasting rate will depend on the quantity of sludge produced and the process which receives the waste sludge. Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-13 Sludge is most commonly wasted using pumps. Waste sludge pumps could have capacity of up to 25 percent of the average daily flow. Minimum capacities in most smaller plants are governed by the practical turndown capabilities of the pumps. Variable speed drives and/or timers should be considered to control the wasting rate. Careful pump selection is also key in small flow-wasting applications (such as positive displacement vs. centrifugal). Means should be provided for observing and sampling waste activated sludge. Flow meters with totalizers and recorders should be provided for process control and mass balance determinations. B. Sedimentation 1. Overview a. General This section provides design guidelines for secondary sedimentation as a part of the activated sludge process. b. Applicability The activated sludge process requires separation of treatment organisms from the treated mixed liquor. In almost all activated sludge processes currently in use, this separation takes place in a gravity sedimentation tank or in a gravity sedimentation phase of a cyclic feed process. Since the effluent from the sedimentation process is the final step, sedimentation determines effluent quality for every activated sludge process. 2. Process Design Considerations Design of sedimentation for activated sludge processes requires consideration of the overall process. Process loading parameters that determine the efficiency of the activated sludge sedimentation include overflow rate, solids loading rate, sludge settleability, underflow or return sludge pumping rate, and tank hydraulic characteristics. Design values should be identified for each of these process parameters. a. Overflow Rate The overflow rate is the rate of effluent flow from the sedimentation tank divided by the tank surface area. The overflow rate is the average upward velocity of process effluent from the sedimentation tank. Early researchers in sedimentation identified overflow rate as the critical factor in sedimentation tank design. By this early theory, a given size particle will be captured in the sedimentation tank if its settling velocity is more than the average tank overflow rate. Current design practice recognizes the hindering effect of high influent solids concentrations on settling in the activated sludge clarifier and includes overflow rate as only one of the factors used to determine sedimentation tank size. If, in overall activated sludge process design, the aeration tank size is determined to maintain MLSS concentration and settleability less than critical values for performance of the sedimentation tank, then the overflow rate may be the primary design parameter for T3-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design the sedimentation tank. Table T3-2 gives values for design tank overflow rate during the peak sustained flow period that have proven effective under three different process configurations for the activated sludge process. Typical values for process variables?MLSS, sludge volume index (SVI), and RAS rate?are shown with corresponding values for design peak overflow rate. Overflow rate is given in units of gallons per day of effluent flow per square foot of total clarifier area. Some engineers subtract the influent area of the feed zone of the clarifier from the total sedimentation area. This practice may be considered as an additional safety factor in design and is not necessary as long as adequate safety factors are provided in the overall process design. Table T3-2. Typical Process Design Values for Sedimentation Overflow Rate Process Configuration Typical MLSS, mg/L (1) Typical SVI, mL/g RAS rate, % Peak Overflow Rate, gpd/sf (2) Conventional Activated Sludge 1,500-3,500 150 50-75 1,200 Extended Aeration 2,500-3,500 200 100 500 Oxidation Ditch 2,500-3,500 150 100 700 (1) Not true if bioselectors are used. (2) Depends on process parameters and tank design. b. Solids Loading Rate The solids loading rate is as important as overflow rate in determining the capacity of an activated sludge clarifier. The solids loading rate is the total mass rate of suspended solids into the clarifier divided by the tank cross-sectional area. The total mass rate to the clarifier is the sum of the tank effluent flow rate and the tank underflow or RAS pumping rate times the MLSS concentration. The limiting solids loading rate to an activated sludge clarifier should be no greater than the limiting solids flux in the clarifier. A factor of safety should also be applied that takes into consideration reasonably foreseen variations in design loading, settleability, and other variables. SF = G L /SLR, where SF = Safety factor G L = Limiting solids flux, ppd SLR = Solids loading rate, ppd The limiting solids flux to an activated sludge clarifier is the limiting rate of solids loading to the clarifier that will reach the tank bottom. The limiting solids flux is a function of MLSS concentration, RAS rate, and sludge settleability. It can be calculated for given design conditions in a number of ways. Riddell, et al., in “Method for Estimating the Capacity of an Activated Sludge Plant” (1983), provides a procedure for direct Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-15 calculation of limiting solids flux. Graphical procedures are provided in numerous references (see WEF Manual of Practice No. 8). Rational designs should demonstrate that design assumptions for MLSS concentration, RAS rate, and sludge settleability have been taken into account in determining the size of activated sludge aeration tanks and clarifiers. The overflow rate values in Table T3-2 each yield a safety factor of approximately 1.5 when applied at the indicated values for MLSS, SVI, and RAS rate using the method of Riddell, et al. For circular clarifiers, the SLR should not exceed 80 percent of the loading as a function of SVI (or DSVI) and return sludge concentration. See Daigger, “Development of Refined Clarifier Operating Diagrams Using an Updated Settling Characteristics Database” (1995). c. Sludge Settleability Sludge settleability determines the everyday capacity of an activated sludge clarifier since it partly determines the sludge settling rate against which the effluent overflow rate acts. The common measure of settleability in the activated sludge process is the SVI. Several models have been developed to relate SVI to sludge settling velocity. However, SVI is a poor procedure for MLSS of 3,000-4,000 mg/l and DSVI and SSVI tests should be used. Where possible, designs for activated sludge clarifiers should be based on field measurement of sludge settling velocity using batch settling tests at varying initial suspended solids concentration. In order to eliminate high SVI conditions, bioselectors should be used in activated sludge plants. d. Return Sludge Pumping Rate Return sludge pumping is required to maintain a mass balance of solids in the secondary clarifier. The rate of sludge pumping as a ratio of the effluent flow from the clarifier is called the return sludge ratio. Values for this ratio have an inversely proportional effect on RAS concentration. C. Bioselector 1. General Bioselectors (also referred to as selective reactors) are biological reactor processes that are placed just ahead of the principal biological reactor (activated sludge, etc.). The selector process involves reacting the influent wastewater with return activated sludge from the secondary clarifiers. Selectors are of three types depending upon the degree of oxidation of the biological sludge: aerobic, anoxic, and anaerobic. The most prevalent application of selectors involves the anoxic process. For biological phosphorous removal, the aerobic selector is not used; the anaerobic mode is used. Only the anoxic selector is briefly addressed in this manual. The anoxic selector is T3-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design most extensively applied to the treatment of both municipal and industrial wastewaters. Anoxic selectors are a means of controlling SVI in the biological treatment of wastewater. In particular, selectors may be used in the treatment train of wastewater treatment plants using a suspended growth process as the principal biological treatment method. Anoxic selectors can be used in an industrial wastewater treatment plant in which foaming or bulking problems may be expected. Industrial wastewaters, which are expected to produce a severe foaming problem during the main aeration step, may employ selectors just ahead of the aeration. Many industrial and some municipal treatment processes with short to long sludge ages, including extended aeration, experience bulking (nonsettling sludge) problems. Again, application of an anoxic selector just ahead of the main aeration step may be applied for the attenuation of potential bulking problems. Foaming and bulking conditions can be expected to exist for industrial wastewaters that consist of relatively simple sugars and other soluble substrates. These kinds of wastewaters are produced by pulp and paper mills, food processing facilities (fruit processing in particular), breweries with high alcohol content in the wastewater, and so on. Wastewater with elevated temperatures will exacerbate the problem of bulking and foaming. Temperatures to the bioreactor should not exceed 104° F, with temperatures below 100° F being more desirable. The third application for anoxic selectors is for nutrient removal. Municipal wastewater treatment plants that employ a selector reactor system typically experience nitrogen compound and phosphorus reduction. Reactor designs that promote selective growth of certain microorganisms and which have enhanced nitrogen and/or phosphorus removal have been developed. In some cases, these proprietary processes are configured with a two (or more) stage biological reactor. The design criteria may be different depending on the primary objective for the application. Selector design for bulking and foam control may use a somewhat different set of criteria than a selector with the principal objective of nutrient removal. 2. Foaming and Bulking Control The purpose of including a selector in the treatment train for the reduction of foaming or bulking potential is to change the competitive environment among the various types of microorganisms that are present in the wastewater. In particular, the objective is to selectively remove the BOD 5 through absorption under conditions that are the least advantageous to filamentous types of microorganisms. Two phenomena have been reported as having an impact. The first is reduction in available BOD for the growth of filamentous microorganisms; the second is reduction in residual soluble BOD that remains towards the end of the aeration step. Both of these actions reduce the concentration of filamentous microbes in the activated sludge. In turn, these microbes, which are more likely to partition into the foam or float in the activated sludge, are reduced in concentration. Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-17 Design for this type of condition typically involves return of a portion of the RAS to the influent to the selector. Hydraulic detention times for this type of selector may be as short as 10 minutes and as long as 45 minutes. Typical sizing of a selector for this application involves hydraulic sizing for 30 minutes at the design flow, with detention times to be no less than 10 minutes under peak flow conditions. In addition, the selector should be compartmentalized into three or more equal volume tanks, each with a mixer capable of maintaining complete mix conditions. A high food-to-micro-organism ratio (F/M) ratio should be designed for the first stage selector tank. F/M values of 6 to over 30 have been reported as being successful designs. The designer should make provision for returning only a portion of the RAS to the influent of the selector process. The return flow to the selector should be selected by the operator from about 30 percent to 100 percent of the total RAS flow. In the absence of any pilot plant data, a design F/M value of 10 to 15 should be used initially. It should be anticipated that the operator will need to make adjustments to this value once the treatment plant is in operation. 3. Nutrient Control The anoxic/oxic (A/O TM ) process for removal of phosphorus uses a selector reactor quite different from that described for bulking or foaming control. This process uses an anaerobic reactor followed by an aerobic reactor, with both tanks being about equal in volume. RAS full flow is returned to the influent to the anaerobic reactor. The mixed liquor is then piped into the aeration chamber. Nitrogen reduction typically does not occur with this process. For design parameters and conditions, the designer should consult with the WEF Manual of Practice No. 8. For this process, Metcalf & Eddy recommend an F/M ratio of 0.2 to 0.7 and an anaerobic reactor detention time of 0.5 to 1.5 hours followed by an aerobic reactor detention time of 1 to 3 hours. Nitrogen reduction in a municipal wastewater can be accomplished with the inclusion of an anoxic selector just before the aeration process. Reductions of 50 to 80 percent of the TKN may be accomplished depending upon unit sizing, MLVSS and TKN concentration, etc. The design of an anoxic selector for denitrification is not straightforward. Both the anoxic reactor and the aerobic reactor are sized based on the desired effluent. When the treatment plant is required to produce very low residual TKN the designer should consider an alternative process, such as the Bardenpho? process. When reductions of TKN are required to be on the order of 50 percent, an anoxic selector can be used ahead of the aeration reactor. With this type of process, the anoxic selector has a longer detention time and the full flow RAS is returned to the influent to the selector. Selector detention times for this type of application can exceed 2 hours, although this is rare. Metcalf & Eddy report a range of 0.2 to 2 hours as a typical detention time for the anoxic selector, with a detention time of 6 to 15 hours for the aeration chamber. Since much of the denitrification will occur from the sludge, all of the RAS is returned to T3-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design the selector. Metcalf & Eddy present a rational approach to the design of this type of system. Regardless of the objective for including an anoxic selector in the treatment train, some reduction in nutrients will occur. The rational approach cited above may be used to predict the amount of reduction. However, a number of assumptions are required to use the approach, or pilot study data must be developed for a more accurate prediction. 4. Discussion Bioselectors control bulking, and can reduce capacity requirements by 30 to 50 percent. Application of bioselectors in the treatment train should be used by the designer, either: ? To reduce the potential for bulking and/or foaming in the aeration chamber of an industrial or municipal wastewater treatment system, or ? For partial nutrient removal from a municipal or industrial wastewater treatment system. T3-3.1.2 Batch Treatment (Sequencing Batch Reactor) A. Carbon Removal 1. Overview: Process Description and Applicability This section provides design guidelines for carbonaceous BOD removal using the sequencing batch reactor (SBR) modification of the activated sludge process. While the basic biological processes are the same as the continuous flow activated sludge process, there are significant differences in features, which are discussed here. The batch reactor process is a fill-and-draw process in which all of the required treatment steps are performed in a common tank, in timed sequence, or in sequence based on tank levels. The basic process steps are: ? Fill. ? React. ? Settle. ? Decant. ? Waste sludge. Substeps, such as “anoxic fill” or “react fill” can be incorporated into the process scheme to accomplish specific treatment objectives. Because the basic biological process is the same as the continuous flow activated sludge process, the process is equally applicable for carbonaceous and nitrogenous BOD removal of wastewater that is amenable to biological treatment. The same process design considerations apply. In addition to the normal operator process control requirements, the added mechanical complexity of having to sequence valve operation, decanter, mixing, and air supply operations Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-19 must be considered. The ability to service and maintain this type of equipment should be considered when proposing this process. High peak/average flows can be a problem for process control. 2. Advantages The primary advantages of the SBR process are: ? Small space requirements. ? Common wall construction for rectangular tanks. ? Easy expansion into modules. ? Process flexibility. ? Controllable react time and perfect quiescent settling. ? Elimination of return sludge pumping. A significant advantage of the SBR process is the space savings that results from providing treatment in single tanks (as opposed to separate aeration tanks, clarifiers, and RAS pumping facilities), which are generally square or rectangular in shape. This can allow for common-wall construction, reduced site requirements, and the ability to design the facility to be readily expanded in modular steps. A second significant advantage of the SBR process is process control and flexibility. Because the “react” time is not flow dependent, it can be adjusted to meet process objectives. By manipulating oxygen supply and mixing regimes, alternating aerobic and anoxic reactor environments can be created for nitrogen and phosphorus removal. 3. Disadvantages The primary disadvantages of the SBR process are: ? Motor operated valves/reliability. ? Proprietary designs. ? Disinfection of batch discharge/slug flows. ? Head loss. ? May require preselection and prepurchase options. ? Bulking sludges with some designs. ? High peak/average flows. ? Installed aeration power based on percent oxic of the treatment time. ? Batch feeding from storage or bioselectors required to control bulking. A significant concern with the use of SBRs is the need to depend on automatic controls and motor operated control valves. The design should consider the reliability of the control systems and components. Because of the need for careful coordination of the controls, process design, and equipment, most SBR designs are supplied as complete “packages” from a single manufacturer. The equipment procurement process should be carefully considered. T3-20 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Because the SBR process discharges in “batches” with flow rates several times higher than average flow rates, the impact on downstream unit processes (such as disinfection and outfall hydraulics) must be considered, or a post-SBR flow equalization tank should be considered. Consider and review the impact on receiving waters of this batch process (i.e. water quality, mixing zones, etc.). Because the SBR process decants from a common tank, the drop in water surface elevation can be significant (several feet). The impact on overall process hydraulics should be considered in the design. 4. Systems Available and Selection Considerations Several SBR “system” designs are available from several manufacturers. Because of the need to carefully coordinate the process design, equipment, and control system, SBR process equipment is generally procured as a complete “system.” Selection should be based on process considerations (such as process flexibility and control strategies) as well as equipment characteristics. Basic SBR systems include: ? Jet aeration/mixing. ? Independent floating mixers/decanters/aeration. ? Continuous influent/intermittent discharge systems. Jet aeration systems provide basin aeration and mixing utilizing jet aerators, generally mounted on the basin floor. Motive pumps supply liquid to the jets for mixing, and blowers generally supply air to the jets for aeration. Smaller systems may utilize jets which aspirate air from the atmosphere. By turning the blowers off and on, independent aeration and mixing can be achieved. Basins for these systems are generally rectangular to suit the mixing capabilities of the jets, which are capable of complete mixing to about 30 to 40 feet in front of the jet. Independent floating mixer systems mix with floating mechanical mixers and aerate using coarse or fine bubble diffused aeration systems or floating mechanical aerators. The diffused air diffusers may be fixed to the basin floor or retrievable. Basins for these systems are generally square or round to suit the mixing pattern of the mechanical mixer. Continuous influent systems have continuous influent flow and intermittent discharge. Influent continues to enter the reactor during the settle and decant phases and is isolated from the effluent by a long length-to-width ratio basin. Basins for these systems are generally long and narrow. Aeration is usually provided by fixed fine or coarse bubble diffused air. Selection criteria for SBR systems should include the following: ? Tankage configuration versus site constraints. ? Review of impact on the process with the largest unit out of service on peak day flows. ? Selection of the decantable volume. Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-21 ? Need for independent mixing and aeration to achieve anoxic conditions. ? Aeration method and oxygen transfer efficiencies. ? Access to equipment and diffusers for service and cleaning. ? Time or level-based control strategy. ? Storm flow control strategy (flows greater than design). ? Aeration control strategy. ? Equipment features. 5. Process Design a. Basis of Design Process design calculations are available from major SBR equipment manufacturers, along with performance guarantees. Manufacturer designs shall be checked against rational design methods, and calculations should be submitted, upon request, to justify the basis of the design. b. Aeration Tank Sizing Aeration tank sizing shall be based on rational calculations. One approach is to utilize the oxic sludge age, in which the oxic SRT is the sludge retention time under aeration. Another approach is to utilize the F/M ratio. For domestic wastewater an oxic sludge age of 8 to 15 days (if nitrification is required), and an F/M ratio of 0.05 to 0.10 (unadjusted for aeration time), should be provided. A hydraulic retention time of at least 18 hours, at low water level, should be provided. Maximum mixed-liquor suspended solids concentrations should be based on actual concentrations achieved at similar facilities. If the solids settling will occur without influent or effluent flow, MLSS concentrations can be higher than would normally be achieved in a flow-through system. MLSS concentrations in the range of 3,500 to 6,000 mg/l, at low water level, are commonly used. Manufacturers should provide operating examples to justify MLSS concentrations greater than 4,000 mg/l at full tankage. c. Aeration Supply Sizing Aeration air supply calculations shall be based on peak hourly BOD loads, plus nitrification demands, if applicable, utilizing rational calculations. The following maximum alpha (oxygen transfer) values shall be utilized to convert standard oxygen transfer values to field values, unless certified pilot studies are available to justify alternative values: T3-22 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Aeration Supply Type Typical Maximum Alpha Value* Coarse bubble diffusers 0.85 Fine bubble diffusers 0.50 Jet aeration 0.75 Surface mechanical aerators 0.90 *See manufacturers for actual certified studies. Aeration supply calculations shall be based on supplying the design air quantity in the minimum time allocated for the “react” phase only. Manufacturers’ claims for oxygen transfer efficiencies shall be supported by full-scale oxygen transfer tests, conducted in accordance with ASCE Procedures (ANSI/ASCE 2-19, Measurement of Oxygen Transfer in Clean Water). d. Nutrient Removal Nitrogen removal is achievable in SBR designs by nitrification and denitrification. Nitrification will occur during the react phase, if the sludge age is sufficient. Denitrification can be achieved by introducing an anoxic (nonaerated), mixed-fill phase at the beginning of each cycle. During this phase, the residual level of oxidized nitrogen is depleted by denitrification. Phosphorus removal is achievable in SBR designs by creating alternating aerobic and anoxic reactor environments during the “react” phase of the process. Batch feeding or a prior bioselector step is required. e. Scum and Foam Control To facilitate optimum system performance, provide a method for removing problem scum and grease. 6. Equipment Design a. Solicitation Methods Because alternative SBR equipment manufacturers have different optimum tank configurations, it is advantageous to preselect the equipment supplier prior to detailed design of the tankage. Alternatives for competitive selection of equipment include: ? Prepurchase of equipment using competitive bids, based on performance specifications. ? Common tank construction. ? Evaluated bids, based on life cycle costs. b. Aeration Equipment Aeration equipment may include coarse or fine bubble diffusers, jet aerators, or floating mechanical aerators. Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-23 Aeration equipment shall be sized to meet oxygen requirements. Aeration equipment should be retrievable, or an alternate method of cleaning or backflushing the diffusers shall be provided. c. Decanting Equipment Decanting equipment may be floating or pivoting at a controlled decant rate. Decanting equipment shall be sized to pass the required hydraulic capacity (peak-day design flow divided by allocated decant time) without resuspending settled mixed liquor. Decanting equipment shall include provisions to exclude solids from accumulating in the decanting pipe or decant hose during the react phase and being discharged in the subsequent decant phase. Decanting equipment shall include “fail-safe” features to require at least two independent control signals or valves to open. d. Mixing Equipment Mixing equipment may include floating mechanical mixers, or pumped mixing, utilizing jet orifices. Mixing equipment shall be independent of the aeration equipment, to allow complete mixing without aeration. Mixing equipment shall be capable of mixing the contents of the basin so that the mixed liquor suspended solids concentration is within 10 percent of the average concentration within 5 minutes of the onset of mixing. e. Motor Operated Valves Automatically controlled, motor operated (or hydraulic cylinder operated) valves should be provided for SBR influent, decant, and air control valves. Because valve control is critical to the proper operation of the system, careful consideration should be given to valve reliability. Locate valves in easily serviceable locations. Avoid locations subject to flooding or freezing (or provide freeze protection). Provide protection from electrical power surges. Provide a spare valve operator for each size utilized. Consider providing valve operators with electronic controls capable of alarming critical valve functions and maintaining a record of valve operating history. Influent valves should be designed to pass solids. Design consideration of valve controls failure needs to be made to ensure tanks are interconnected to handle overflow from one tank to another. f. Control Systems Provide automatic programmable logic controller (PLC) or computer-based control systems to control the operation of the T3-24 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design SBR process, including valve position, oxygen delivery, decant operation, and sludge wasting. The control system should automatically adjust to variable influent flows. Control functions may be based on SBR tank liquid level or on time-based cycles with level overrides. For time-based systems, provide a level-based high water alarm and cycle structure override. Consider aeration “turndown” to adjust to varying influent oxygen demands. Provide variable aeration capacities by use of multiple aerators, starting and stopping aerators, or by changing blower speeds. Provide dissolved oxygen sensors for systems requiring more sophisticated control. The control system shall permit operator adjustment of the cycle structure and should continuously monitor the status of the system, including valve positions, tank levels, and equipment status. The control system should display the status of the process and equipment both numerically and graphically. The control system should maintain an operational history of the facility. The control system should provide a storm flow (flow in excess of design flow) strategy. Strategy shall progress with increasing flow rates from shortening cycle times to tank flow-through (simultaneous influent and effluent flow). T3-3.1.3 Extended Aeration Extended aeration is one form of the various forms of suspended growth or “activated sludge” type treatment. The process is so named because the wastewater is held under aeration for an extended period of time. The extended aeration process is characterized by having long hydraulic detention times and very long mixed liquor (MLSS) detention times ( longer sludge age than necessary to meet effluent criteria). The process is designed to operate in the “endogenous” phase of the microbial growth-death curve. The extended aeration treatment process may be found in a number of different physical configurations that may include smaller (hydraulically) mechanical “package” treatment systems, “race track” or oxidation ditch systems for treatment of municipal wastewater, sequencing batch reactors (SBR), and large industrial treatment systems. Generally, when the extended aeration process is used for wastewater treatment, the treatment objective is to produce low residual BOD in the treated effluent, minimize the amount of sludge solids which must ultimately be disposed, and/or provide a more stable process that is easier to perform. The objective of the extended aeration process in this case is to minimize costs. This is accomplished by retaining the solids in the treatment system as long as possible to allow the organic solids to oxidize in the aeration step. The BOD to MLSS ratio, typically referred to as the F/M ratio, is on the order of 0.1 or less. This means that the influent BOD to the treatment process is barely able to keep the existing microbes alive, and therefore a portion of the microbes die. For this application, the hydraulic detention time of the aeration chamber should be no less than 24 hours under peak hour flow conditions, with a design maximum monthly flow detention time of no less than 48 hours. Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-25 A. Application for Municipal and Industrial Treatment Systems For small to moderate sized municipal treatment systems, the oxidation ditch or “race track” treatment process has been commonly applied to the treatment of wastewater. Depending upon the specific design and operation conditions, this type of system should be classified as an extended aeration system. The objectives in this application are generally somewhat more complex and include the following: ? Minimize operator attention and effort. ? Minimize waste sludge sent to the ultimate disposal process. ? Maximize the probability that effluent standards will be met. To meet these combined objectives, the hydraulic detention time may not be as long as indicated above. Sludge age may be in the range of 30 days or longer, provided that such a long sludge age does not cause additional operating problems (foaming, bulking, high effluent TSS, etc.). Industrial applications of the extended aeration process generally have the same objectives as municipal treatment systems. Such treatment plants tend to have serious operational problems such as frequent bulking, foaming, etc., even when safeguards are designed and built into the system. B. Design Considerations 1. General Design Considerations As indicated above, the extended aeration system is characterized by a long hydraulic detention time, typically 24 hours or longer, and a long solids retention time. The F/M is around 0.1 or less. This parameter is inversely related to the sludge retention time. See also textbooks or WEF manuals of practice on the subject for the quantitative relationship between F/M ratio and sludge age (sludge retention time). A significant operational problem associated with extended aeration is that of sludge “bulking” or high-suspended solids in the effluent. The designer should include a selector system before the aeration basin, for suppression of microbes that cause a “bulking” condition in the secondary clarifiers. Depending upon wastewater characteristics, some form of chemical addition could be included in the sludge return system. Depending upon specific site conditions and which chemicals are readily available, chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, or a similar oxidant may be used to suppress “bulking” organisms, but this approach results in lower effluent quality. 2. Consideration of Oxygen Transfer Sizing the oxygen transfer system involves multiple considerations. Oxygen must be supplied to satisfy the change in BOD between the influent and effluent from the aeration basin. This portion of the oxygen demand is standard for all biological treatment processes. In addition to this demand, oxygen for the demand created by the oxidation of biological solids will also need to be supplied to the system. Finally, due to the long detention times, some nitrification of the wastewater is likely to occur and requires evaluation to determine T3-26 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design oxygen requirements. The reader is again referred to textbooks and the WEF manuals of practice for the methods of sizing oxygen transfer devices. Also, determining oxygen requirements for BOD and nitrogen are described in the same references. Determining oxygen requirements for biological solids is not well described. The following guidelines are recommended for determining oxygen requirements for an extended aeration system: ? Determine total BOD to be oxidized. ? Assume that the yield for conversion of BOD to solids is at least 0.5. ? Biological solids will typically have a 12- to 25-percent inert fraction. ? Of the remaining 75 to 88 percent, about 20 percent will be refractory and impose a very slow oxygen demand rate. ? The remaining solids, on the order of 60 to 70 percent, will impose an oxygen demand at the same rate as the BOD and at a ratio of one pound of decomposed solids per one pound of oxygen demand. For this type of system, special consideration of the selected alpha should be made. Due to higher solids in the wastewater, the “fouled alpha” is somewhat lowered. Values as low as 0.25 have been observed at municipal plants, which include an industrial contribution to the wastewater. Sizing the oxygen transfer system for an extended aeration system will probably require significant additional aeration capacity compared to other types of biological treatment process. The above recommended guideline does not include consideration of the wasted solids, and therefore is slightly conservative in the estimation of oxygen demand. The degree of conservatism in the application of the above guideline will be a function of the sludge age and the influent BOD concentration. The lower the sludge age and more dilute the influent BOD, the more conservative the above calculation result will be. 3. Consideration of Secondary Clarification Extended aeration will likely produce an effluent with a higher suspended solids concentration compared to other suspended growth (activated sludge) type processes. Loading rates for secondary clarifiers applied to an extended aeration plant should be on the lower end of the recommend range for both hydraulic loading rates and solids loading rates. If SVI is controlled, higher loading rates are possible. Sludge “bulking” and high solids loss in the secondary effluent can be problematic with an extended aeration plant. Once the treatment plant is operational, the plant operator should consider continuous measurement of the activated sludge VSS and TSS in the mixed liquor. The VSS/TSS ratio should be observed on a frequent basis, as this parameter may provide a clue to an impending or virtual upset condition. Provided the plant has been designed with methods for Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-27 adding chemicals to “kill off” the “bulking” organisms, the operator can take corrective action prior to an actual noncompliance condition. T3-3.2 Biological Nutrient Removal Biological nutrient removal processes remove nutrients from the wastewater effluent using biological systems. T3-3.2.1 Objective Nutrients (including nitrogen and phosphorous) are removed from the wastewater effluent because these nutrients tend to stimulate weed growth and algal blooms in the receiving water body. T3-3.2.2 Processes Available A. Activated Sludge Plants Activated sludge plants may be modified or built to provide NDN (nitrification denitrification) in the aeration basins by adding selector and anoxic zones in the plant as the primary effluent. Return from the end of the aeration basin is sent back to the front of the aeration basin to enter and mix in the front of the basin in an anaerobic zone. It then flows into an anoxic zone. The anoxic zone is then followed by an aerobic zone. The sizing of the zones is dependent on the flows and solids entering the basins and the return flows from the aeration basin recycle pump. Depending upon the designer’s intent, the ammonia in the incoming waste stream will be converted to nitrate, nitrite, and/or nitrogen gas, depending on the size of the zones, the recycle rate in the aeration basin, and the alkalinity available in the wastewater. The above process will also reduce phosphorous. B. Oxidation Ditches Oxidation ditches will remove nitrogen from the waste stream by putting the wastewater through anoxic and aerobic phases as the wastewater is circulated through the oxidation ditch. C. Trickling Filters Trickling filters remove ammonia by recirculating the wastewater through the trickling filter. A modification can be made to the trickling filter plant by adding a solids contactor basin (small aeration tank) that utilizes the aerobic section of the tank to remove ammonia and BOD to reduce the loading on the trickling filter. D. Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC) As with trickling filters, achieving ammonia and/or a higher level of nitrogen removal requires an increase in recirculation of the effluent from the RBCs. If the plant is in the design phase, this can generally be accommodated; but in existing plants, the plant’s rated hydraulic capacity will be impacted because of the increased recirculation requirements to meet the nitrogen removal need. Other processes might be considered. T3-28 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E. Lagoons Lagoons reduce the nitrogen in the incoming wastewater. This is done through the long detention time normally found in lagoons. Lagoons can be retrofitted with baffles, pumps, and aeration systems to replicate the activated sludge plants with selectors as noted above. F. A/O Process In activated sludge plants, the process is designed into the aeration basin to provide an anaerobic zone and an aerobic zone (A/O process). This process removes both phosphorous and nitrogen. Existing plants can be retrofitted with an A/O process. G. Phostrip Process This is an offline separate process that removes sludge from the final clarifiers and pumps it to a separate process train. From there, elutriant and anaerobic stripper is combined in a tank, with the water fraction being subjected to lime. Then the sludge is removed in a separate clarifier where the phosphorous is removed, with the overflow returning to the front of the aeration tank. The sludge from the elutriant/anaerobic stripper tank is recycled to the front of the aeration tank. T3-4 Construction Considerations T3-4.1 Objective This section identifies some construction considerations related to secondary treatment. Problems related to items mentioned below can become a source of trouble for wastewater treatment plant operation and maintenance. Construction deficiencies are at the root of many common operational problems, which with appropriate attention can be avoided. The engineer is generally encouraged to recognize the integral link between design, construction, and operation and provide a prudent level of control to safeguard against these and other common problems. Possible measures include specific mention in the plans and specifications, submittal requirements, general oversight during construction, special inspection, and inclusion as specific topics for construction meetings. By being aware of common problem areas, the engineer can apply the appropriate level of precaution to help ensure operational characteristics consistent with the design intent. Several common problem areas are discussed in the remainder of T3-4. T3-4.2 Settling and Uplift This section discusses some considerations associated with the construction, initial filling, and dewatering of large process tanks. These considerations include settling and uplift, which are a concern during both initial construction and subsequent plant expansion or maintenance. Even with aggressive measures taken to reduce settling, such as dynamic compaction and preloading, some settling at the time of initial tank filling may occur as a result of immense loads associated with large tanks. Loads resulting from initial tank filling will Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-29 be particularly large when tanks are constructed in banks or connected through a mat foundation. In this case settling can be sufficient to cause cracking in architectural features such as masonry. In those cases, particularly when it is unlikely that once placed into service all tanks will be simultaneously empty again, it may be appropriate to postpone application of architectural features until after the initial tanks fill in order to avoid this type of cracking. Settling is a familiar concern and most obvious during initial tank filling. However, settling can also occur to existing facilities as a result of construction dewatering. The reduced hydraulic static pressure may affect neighboring process facilities causing them to settle. The effect on existing structures of dewatering for new construction must be carefully considered. Any settling, either immediate or long term, will place stress on rigid connections to the structure. To reduce stress as a result of settling on piping at connections, two flexible joints, connected by a short spool piece, should be located just outside the wall face. The flexible joints provide points of rotation and allow the spool piece to provide for vertical displacement. Uplift is an equally important concern for buried tanks and other subterranean structures. Uplift occurs when the buoyant forces caused by hydraulic static pressure are greater than the downward gravitational forces. This is a concern whenever a buried structure is at, or below, ground water elevation, particularly if a normally full tank is empty. Schemes to mitigate uplift include locating pressure relief valves in the tank floor to relieve excess hydraulic pressure and placing subterranean wings on the structure to balance uplift forces with the weight of backfill soil. The pressure relief valves are designed to relieve upward buoyant forces by letting water pass through the floor and into the tank. If this system is used the valves should be immediately and closely inspected to ensure they are properly installed and operational. If the wing system is used the structure is at risk until backfill is placed. Consequently, any change in ground water elevation, such as the halting of construction dewatering, may affect the structure. Factors that can quickly affect ground water elevation include heavy rain, mechanical or electrical failure of the dewatering system, and environmental factors that overwhelm the capacity of the dewatering system installed. Uplift is a concern any time a buried tank is emptied. The potential for uplift is greater with deeper structures and in areas of high ground water. T3-4.3 Secondary Clarifier Slab Since the primary function of a secondary clarifier is to provide separation of solids from the effluent, an effective solids-removal process is essential. Typically, solids are allowed to settle and then are removed from the clarifier floor with a sweeping collector. To ensure effective solids removal, it is important that the collector maintain a minimum separation or even contact with the floor slab. This helps ensure that solids are consistently removed from the tank. It is important that the secondary clarifier slab be finished straight, without depressions or high spots. Warps in the floor slab can impair the solids removal process by creating pockets where the settled solids are not removed. These solids are retained in the tank until they denitrify. Contrary to the desired removal process, denitrification causes the solids to become buoyant and float. These solids come to the surface and carry over the weirs, degrading effluent quality. T3-30 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Since a true surface is essential for consistent solids removal, often topping grout will be used as the final surface to improve ability to meet close tolerances. The topping grout surface can be better controlled than the initial slab pour. If no topping grout pour is called for and the structural slab is to remain the collector contact surface, it is essential that the slab itself be finished true, free of depressions or high spots. T3-4.4 Aeration Piping Piping used to convey compressed gas to aeration tanks may be either buried or exposed, and can be located outside, in a gallery, or in a pipe chase. The cost effectiveness and hidden nature of buried piping can be attractive; however, the reduced accessibility of such a configuration may become problematic for aeration piping. With time, aeration piping can develop leaks as a result of either settling, construction defects, or deterioration. Buried piping is particularly subject to these problems and the reduced accessibility makes repair more difficult. Air expelled from the piping will exfiltrate through cover soil and cracks in paving to the surface, becoming a nuisance. Consequently, it is recommended that aeration piping receive special attention during construction, especially if buried. The engineer should encourage or provide aggressive construction inspection in conjunction with leak testing to help ensure proper installation, soil compaction, and joint integrity, and to avoid future air leakage and exfiltration problems. Piping located in a gallery or exposed is somewhat easier to repair and may not need the same level of attention during construction recommended for buried piping. T3-4.5 Control Strategy This section discusses problems with a common secondary-treatment process control strategy. This strategy relies on flow metering downstream of the primary tanks to control secondary process variables. The strategy uses primary effluent flow to flow pace secondary process variables. Typically, the flow signal is sent to a programmable logic controller (PLC) or other controller, which processes the flow information and returns a control signal to secondary process elements. Since the secondary process is relatively sensitive, accurate flow information is required to maintain proper process parameters. However, relying on a flow meter for accurate information can be problematic. Flow meters inherently have limited accuracy, which can further be reduced by poor field hydraulics, improper installation, poor calibration, flows at the extreme ends of the meter’s accuracy, flows outside the range of calibration, etc. Problems with flow meter accuracy are compounded during startup and initial operation when flows are much less than design flows. Inaccurate readings cause operation of the secondary system to be problematic. It is essential that a flow meter not only be selected that can accurately measure the range of flows anticipated, but also that it be properly installed, tested, and calibrated. Initial calibration should strive for accuracy over the lower range of flows initially experienced, rather than the entire design range anticipated. Understanding the sensitivity of this control strategy on the secondary process and providing the appropriate care will help to ensure a more accurate and less problematic secondary control system. Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-31 T3-5 Operational Considerations T3-5.1 Objective The objective of this section is to discuss practical process design issues that are vital to the proper performance of the facility. T3-5.2 Plant Hydraulics T3-5.2.1 Flow Splitting Flow splitting refers to dividing a flow stream into two or more smaller streams of a predetermined proportional size. Flow splitting allows unit processes such as aeration basins or secondary clarifiers to be used in parallel fashion. The flow is typically divided equally, although there are circumstances where this is not the case. For example, if the parallel unit processes do not have equal capacity, then the percentage of total flow feeding that unit might be equal to the capacity of that unit relative to the total capacity of all the parallel units. Flow splitting applies mainly to liquid streams but can also be an issue in sludge streams. See Chapters G2 and T2 for additional information. T3-5.2.2 Activated Sludge Pumping/Conveyance This section describes return activated sludge (RAS) pumping and conveyance; however, many of the issues addressed in this section also apply to waste activated sludge (WAS). A. Purpose RAS pumping/conveyance is designed to withdraw settled activated sludge from the secondary clarifier and return it to the aeration basin(s) at a controlled rate. The RAS rate maintains a mass balance between the aeration basin(s) and the secondary clarifier(s). This is done to keep the total solids inventory distributed in a certain proportion between the aeration basin(s) where sorption takes place and the secondary clarifier(s) where maintaining quiescent conditions allows flocculation, clarification, zone settling, and thickening to occur. To allow all of the above to occur requires special care in designing the RAS pumping/conveyance system. B. Types and Their Application 1. Centrifugal Pumps Centrifugal pumps are used most often to convey RAS. The pumps can be designed to handle the debris and stringy material typically found in activated sludge. One of the most common kinds of pump for this purpose is called a vortex pump. Raised vanes on a flat plate rotate in a recess adjacent to the volute case. The rotating vanes indirectly stir the fluid in the volute, generating a centrifugal pumping action. The advantage of this type of pump is that the volute remains fully open to pass RAS debris. Since the pump has large clearances between the impeller and the volute case, it requires a significant (10 feet is recommended) positive suction head to achieve a prime. T3-32 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 2. Gravity Flow Gravity flow to convey RAS relies on available head pressure to “push” the flow along. A typical design would consist of a withdrawal pipe situated in a sludge hopper at the bottom of the clarifier. The pipe would convey the RAS back to either (1) a lift station that would lift it back to the aeration basin(s), or (2) flow directly back to the aeration basin(s) if lower than the secondary clarifier. The latter situation requires that the mixed liquor is pumped from the aeration basin(s) to the secondary clarifier(s) since the clarifiers would be higher than the aeration basin(s). The RAS flow from each sludge hopper can be controlled by a manual or automatic valve. 3. Combination A combination system uses elements of a gravity conveyance system with a pumped system. The gravity portion of the system contains an adjustable weir, adequate head upstream, a wetwell, and pump. The adjustable weir can be a flat plate or circular (telescoping valve). The flow quantity is controlled by the gravity device. C. Problems 1. Inadequate Suction Head If not enough suction head is available for the RAS pump, it will not prime or will lose its prime, and therefore will not pump the RAS. To ensure adequate suction head, generally speaking allow the full tank depth as suction head. Also, keep the length of the suction lines to the pump at a minimum to reduce head loss. 2. Inadequate Head For gravity RAS conveyance systems, available head is crucial for proper operation. Minimal head can result in plugging of the RAS lines and channels. Even if the RAS is flowing initially, thixotropic property of the sludge can cause the sludge to slow and eventually stop. 3. RAS Lines Not Hydraulically Independent (Common Header and Line) If the RAS lines from two or more clarifiers are manifolded together, it creates a more difficult control problem because the lines are not pressure-flow independent. Increasing the flow in one of the lines feeding the common line can create more back pressure on the other lines, reducing their flow. The dynamics are further complicated when the concentration of the sludge changes, changing the viscosity of the fluid. Under these circumstances, the only control system that will work is to have flow meters on each separate feeder line. The flow- generated signals from these meters then provide input to a controller regulating the speed of each RAS pump to match the flow target for each RAS line. If proper response times and delays are not preset, the system flows can vary in an oscillating pattern among the various RAS lines. If the RAS lines are kept separate and pressure/flow independent, that is, discharge to a tank, box, or channel open to the Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-33 atmosphere (zero gauge pressure), the control scheme can be simpler and more reliable. The latter system could be simplified to manual speed control on the RAS pumps and either a visual check or flow measurement on each RAS line. 4. Plugging of Gravity Systems Plugging of gravity RAS conveyance systems is primarily a function of the thixotropic properties of the RAS sludge. Unlike a positive pumped system, the driving force does not increase with increasing resistance to flow, but remains the same. The increased resistance caused by thickening sludge settling out in lines and channels slows the flow, which in turn causes more thickening and more slowing until the flow eventually stops. This can cause extensive problems for an activated sludge system. Sludge can pile up in the secondary clarifiers overnight, causing an upset and degraded effluent for several days. 5. Lack of Turndown Capability RAS conveyance systems need turndown capability in order for activated sludge systems to run optimally. For many plants, the secondary clarifier is a crucial sludge thickening device prior to aerobic digestion. Without prethickening to 1 percent solids or so, the waste sludge flow rate would be too high. The digester would fill with too much water or the required volume would be uneconomical. The problem this presents to the operator is that the required decant volume for the next days’ wasting overloads the plant hydraulically. To slowly decant over a longer period would reduce the amount of aeration below the minimum required between decant cycles. Also, for small plants that have day shifts only, it becomes a staffing and budget issue. 6. Flow Range In municipal plants, diurnal flows with low nighttime flows should be incorporated into the design by reviewing the design flows and control strategy for handling low flows. T3-5.3 Reactor Issues T3-5.3.1 Feed/Recycle Flexibility For varying loading and flow conditions, it is advantageous to add feed/recycle flexibility to activated sludge systems. Aeration basins can be constructed either long and narrow to promote plug flow conditions or in a series as separate compartments. The raw or primary effluent and/or RAS can be introduced into the aeration basin flow path at various strategic points to promote more efficient treatment and/or resistance to storm flow washout. In step feeding, the raw or primary effluent flow is routed to one or more regions or compartments of the aeration basin flow path. In this way the F/M ratio can be controlled along the basin to maximize treatment efficiency. If the F/M is kept the same in all regions/compartments, the system approximates a complete mix basin. Because the load is distributed evenly, complete mix systems can handle shock loads well. However, because the sewage is diluted over the entire contents of the aeration basin, this mode of operation can promote low F/M filaments to predominate. By introducing the feed at the T3-34 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design head of the basin or in the first compartment, plug flow can be achieved. This mode can inhibit the growth of filaments by providing a high F/M environment at the front of the aeration train which selects faster growing, better settling floc forms over the slower metabolizing filaments. If the RAS is introduced to various points along the aeration train, the aerator sludge detention time can be manipulated to control and enhance settling characteristics to respond to changes in flows and loading. The advantage of this scheme is that aeration basins do not have to be dewatered to reduce the oxidation pressure on the microorganisms to respond to a drop in the organic load and/or flow. T3-5.3.2 Tank Dewatering/Cleaning To greatly reduce manpower and time required to dewater and clean aeration basins, dewatering lines should be provided for each compartment. The drawoff point(s) should come off recesses in the floor to ensure that as much mixed liquor as possible can be pumped out. The floors should be sloped to the drain hopper(s). T3-5.3.3 Multiple Tanks for Seasonal Load Variation Two or more process tanks/units should be constructed if the influent load and flow vary seasonally or periodically. In this way the process can run optimally without process failure. For example, an extended aeration basin may be adequately sized for summer operation. During winter flows, however, the detention time of the basin may be cut in half. Continuing to run the basin in extended aeration mode at a short detention time results in massive quantities of sludge particles rising in the secondary clarifiers. The sludge can form a brown foam on the surface that can cover the secondary clarifier, chlorine contact chamber, and any other downstream tankage. The result is a severe maintenance and odor problem for the operator. T3-5.3.4 Suspended Growth Back Mixing For aeration basins in activated sludge systems that are intended as plug flow basins, back mixing must be minimized. For large plants, constructing the basins with a length to width ratio of 40:1 mitigates the impact of back mixing. For small plants, the basins would be too narrow and difficult to maintain if the 40:1 standard were used. A better approach with small facilities is to construct separate compartments in a series to achieve plug flow benefits and characteristics. This latter option is the surest way to prevent back mixing in any activated sludge aeration basin. The compartments should be constructed with submerged (overflow) baffle walls with an allowance for bottom drains to prevent scum accumulation. The head loss of maximum flow should be about one-half inch (water) per baffle. T3-5.3.5 Fixed Film Prescreening For fixed film systems it is critical that adequate prescreening of the wastewater is provided to prevent plugging of the media. T3-5.4 Secondary Clarifier Issues Better performance is achieved if the clarifier capacity online can be matched with the flow, settleability, and solids loading. To do this, at least two clarifiers should be Biological Treatment December 1998 T3-35 constructed. It is harder to control the thickening process in underloaded clarifiers because the sludge blanket is so thin that water can be sucked into the RAS along with the sludge. Also, the RAS cannot be turned down as low because at least two RAS pumps must be in operation. Not enough capacity online for the given conditions can result in a solids washout, producing a degraded effluent lasting from several days to several weeks. T3-6 Reliability Reliability related to this chapter is addressed here; see Chapter G2 for additional general information on reliability. T3-6.1 General In accordance with the requirements of the appropriate reliability class, capabilities shall be provided for satisfactory operation during power failures, flooding, peak loads, equipment failure, and maintenance shutdown. As defined in EPA’s publication, “Design Criteria for Mechanical, Electrical, and Fluid System Component Reliability,” reliability is “a measurement of the ability of a component or system to perform its designated function without failure... Reliability pertains to mechanical, electrical, and fluid systems and components. Reliability of biological processes, operator training, process design, or structural design is not addressed here.” Except as modified below, unit operations in the main wastewater treatment system shall be designed so that, with the largest-flow-capacity unit out of service, the hydraulic capacity (not necessarily the design-rated capacity) of the remaining units shall be sufficient to handle the peak wastewater flow. There shall be system flexibility to enable the wastewater flow to any unit out of service to be routed to the remaining units in service. Equalization basins or tanks will not be considered a substitute for process component backup requirements. Below are requirements for each reliability classification for the common components of biological treatment. Reliability requirements for the other wastewater treatment plant components and general site considerations are elsewhere in this manual. Requirements are also described in EPA’s technical bulletin cited above. Definitions of the three reliability classes are given in Chapter G2. T3-6.2 Secondary Process Components T3-6.2.1 Aeration Basins A. Reliability Class I and Class II A backup basin will not be required; however, at least two equal-volume basins shall be provided. (For the purpose of this criterion, the two zones of a contact stabilization process are considered only one basin.) B. Reliability Class III A single basin is permissible. T3-36 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T3-6.2.2 Aeration Blower and Mechanical Aerators A. Reliability Class I and Class II There shall be a sufficient number of blowers or mechanical aerators to enable the design oxygen transfer to be maintained with the largest- capacity-unit out of service. It is permissible for the backup unit to be an uninstalled unit, provided the installed units can be easily removed and replaced. However, at least two units shall be installed. B. Reliability Class III There shall be at least two blowers, mechanical aerators, or rotors available for service. It is permissible for one of the units to be uninstalled, provided that the installed unit can be easily removed and replaced. Aeration must be provided to maintain sufficient DO in the tanks to maintain the biota. T3-6.2.3 Air Diffusers Reliability Class I, Class II, and Class III. The air diffusion system for each aeration basin shall be designed so that the largest section of diffusers can be isolated without measurably impairing the oxygen transfer capability of the system. T3-6.2.4 Sequencing Batch Reactors Sequencing batch reactors serve as both aeration basin and clarifier. The standard reliability requirements for both aeration basins and final sedimentation shall be used unless justification can be provided to Ecology of alternative means of providing reliability through design and/or operation of mechanical components. T3-7 References Albertson, O.E. “Bulking Sludge Control—Progress, Practices and Problems.” Water Science and Technology, 23(4/5):835-846. 1991. ASCE Procedures. Measurement of Oxygen Transfer in Clean Water. ANSI/ASCE2-19. Daigger, Grant T. “Development of Refined Clarifier Operating Diagrams Using an Updated Settling Characteristics Database.” Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF). 67(1); 95- 100, 1995. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering—Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. Third Edition. NewYork, NY: McGraw Hill, Inc., 1991. Riddell, M.D.R., J.S. Lee, and T.E. Wilson. “Method for Estimating the Capacity of an Activated Sludge Plant.” Journal of the Water Pollution Federation. 55 (4); 360-368, 1993. US Environmental Protection Agency. Design Criteria for Mechanical, Electrical, and Fluid System Component Reliability. EPA 430-99-74-001. 1974. Wanner, Jiri. Activated Sludge Bulking and Foaming Control. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company, 1994. Water Environment Federation. Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants. Volume II. WEF Manual of Practice No. 8. 1998 December 1998 T4-1 T4 Chemical/Physical Treatment This chapter describes chemical and physical treatment processes that can be added to the normal primary and secondary treatment process units. These chemical and physical treatment processes can aid, replace, or add to the removal of pollutants or adjustment of water chemistry in the wastewater stream. Chemical selection and handling and types of applications are described in T4-1. The various filtration technologies, including granular media and fine screens, are addressed in T4-2. T4-1 Chemical Treatment.............. 3 T4-1.1 Chemical Selection and Handling ........................................3 T4-1.1.1 Chemical Selection................................. 3 T4-1.1.2 Storage.................................................... 3 T4-1.1.3 Handling ................................................. 4 T4-1.1.4 Housing................................................... 5 T4-1.2 Applications ..................................5 T4-1.2.1 Enhanced Sedimentation ........................ 5 A. Design Considerations................................. 5 B. Operational Considerations ......................... 6 C. Reliability Criteria....................................... 6 T4-1.2.2 Nitrogen Removal................................... 7 T4-1.2.3 Phosphorous Removal ............................ 7 T4-1.2.4 pH Adjustment........................................ 7 T4-2 Physical Treatment ............... 8 T4-2.1 General ..........................................8 T4-2.2 Applications ..................................8 T4-2.2.1 Solids Removal....................................... 8 T4-2.2.2 Nutrient/Metals Removal........................ 9 T4-2.2.3 BOD Removal ........................................ 9 T4-2.2.4 Reclamation/Reuse ................................10 T4-2.3 Media Considerations.................10 T4-2.3.1 Separation of Solids from Water ...........10 T4-2.3.2 Filter Media ...........................................10 T4-2.3.3 Characterizing Solids and Feed Water.............................................................10 T4-2.3.4 Filtration Mechanisms ...........................11 T4-2.3.5 Solids Capture........................................11 T4-2.3.6 Backwashing..........................................12 T4-2.4 Granular Media Filters ................13 T4-2.4.1 Gravity Filters........................................13 A. General .......................................................13 B. Coordination with Plant Hydraulic Profile.......................................................13 C. Production Rate and Head Loss Considerations..........................................14 D. Backwashing ..............................................14 E. Control Considerations ...............................14 T4-2.4.2 Pressure Filtration..................................15 A. General .......................................................15 B. Coordination with Plant Hydraulic Profile.......................................................15 C. Production Rate and Head Loss Considerations..........................................15 D. Backwashing ..............................................16 E. Control Considerations ...............................16 T4-2.4.3 Slow Sand Filters...................................16 A. General .......................................................16 B. Coordination With Plant Hydraulic Profile.......................................................16 C. Production Rate and Head Loss Considerations..........................................17 D. Media Cleaning ..........................................17 E. Control Considerations ...............................17 T4-2.5 Other Types of Filtration............ 17 T4-2.5.1 Fine Screens...........................................18 T4-2.5.2 Synthetic Media.....................................18 T4-2.6 Other Types of Physical Treatment ................................... 19 T4-2.6.1 Membranes ............................................19 A. Applications for Membranes ......................19 B. Design Considerations When Evaluating the Use of Membranes .............................19 T4-2.6.2 Ballasted Flocculation ...........................19 A. Applications for Ballasted Flocculation .....20 B. Design Considerations for Ballasted Flocculation..............................................20 T4-2.7 Design Considerations .............. 20 T4-2.7.1 Number and Size of Filters....................20 T4-2.7.2 Filter Type .............................................21 T4-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T4-2.7.3 Bed Configuration Depth.......................21 T4-2.7.4 Media Characteristics ............................21 T4-2.7.5 Backwash System..................................21 T4-2.7.6 Appurtenances .......................................21 T4-2.7.7 Reliability ..............................................21 T4-2.7.8 Controls Systems and Instrumentation .............................................22 T4-2.7.9 Chemical Addition Systems ..................22 T4-2.8 Recommended Design Features ......................................23 T4-2.9 Operational Considerations .......23 T4-2.10 Reliability Criteria......................24 T4-3 References........................... 24 Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-3 T4-1 Chemical Treatment Many chemicals in various forms can be applied in wastewater treatment to aid in sedimentation, nutrient removal, pH adjustment, odor control, disinfection, and sludge conditioning. Chemical treatment for enhanced sedimentation, nitrogen and phosphorous removal, and pH adjustment will be discussed in this section. Chemical treatment has increasingly limited applicability in wastewater treatment; water reclamation is being used more frequently than chemical treatment in the State of Washington. T4-1.1 Chemical Selection and Handling Chemicals added to the process work quickly and do not add time requirements. Some chemicals, however, are extremely dangerous and need special handling procedures and equipment. This section focuses on the criteria, factors, and conditions that should be considered for the selection, storage, handling, and use of chemicals for the physical/chemical treatment of wastewater. T4-1.1.1 Chemical Selection Chemicals must be evaluated for each specific treatment process, and must be compatible with other liquids, solids, and air treatment processes. Chemicals shall have no detrimental effects on effluent quality, receiving waters, biosolids quality, or air quality. The impact of applicable local, state, and federal codes and regulations, such as the Uniform Fire Code (UFC), Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), and OSHA, should also be considered when selecting chemicals for proper, safe storage and handling. Laboratory tests such as jar tests or pilot-scale studies on actual process wastewater shall be used to select appropriate chemicals and dosage ranges. Operational data from wastewater facilities treating wastewater of similar characteristics may also be used to select appropriate chemicals and dosage ranges. Theoretical stoichiometric relationships should not be used for design as they tend to underestimate actual dosage requirements. T4-1.1.2 Storage Factors important to properly determine an adequate storage capacity are the reliability of the supply, quantity of shipment, the range of chemical use rates, and chemical decomposition during storage. (1) Unless reliability of the supply and conditions indicate less storage is appropriate, storage should be provided to supply sufficient chemicals to satisfy the maximum 30-day demand period. (2) Chemicals shall be stored in covered or unopened shipping containers, or be transferred into an approved covered storage vessel. (3) Chemicals should be stored at locations that allow for efficient and safe handling. Storage locations and conditions should be compatible with the chemical type and form (dry, liquid, or gas), and should conform to all applicable local, state, and federal codes and regulations for the handling and storage of chemicals. (4) Solution storage in day tanks feeding directly to a process should have sufficient capacity for 24-hour operation at the maximum design flow T4-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design or loading, and should conform to the design conditions of bulk storage tanks. (5) Bags at dry chemical storage facilities should be stored in a cool, dry location that allows for easy, safe access and provides dust control. Bags should be stored above floor level to allow for effective cleanup. Dry bulk storage in tanks or bins should be designed with high and low level indicators and promote trouble-free, continuous feed (such as angle of repose, vibrators, and so on). Tanks and bins should be designed to produce the necessary environmental conditions (such as temperature and moisture). Dust control measures shall be incorporated into the design of dry chemical storage and handling facilities. (6) Liquid chemical storage tanks: ? Should not be installed underground if possible. ? Shall have a liquid level indicator, an overflow, and an air vent. ? Shall be located within a containment area capable of holding a spill or overflow. The containment volume should be sufficient to hold the contents of the largest tank in the containment area, and should contain a leak-detection and alarm system. ? Shall have a high liquid level alarm for overflow protection if storing hazardous chemicals. ? Shall be designed to provide and maintain the necessary temperature to avoid crystallization or solidification of the chemical at available solution strengths. This is especially important for solutions of aluminum sulfate and sodium hydroxide. ? Storage tank vents should not be exhausted near heating/ventilating/air conditioning (HVAC) intake structures or into other tanks. For hazardous chemicals, vented air must be treated in accordance with the UFC. An additional pressure/vacuum relief valve may be installed on enclosed tanks to protect the tank from excessive pressure or vacuum. (7) Ensure that adequate washing, flushing, and cleanout connections and equipment are provided in chemical storage areas. T4-1.1.3 Handling (1) The materials of storage tanks, pipelines, valves, gaskets, pumps and other appurtenances of chemical handling facilities must be compatible with the specific chemical(s) to be handled. Chemicals that are not compatible with each other, or the handling facilities, should not be fed, stored, or handled together. (2) Provisions should be made for accurately measuring quantities of chemicals fed from bulk storage and day storage tanks over the range of design application rates. Transfer and feeding of bulk and diluted chemicals should be controlled by positive actuating devices. (3) Storage, transfer, and handling facilities located in earthquake-prone regions should be designed to minimize the risk of spills and/or failures due to earthquakes. Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-5 (4) Design provisions should be made to control the release of dust during transfer, storage, and feeding of dry chemicals. Control shall be provided by use of pneumatic equipment or closed conveyor systems, facilities for emptying shipping containers into special enclosures, and exhaust fans and dust filters that put hoppers and bins under negative pressure. (5) Acids and bases shall be: ? Kept in closed, chemically resistant shipping containers or transferred to appropriately designed storage facilities. ? Transferred in an undiluted state by gravity, air compressors, or pumps from the original container or vessel. Acids and bases shall not be hauled in open vessels. ? Transferred in such a manner as to minimize the risk of serious leaks or spills. Piping systems should be contained either through the use of double-walled pipe or placement of single-walled pipe in a containment trough or trench. (6) The owners shall provide the necessary equipment and personal protection gear for the safe and efficient unloading and transfer of chemicals, such as carts, dollies, conveyors, and fork lifts. Facilities shall be designed to minimize the potential for slips, especially with polymers. See G2-7 for a more detailed discussion of safety considerations. (7) Provisions shall be made for the storage, containment, and disposal of empty containers and drums to minimize exposures and comply with applicable codes and regulations. T4-1.1.4 Housing Structures, rooms, and spaces used to unload, transfer, store, or feed chemicals should be designed to provide a safe, effective working environment. It should provide convenient access for cleanup, equipment repairs and removal, and observation of operations and monitoring. These structures and spaces shall be designed and constructed in accordance with applicable local, state, and federal codes and regulations. T4-1.2 Applications Chemicals can be added to process units to further remove BOD, SS, and nutrients. T4-1.2.1 Enhanced Sedimentation Settling aids are used during primary clarification to enhance solids removal in the primary treatment process. Coagulants and flocculents increase the amount of solids a primary tank can remove, creating the opportunity for a smaller plant footprint and reduced construction costs. A. Design Considerations The best design for a clarifier is circular rather than a rectangular tank configuration. Rectangular tanks tend to have more currents, which can cause poor settling or short-circuiting. Existing clarifiers should be tested and proven in pilot studies. The center feed well should be a flocculating T4-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design type (larger than the standard secondary feed well). This will allow for the slow mixing of the flocculent after injection. Clarifier inlets should be designed to distribute the wastewater equally at uniform velocities. Velocities should be low, generally 0.5 fps, to avoid the floc being sheered. Sludge volume in the tanks with chemical addition will generally increase by 80 percent. Consideration for the extra volume must be accounted for in pumping and digestion design. See T2-1.2 for a discussion of circular and rectangular settling tanks. Coagulant must be added and mixed before the sedimentation process. The design for coagulant injection should include several injection points along the influent flow so that process personnel can find the injection point that gives the best results. Typically coagulants are injected into the line or channel flowing to a mixing chamber or the grit tanks, thus using them for mixing. The grit tanks used cannot have high velocities that can tear up the floc. Existing tanks will have to be tested for floc quality. Flocculents (organic polymers) are added after the coagulant and can be added into the line feeding the clarifier or in the clarifier center well. Several injection points should be provided to give process personnel the opportunity to adjust polymer addition for optimum performance. B. Operational Considerations Feed pumps for the chemicals must be sized in keeping with the plant’s intended range of flows. Coagulant doses do not proportionally follow flow as it increases but rather tend to taper off during high flows. A computer program that can be based on flow and input meters should control coagulant and flocculent dosage. Some coagulants will lower pH to the extent that the effluent will need adjusting. Plants with low influent alkalinity (less than 100) will be more susceptible to pH problems. Chemical sludge will pump more easily than primary sludge. Sludge density will be between 4 and 7 percent. Sludge compaction will depend on the size of floc. Smaller floc will compact more and settle faster. Some chemical sludge with low pH will take longer to digest as it inhibits the digestion process. The volume of the digester should be increased to accommodate this. Chemicals containing sulfur will also generate more hydrogen sulfate in the digester gas. Design all gas piping to account for this more aggressive chemical. C. Reliability Criteria All chemical feed equipment must have a backup system. Some chemicals are very aggressive (high or low pH) so all equipment and the room housing the equipment should be designed for its pH. Polymers are extremely slippery when wet. The design should isolate this area by use of containment walls or elevated walkways, which can be easily cleaned by hosing them down. See G2-7 for a more thorough discussion of safety considerations. Sludge lines should be glass lined and capable of back flushing with the opposite pump. A process water line attached to the sludge line is also desirable in case the sludge gets too thick, or to clean the line during shutdown. Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-7 Clarifiers should have one backup drive unit on hand for reliability. T4-1.2.2 Nitrogen Removal Several chemical/physical processes have been used for nitrogen removal. Although biological treatment is often the most attractive nitrogen control technology, physical and chemical processes are technically feasible. The three major processes include: ? Breakpoint chlorination. ? Selective ion exchange. ? Air stripping. Although these processes are technically feasible ways of removing nitrogen, Ecology does not anticipate widespread use of any of these processes for nitrogen removal in the State of Washington because of high costs and environmental concerns about the use of chemicals. T4-1.2.3 Phosphorous Removal Chemical phosphorus removal from wastewater involves the addition of metal salts (aluminum or iron) or lime to wastewater to form insoluble phosphate precipitates, removal of the precipitate from the wastewater, and disposal of the precipitate with the settled sludge. Many process options are available, but the decision made by the designer involves: ? Selecting the chemical to insolubilize the phosphorus and estimating dosage requirements. ? Selecting the point of chemical addition. Although these processes are technically feasible methods of removing phosphorous, Ecology does not anticipate widespread use of chemicals for phosphorous removal in the State of Washington because of high costs and environmental concerns about the use of chemicals. T4-1.2.4 pH Adjustment One of the most common types of chemical processes used in wastewater treatment is pH adjustment. pH adjustment simply raises or lowers pH to a desired value. Removing excess acidity or alkalinity by chemical addition to provide a final pH approximately equal to 7.0 is called neutralization. The volume, kind, and quantity of acid or alkali to be neutralized or partially removed are variables influencing the selection of a chemical agent. Many methods may be used to neutralize or adjust acidic (low pH) wastewater. These methods include: ? Mixing separate acidic and alkaline waste streams so that the net mixture has a nearly neutral pH. ? Passing acid wastewater through beds of limestone (if the waste stream does not contain metal salts, sulfuric, or hydrofluoric acids that coat the limestone). ? Mixing acid wastes with lime slurries or dolomitic lime slurries. ? Adding the proper amounts of concentrated caustic soda (NaOH) or soda ash (Na 2 CO 3 ) to acid wastewater. T4-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Mixing acid and alkaline wastes is generally not possible in municipal facilities, and the use of limestone beds requires bed replacement?a major drawback. Therefore, only the third and fourth methods are used in municipal wastewater treatment and discussed here. T4-2 Physical Treatment Physical treatment, in contrast to chemical or biological treatment, is based on the concept of forcing the process stream through a porous media causing a physical separation of solids from the liquid. See Chapter T2 for additional information on sedimentation. T4-2.1 General This section describes the general considerations for using filtration technologies for liquid stream wastewater treatment, including granular media and fine screens (micro screens). Although the most common application of filtration is for advanced wastewater treatment SS removal (algae and biological floc), filters can also be used for removal of BOD, nutrients, metals, inorganic ions, and complex synthetic organic compounds. Filtration can also be used in the primary or secondary treatment processes for removal of particulate BOD. The designer should evaluate the possibility of filtration systems to achieve more than one principal removal function or to augment or replace other treatment process units. Filtration is normally associated with advanced wastewater treatment so that the treated effluent can be reused beneficially or disposed of properly. See Chapter E1 for filtration related to water reclamation and reuse. Where chemicals are to be used to facilitate the filtration process, see T4-1. If filtration is to be utilized for particulate BOD or nutrient removal within the primary or secondary phases of wastewater treatment processes, see also Chapter T3. Filtration backwash contains removed solids, chemical flocculents, and coagulants and needs to be handled accordingly. See Chapter S. New types of filtration equipment continuously become available and are capable of meeting a variety of treatment goals. These general guidelines should be used with good engineering practice for most applications. Appropriate planning and judgment must be used in selecting and designing filtration systems to meet the needs of specific projects. These general guidelines should be used with sound engineering for most applications. T4-2.2 Applications In order to assess the possibility of using a filter system, the designer should carefully evaluate the treatment goals, characteristics of the waste stream, and the potential filtration technologies. In many cases, several filter technologies may perform adequately and final selection may be based on cost, O&M requirements, or site space limitations. T4-2.2.1 Solids Removal ? Lagoon effluent filtration for enhanced solids removal. Filtration is generally applied to meet more stringent effluent solids limits than can be achieved in the lagoon treatment system. Lagoon effluent filtration Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-9 generally requires the addition of a coagulant (alum, ferric chloride, ferrous sulfate, etc.) and a coagulant aid (polymer). ? Filtration for enhanced solids removal following secondary treatment prior to discharge. This is generally applied when effluent requirements are more stringent than secondary treatment can achieve. ? Filtration for in-plant nonpotable water reuse. T4-2.2.2 Nutrient/Metals Removal Filtration can be used to remove chemically precipitated phosphorus and, in rare instances, chemically precipitated metals. In the application of filters for phosphorus removal, phosphorus is generally precipitated in the wastewater by adding a coagulant and coagulant aid upstream of the filtration process. The most common coagulants are alum, lime, sodium aluminate, ferric chloride, and ferrous sulfate. Other specialized chemicals and coagulants have also been developed for phosphorus precipitation. Polymer is generally the coagulant aid of choice. The coagulants and coagulant aids can be added in upstream processes (primary clarifiers, secondary clarifiers, tertiary clarifiers, and tertiary flocculation basins) or directly upstream of some filters that can provide in-bed flocculation and direct filtration. The filters remove precipitated and coagulated phosphorus-bearing solids which carry over from the upstream processes or which are formed in flocculation basins or in front of the filters themselves. Metals such as copper, nickel, chromium, and lead can also be precipitated ahead of filters and removed in the filters. This is quite rare in municipal wastewater treatment plants; however, it may be appropriate where industrial wastewater is treated separately from municipal wastewater. Metal removal typically requires adjusting the wastewater’s pH up to the minimum solubility point for the metal of concern. At the minimum solubility point a metal hydroxide precipitate is formed (such as Cu(OH) 2 ). The metal hydroxide precipitate is then normally filtered following sedimentation. The pH of the wastewater is normally adjusted by the addition of lime or sodium hydroxide (caustic). T4-2.2.3 BOD Removal BOD removal can also be enhanced through filtration. The applications for BOD removal are similar to those for solids removal. However, it is important to emphasize that only nonsoluble, and in some cases colloidal, BOD can be removed. Truly soluble BOD cannot be removed by filtration. The applications for BOD removal by filtration include: ? Primary effluent filtration. (See T4-2.2.1.) ? Tertiary BOD removal following secondary treatment for enhanced removal of colloidal and nonsoluble BOD. (See T4-2.2.1.) ? Lagoon effluent filtration. (See T4-2.2.1.) T4-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T4-2.2.4 Reclamation/Reuse Applications for filtration in reclamation and reuse of wastewater are widespread. Filtration of wastewater for reclamation and reuse is applied to minimize virus and pathogen carryover to the disinfection process. Filtration in this application has been studied extensively and it has been determined that turbidity is a good indicator of filtration effectiveness. Effluent turbidity of 2 Ntu or less can be achieved through the careful application and operation of filters on secondary effluent. When filtration is required for reclamation or reuse of wastewater, the addition of coagulants and coagulant aids is required. See Chapter E1 for a thorough discussion of reclamation and reuse. T4-2.3 Media Considerations The following discussions outline the main design issues to be considered. T4-2.3.1 Separation of Solids from Water The fundamental purpose of filtration media (granular and fine screens) is to separate solids from the liquid stream flow and also to be cleaned (backwashed) efficiently. Selecting the proper filtration media with reliable backwash abilities is the most important step in the design of a filter. Often several possible filter types may be suitable for a given filtration application. A thorough evaluation of the specific project constraints and cost comparisons may help to determine the best filter system choice. The engineer’s role in determining the filter media will be governed largely by whether a manufactured package unit or a specially engineered (custom) filter plant design is selected. T4-2.3.2 Filter Media A wide variety of media is used for filters, as follows: ? Granular media. Sand, anthracite, granular activated carbon, garnet, ilmenite, gravel. These media are usually chosen for their particular grain size and specific density and are contained in a vessel or tank that creates a bed depth ranging from 11 to 72 inches. Monomedia is the use of one kind, density, and size of granular media. Dual or multimedia is the use of two or more kinds, densities, and sizes of granular media. ? Microscreens. Metal screens, wire cloth, metal fiber, natural fiber or fabric, synthetic fiber or fabric, paper, plastic, fiberglass. These media are chosen for their specific opening size and are two-dimensional (flat surfaces). ? Other. Diatomaceous earth, synthetic (fuzzy balls), resin beads (charged and uncharged). Selecting the appropriate media (and filter type) depends on the treatment objectives and consideration of the other factors presented in this section. T4-2.3.3 Characterizing Solids and Feed Water The solids contained in wastewater and wastewater effluents typically have widely varying physical characteristics and concentrations. The filter media must be capable of functioning efficiently and reliably at all anticipated Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-11 loading rates and for all different types of solids that need to be removed. Solids typically include biological floc, algae, chemical floc, and untreated wastewater solids. Usually upstream processes (primary and/or secondary treatment) provide feed water to the filter. The engineer should carefully evaluate and have a good understanding of the performance and reliability of those upstream processes when selecting the filter type and media. The design engineer should define the water and solids characteristics for the entire range of possible feed water conditions. Seasonal changes in water temperature, solid loadings, and water chemistry (pH, alkalinity, hardness, conductivity, etc.) can have a significant affect on filter performance. Solids characteristics such as floc size and strength may also change seasonally and should be defined during design. It is recommended that the water and solids characteristics (rate, concentration, composition, etc.) of the flow stream be defined on a monthly basis (or as otherwise necessary) and that possible peak loading conditions be identified. Other feed water characteristics that may be detrimental to specific filter media should also be identified. Chemicals, inorganic precipitates, or particles (for example ozone, calcium carbonate, or clay, respectively) may damage or clog certain media and should be identified and considered in media selection. Industrial wastewater may have specific characteristics (such as chemical reactions with filter aids) that pose problems for filtration systems. T4-2.3.4 Filtration Mechanisms After defining the full range of filter feed water characteristics as outlined above, the filtration mechanism(s) that would be suitable for a specific filter application can be identified. Filter media (granular and microscreens) may remove solids from the liquid stream by one or more of the following: ? Straining. Based on the mechanical and chance contact of the media with the solids and that the solid (particle or floc) size is larger than openings in the media. Particles smaller than the pore size may also be strained if multiple particles bridge the pore opening. This is the principal mechanism for microscreen (surface) filtration. ? Nonstraining. Based on other forces that act upon the solid particles; includes interception, adhesion, attachment, adsorption, electrostatic, sedimentation, and flocculation. These mechanisms are predominantly in granular media filters. T4-2.3.5 Solids Capture Utilizing one or more of the solids removal mechanisms described above, filtration media will accumulate the solid particles either on a surface layer (microscreens or slow sand filters) or within the depth of the bed (conventional or rapid sand filters). Some filters (such as a pulsed bed) may actually use both methods of solids capture. Most filters have a limitation for the rate at which solids can be applied. That rate may be expressed in terms of TSS (mg/l), turbidity (Ntu), BOD-particulate (mg/l), or other constituent concentration. The filter media will also have a maximum capacity for holding a given volume (or mass) of solids. The design engineer should utilize the information known about the feed water solids characteristics and loading rates in determining if the appropriate filter T4-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design media may utilize surface straining or deep bed solids capture or both (such as a pulsed bed). Proper assessment of this factor is important in order to have reasonable backwash operations. Misapplication of this factor would likely result in excessive backwash frequency, excessive backwash water use, reduced plant capacity, and high operating costs. Usually historical data, pilot tests, or manufacturer’s recommendations can confirm which type of filter media would be appropriate. T4-2.3.6 Backwashing A filter can function efficiently only if the backwashing system cleans the media thoroughly and takes full advantage of the solids storage capacity. A properly designed and operated filter should reach the backwash stage when the captured solids just begin to emerge in the effluent and simultaneously an upper limit of head loss across the media is reached. There are many methodologies and kinds of equipment for controlling and backwashing filter media, and they are typically designed to be compatible with the particular media type and solids storage location. Backwash methods are generally divided into two categories: batch and continuous. Batch backwashing of a granular media filter requires a filter cell (either a discrete portion or a unit of several in service) be removed from duty, stopping the feed water flow, initiating a washwater stream (with or without air agitation) to expand the granular media bed, dislodging the solids from the media, carrying them away, and then restoring the filter cell back to service. The design engineer must oversize the filter design capacity to account for this backwash operation (at least one cell or unit is always offline for backwashing). Some surface media (microscreens) may also have similar batch backwash methods. Batch backwashed filters generally depend on control and instrumentation systems that monitor solids breakthrough and terminal head loss. Continuous backwashing systems for granular media filters utilize mechanisms that constantly remove a small portion of the dirty media, process it through a cleaning device, carry away the solids, and return the clean media to the filter bed. Because the feed water flow is not interrupted and backwashing is occurring constantly, there is no need to “oversize” the total filter design capacity. Continuous backwashed filters typically do not have solids breakthrough or terminal head loss. Most surface media (microscreens) use a continuous backwash method. The design engineer should consider the following factors when selecting a filter system: ? Appurtenant support equipment. Support system components needed for bed expansion, surface washing, and/or air scour systems typically include water pumps, air compressors, and tanks. Space for such equipment with related piping and controls may occupy a significant amount of site area and usually requires a building for protection from weather. Equipment capacity and standby units must be selected for proper backwashing performance. ? Automated equipment and controls. Motor-operated valves, solenoids, traveling bridge motors, and drives and other electro- Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-13 mechanical devices must be reliable and located for easy inspection and service. ? In-bed piping and nozzles. All piping and nozzles associated with surface washing or subsurface agitation devices should be made of corrosion-resistant materials and securely mounted. It is difficult to inspect and repair such items once they are placed into service. ? Water quality monitoring. Turbidimeters should be located for reliable operation, easy inspection, and cleaning. This is especially important if they are part of an automatic control function used to pace chemical feed rates, or automatically trigger backwash cycles, alarms, or system shutdowns. ? Flow meters. Flow meters should be included on the backwash system to measure backwash water and air scour flow rates. Flow meters should be selected for reliable operation and located for easy inspection and service. T4-2.4 Granular Media Filters Granular media (sand, anthracite, gravel, etc.) generally offers the greatest potential for reliably and efficiently meeting solids removal needs because it offers the following: ? A wide variety of media sizes and densities to choose from; and ? The varieties may be used individually (monomedia), mixed, or arranged in specially layered combinations (multimedia). T4-2.4.1 Gravity Filters A. General Gravity filters are open to atmospheric pressure and rely only on hydrostatic pressure (due to feed water depth) to produce the driving force to move the water through the media. The optimum design should seek to achieve an economic combination of filter size, head loss, and run length. ? The direction of flow through the media may be up, down, or radial. ? Backwash methods can be batch or continuous. ? Gravity granular media filters are normally used for large installations. ? The granular media may be mono-, dual- or multimedia. ? Terminal head loss is usually limited to 8 or 9 feet and may be much less for automatic backwash filters. B. Coordination with Plant Hydraulic Profile ? A gravity filter must be carefully integrated with the hydraulic profile of the total plant to avoid interference with other upstream and downstream process units. ? It is recommended that filtrate bypass channels or piping (with valves as necessary) be provided in order to waste or recirculate inferior filtrate during initial startup, upsets, or other unusual operating periods. T4-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ? Feed water for the gravity filters is usually pumped from the preceding process unit. Variable speed pumps can provide the necessary flexibility to coordinate with variations in other plant flow rates. C. Production Rate and Head Loss Considerations ? Rate of flow through gravity filters can be variable or continuous. ? Gravity granular media filters typically require from 12 to 48 inches of hydraulic head to produce the driving force necessary for economic operation. Some filters may operate with more head, perhaps up to 10 feet, depending on the control scheme, type of solids, and specific media characteristics. ? Flow equalization should be considered to minimize the adverse impacts of peak flows on filter hydraulics. ? Most microscreen filters use gravity for the feed water driving force. ? Production (loading) rate is generally defined as the flow rate over the bed surface area: gpm/sf. Normally this ranges from 2 to 5 gpm/sf, however higher loading rates are possible (up to 10 or 12 gpm/sf) given sufficient study to verify proper performance. ? Filters are often assessed in terms of their production efficiency or effective filtration rate. In simplified terms, this is the ratio of the volume of filtered water divided by the volume of backwash water for a given run period or through a unit area of filter. If the time to breakthrough and the time to terminal head loss are maximized, and occur simultaneously, the filter would achieve maximum production efficiency. ? Manufacturers of filter equipment usually have good knowledge about the general capabilities of their equipment and have attempted to provide systems that are efficient. However every process stream is different and the designer must conduct pilot tests to establish pretreatment needs, chemical application considerations, and to know if the filter performance can be optimized at the full range of expected loading situations. D. Backwashing ? The method of backwashing must be appropriate for the media. ? Backwash methods should attempt to minimize the amount of washwater used. ? Air scour or air agitation should be used for wastewater effluent filters. ? Surface washers may be necessary with certain media and filter types. E. Control Considerations There are two basic types of filter control schemes that vary primarily in the manner in which the flow and driving force (influent head) is applied across the media: Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-15 (1) Constant rate filtration uses a flow meter and modulating valve or flow control valve to maintain a constant flow rate to any given filter. This results in a variable water level above the filter media which rises as the filter begins to retain solids. When a filter reaches a maximum influent head, the backwash cycle is initiated. Disadvantages of constant rate filtration are (1) higher capital costs due to needed structural configurations between the influent and effluent, and (2) higher maintenance costs due to complexity of the flow rate control devices. (2) Variable declining rate filtration uses a common influent header or channel, operating at nearly constant head to all filters so that the cleaner filters receive more flow than the dirtier filters. The advantages of this system are that the head needed for operation is less and the adverse effects of removing a unit for backwashing are minimal. Each filter has a flow restricting device (usually an orifice plate) on the effluent conduit to limit maximum flow. The designer is cautioned that this type of operation could conceivably result in an event in which all filters need to backwash simultaneously. Controls should be provided to preclude this. In addition, manufacturers of filter equipment have developed some similar variations on the above control systems that provide improved performance, flexibility, and reliability. T4-2.4.2 Pressure Filtration A. General Pressure filters utilize enclosed vessels that contain the filter media and force feed water through the media with pumps. The direction of flow through the media bed may be up, down, or radial. Backwash methods can be batch or continuous. Pressure filters are normally used for small installations, have higher energy requirements, and are mechanically somewhat complex. B. Coordination with Plant Hydraulic Profile Because pressure filters utilize enclosed vessels and pumps, the systems offer great flexibility within a plant hydraulic profile and can be placed at virtually any convenient location or elevation. The designer may be able to take advantage of the filtrate residual pressure to convey it to remote clearwells or reservoirs. C. Production Rate and Head Loss Considerations ? Production (loading) rate is generally defined as the flow rate over the bed surface area: gpm/sf. Normally this ranges from 5 to 12 gpm/sf; however, higher loading rates are possible given sufficient study to verify proper performance. ? Head loss is generally not a controlling factor in operation of pressure filters. Instead, backwash is usually initiated based upon solids breakthrough, which means the full depth of the bed has been filled with accumulated solids. The designer must therefore T4-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design select filter feed pumps with ample head and capacity to fully utilize the solids storage capacity of the media. ? Manufacturers of filter equipment usually have good knowledge about the general capabilities of their equipment and have attempted to provide systems that are efficient. However every process stream is different, and the designer must conduct pilot tests to establish pretreatment needs and to know if the filter performance can be optimized at the full range of expected loading situations. D. Backwashing ? Backwashing of pressure filters is usually initiated based upon solids breakthrough, which means the full depth of the bed has been filled with accumulated solids. However, it is recommended that each online filter unit undergo at least one backwash cycle per day in order to prevent mudball formation and to purge grease and biological growths. ? During the backwashing cycle, that filter unit is offline and the other online units must handle all of the plant flow. E. Control Considerations ? Pressure filters are almost always a “packaged” system that has a pre-engineered control system. Such systems may have some optional operating modes, but generally lack potential for optimization and flexibility. ? Pressure filters typically utilize many motor-operated valves, instruments, and control devices to accomplish automatic operation of production and backwash cycles. T4-2.4.3 Slow Sand Filters A. General Slow sand filters are a low-cost, noncomplex technology that has been used successfully for many years. This may be a particularly good system for small wastewater plants. A slow sand filter consists of a large flat sand bed that is intermittently flooded and drained. Multiple beds are needed to maintain constant processing. As filtrate is collected in an underdrain system, solids accumulate on the surface and must be physically removed. In most cases slow sand filters may be expected to produce effluent quality equivalent to gravity or pressure filters, and may operate efficiently without chemical filter aids for most secondary wastewater effluents. Color, algae, and turbidity removal will likely require preceding chemical coagulation. Media depth is normally about 36 to 42 inches supported on about 10 to 12 inches of gravel. B. Coordination With Plant Hydraulic Profile ? Feed water is usually pumped to the filter bed(s) although gravity feed is also suitable if sufficient hydraulic grade is available. Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-17 ? Filtrate water should be able to flow by gravity to the next process stage. C. Production Rate and Head Loss Considerations ? Design loading rates may range from 3 to 16 mgd per acre. ? High loading rates may be applied if the media is relatively coarse and/or solids loadings are low. ? Low loading rates are needed if the media is fine and/or solids loadings are high. ? Head loss buildup to maximum is predictable and very slow, ranging from a few days to many weeks. D. Media Cleaning ? Cleaning of filter media is performed by scraping about 2 to 3 inches of the surface, thus exposing a relatively clean layer for the next operating cycle. ? The dirty sand may be cleaned and reused in the filter or it may be landfilled, incorporated with compost (or precompost), or other appropriate and environmentally sound method of reuse or disposal. ? The process of scraping off layers may continue until the effective media depth is 16 to 20 inches. The sand bed must then be refilled to the maximum media depth, leveled, and returned to service. E. Control Considerations ? The filtered water outlet structure should be designed to maintain submergence of the media under all conditions so that air binding is prevented. ? The filter should be operated under submerged conditions of 4 to 5 feet of head, with the maximum head loss across the media not exceeding the submergence depth. ? Effluent flow from each filter bed should be controllable with a valve or adjustable weir. ? Special care should be taken to apply flow to the filter bed without disturbing the surface of the media. Gradual filling of the filter may be necessary until sufficient water depth is achieved to allow maximum water rates. ? Manual monitoring and controls are usually adequate. T4-2.5 Other Types of Filtration In addition to granular media filters, fine screens and synthetic media can be applied to wastewater for physical treatment by filtration. The application of these technologies has not been widespread; however, with careful application and design they can be used successfully. T4-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T4-2.5.1 Fine Screens Fine screens, or microscreens, for solids removal are not to be confused with fine screens for preliminary treatment in a headworks. While fine screen media is generally available in openings ranging from 6 micron up to 6 mm, fine screening for application in physical removal of solids in wastewater treatment typically ranges between 6 and 100 micron. In general, fine screens are not capable of achieving the same effluent quality as granular media filters because they comprise a single, thin, synthetic or metallic layer in which to trap the solids. Thirty to 60 percent removal of solids by fine screens is not uncommon. Fine screens for solids removal are generally drum screens with fine media attached to the drum. The media is normally a synthetic cloth-type media such as polypropylene, perforated stainless steel, wedgewire stainless steel, or stainless steel mat. The screens are usually internally fed with the filtrate passing through the drum to the outside. Backwash for the screens is normally pumped to a header to wash the media. The backwash is then collected in a trough for return to an upstream process. Fine screens can often offer significantly higher loading rates (10 to 25 gpd/ft 2 ) than granular media. This can result in space savings over granular media filters. Fine screens can be appropriate if the effluent requirements are somewhat less stringent than granular filters could easily achieve. In addition, fine screens may be appropriate if space constraints are a concern. Design considerations for fine screens include the following: ? Hydraulic and solids loading rates. The designer is cautioned to evaluate loading rates in terms of net submerged media. In a rotating drum screen only a portion of the media is available for filtration at any given time. Media support structures also deplete effective filtration areas. ? Backwash requirements and efficiency of backwash method. Backwash should be positive, high-pressure sprays. Doctor blades may be adequate on pretreatment screens but are not recommended for solids removal applications. In addition, if grease is a concern, it may be necessary to wash or backwash the screen occasionally with hot water and/or chemicals. ? Head loss capability and requirements of the fine screen. ? Ease and frequency required for media replacement and repair. ? Tank and seal design to prevent contamination of treated water with untreated water. T4-2.5.2 Synthetic Media There are various manufacturers of synthetic media. Contact manufacturers for further information. Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-19 T4-2.6 Other Types of Physical Treatment Recent developments in applying new technology to physical treatment of wastewater include the application of membrane technology and various forms of ballasted flocculation. Both of these technologies are relatively new, with minimal design criteria available. It is strongly recommended that a designer considering applying these technologies carefully investigate the technology and conduct pilot trial testing to verify feasibility, operational characteristics, design parameters, and sidestream characteristics. A brief discussion of these technologies follows. T4-2.6.1 Membranes Membranes for treatment of wastewater are available in a variety of pore sizes and material types. Membranes typically are available in the micron range (microfiltration), less than micron range (ultrafiltration), nano range (nanofiltration), and molecular range (reverse osmosis, or RO). Many times a combination of sizes may be necessary to achieve the effluent quality with the most economical process sizing. In other words, it may be necessary or more economical to use microfiltration ahead of RO to prevent fouling of the RO membrane or maximize the loading rate and thus minimize the size of the RO unit. A. Applications for Membranes ? Tertiary treatment to achieve high quality effluent. ? High quality reuse applications. ? Ground water recharge. ? Expansion of treatment capacity on limited footprint sites. B. Design Considerations When Evaluating the Use of Membranes ? Flux rate (hydraulic loading/area of media). ? Reject rate or recovery rate (i.e., how much water is rejected for each unit of water produced). ? Transmembrane operating pressure (i.e., the amount of pressure required to operate the membrane and the amount of pressure the membrane can handle). ? Fouling rate of the membranes. ? Backwashing capability or chemical clean-in-place (CIP) capability and the success of either. ? Overall operating costs including membrane replacement, power, chemicals for cleaning, and labor for membrane maintenance and replacement. In addition to providing high quality effluent, membranes can offer potential for small footprints and reduced or even eliminated downstream disinfection. T4-2.6.2 Ballasted Flocculation Ballasted flocculation comprises the addition of particles (microsand) in a clarifier or flocculation basin ahead of a clarifier to enhance the settleability of the solids in a wastewater stream. The technology has been applied in water T4-20 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design treatment on a limited but very successful basis, and is becoming increasingly popular. The main advantages of ballasted flocculation include significantly reduced footprints compared to conventional settling processes and the potential for reduced chemical dosages when chemicals are required for flocculation and coagulation. A. Applications for Ballasted Flocculation ? CSO treatment. ? Primary treatment. ? Tertiary treatment. ? Phosphorus removal. ? Expansion of treatment capacity on limited footprint sites. B. Design Considerations for Ballasted Flocculation Design considerations are similar to those for conventional settling and tertiary clarification, including: ? Loading rates. Ballasted flocculation can achieve very high loading rates on a unit process basis. Rates of 10,000 to 40,000 gpd/sf have been reported. ? Solids removal efficiency. Removals of up to 80 percent or more on CSO and primary treatment applications have been reported. ? Chemical requirements. Ballasted flocculation requires the addition of a coagulant (alum, ferric chloride, ferrous sulfate, etc.) and coagulant aid (polymer) in addition to the particle introduced to enhance settling. T4-2.7 Design Considerations The design engineer should consider, evaluate, and provide justification for filter designs or specified package filter systems for the following factors. T4-2.7.1 Number and Size of Filters ? Filters are normally sized for flow capacity based on media surface area (gpm/sf). ? The minimum required filter surface area should be based on the peak flow rate. ? Proprietary and pressure filters are normally sized by the manufacturer. ? The filter system should be comprised of multiple units so that at least one unit can be backwashed or removed from service without overloading the remaining units. ? Where flow cannot be interrupted, at least two filter units should be provided. For small systems where flow can be temporarily interrupted (such as lagoon systems or flow equalization tankage), a single filter unit may be satisfactory. Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-21 T4-2.7.2 Filter Type ? For large installations there are few alternatives for filter type; most are individual custom designs of the gravity, batch-backwashing type. ? For medium and small installations there may be several possible options because of the availability of small package systems (i.e., gravity, pressure, batch backwash, continuous backwash, slow sand, etc.). ? The design engineer should select a filter system (with appurtenances) appropriate for the skill level of the operator(s). ? The design engineer should select a filter system that is appropriate for the available site area and geotechnical foundation and ground water conditions. T4-2.7.3 Bed Configuration Depth ? Depth and size of media should consider needed solids storage capacity (length of filter run) and head loss limitations. ? If chemical filter aids are used without a flocculation basin, some of the filter beds may need to be used for flocculation and would therefore be unavailable for solids storage. T4-2.7.4 Media Characteristics Selection of granular media shall be based on pilot testing of the particular water or researching comparable installations. T4-2.7.5 Backwash System ? The filter system should be comprised of multiple units so that at least one unit can be backwashed without adverse effects on the remaining online units. ? The source of backwash water should be disinfected filtered water. This is normally drawn from the filtrate clearwell or a backwash storage tank. ? Adequate clearwell volume or backwash supply storage must be provided for consecutive backwashing of 50 percent of the filters. ? A standby washwater pump must be provided. ? Washwater flow meter(s) and control or throttling valves must be provided to obtain the proper rate of filter washwater flow. ? A means of observing the washwater flow should be provided. T4-2.7.6 Appurtenances Mechanical equipment for supporting the filter operations may include feed pumps, backwash pumps, air compressors, and automatic valves. T4-2.7.7 Reliability If pumped backwash is used, at least one standby washwater pump must be provided. T4-22 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T4-2.7.8 Controls Systems and Instrumentation There are three basic methods of filter operation: constant rate, constant pressure, and variable declining rate. It is sometimes advantageous to have the operational flexibility to use more than one method. T4-2.7.9 Chemical Addition Systems Almost all filtration systems require chemicals be added to the process stream to modify the water chemistry and/or solids and make the filter function efficiently. Coagulation and flocculation are the processes of blending or mixing chemicals into the process stream to cause a chemical reaction with the water and solids (colloidal or dissolved), thus creating a floc particle that can be efficiently captured by the filter media. The following are some general guidelines: ? Chemical coagulants must be applied to the process stream in the proper concentration, and in a manner that promotes thorough contact (flash mixing). Adding too much chemical will cause poor coagulation. ? Sometimes it is advantageous to adjust the water chemistry (pH, alkalinity, etc.) prior to application of coagulants. Adding lime is a common practice. ? Various chemical and physicochemical reactions may occur that are able to create floc particles or precipitates. The most important function of a chemical coagulant is to destabilize the surface electrical charge of the colloidal solid particles so that they will attract and form an agglomeration (floc). ? Floc particles must have the proper characteristics for effective filtration and backwashing to be accomplished. The floc characteristics must be compatible with the filter media and loading rates in order to optimize filter performance. Such characteristics of the floc include size, density, strength, electrical charge, stickiness, etc. ? The designer’s role in chemical selection and application is to know the desired characteristics for the floc as they relate to the specific process water and filter media and how the operator can manipulate the system to create those characteristics. The only way to provide a definitive design for a filter’s chemical application system is to conduct pilot tests on the actual process water using as many chemicals as practical, then make provisions within the full-scale system for some additional flexibility. ? Design features that provide flexibility for adjusting and optimizing the chemical application systems include the ability to apply multiple chemicals to the process stream (such as gaseous or liquid chlorine, liquid alum, emulsion polymer, lime slurry, etc.) together with many application and sampling points in the process stream. ? The hydraulic flow conduits must be designed to prevent turbulence, which would sheer floc as it is conveyed to the filter bed. ? All chemical systems should be designed with provisions for easily measuring the bulk quantity on hand by means of scales, level gauges, etc. Chemical/Physical Treatment December 1998 T4-23 ? All chemical systems should be designed with provisions for easily measuring instantaneous dosage or application rate by means of calibrated cylinders or low flow meters. ? All chemical systems should be designed with provisions for thorough mixing with the process stream at all points of application by means of diffusers, nozzles, mechanical mixers, hydraulic turbulence, etc. ? All chemical systems should be designed with sufficient bulk storage to accommodate economical purchase and shipping costs. Bulk chemical storage should be designed to prevent undesirable conditions (moisture, freezing temperatures, excessive heat, sunlight, etc.) which would accelerate deterioration of the chemical. ? Bulk chemical storage and feeding areas must be designed for safe and convenient handling of chemical containers. T4-2.8 Recommended Design Features ? The filter shall be covered if necessary to prevent freezing, block sunlight (algae growth), promote safety, etc. ? Access shall be provided for operator inspections and servicing. ? Sufficient freeboard shall be provided on channels, flumes, and tanks to preclude flooding caused by overflows. ? Adequate drains should be provided on tanks, pipes, and channels to facilitate dewatering for servicing. ? Shutoff valves and piping or channels shall provide sufficient flexibility for operation/isolation of portions of the facility. ? The filtrate piping or channels shall provide for filter-to-waste or recirculation. ? Each filter unit shall have a head loss gauge device. ? Each filter unit shall have a means of measuring flow rate. ? Turbidimeter(s) should be installed as necessary to match control methods, or at a minimum, to ensure adequate effluent quality. ? Each filter unit shall have a means of manually initiating the backwash cycle. ? Piping and channels should be equipped with numerous (extra) fixtures for applying chemicals. T4-2.9 Operational Considerations Efficient operation of a filter system requires that the operator(s) understands the fundamental mechanisms that a particular filter system uses for removing solids from the water stream. The operator(s) should receive complete training from the manufacturer or engineer and have a detailed O&M manual written specifically for that facility. In addition: ? The filter system should be inspected daily to verify that all mechanical equipment is functioning properly, and to identify leaks or other items needing service or repair. ? Filter plant data should be recorded daily. Data may include volume of water treated, volume of backwash produced, filtrate turbidity, current chemical dose, T4-24 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design quantity of chemical used, quantity of chemical remaining in storage, run hours on auxiliary equipment, etc. The design engineer should develop an appropriate checklist. ? Periodically (monthly and annually), the operator should accumulate the filter plant’s operational and cost data and prepare a summary of the filter performance in terms of cost-per-volume treated or cost-per-pound of solids removed. The operator should look for trends that may indicate inefficient, expensive, or inferior performance and investigate any problems. ? The filter plant should be given an annual (or other appropriate frequency) in- depth inspection and servicing. In particular, the media should be inspected for proper depth, mud balls, encrustations, or other physical degradation that would adversely affect performance. All deficiencies should be corrected to restore optimum performance. T4-2.10 Reliability Criteria All filtration unit processes shall be provided with at least one reliability feature, as follows: ? Alarm and multiple filter units capable of treating the entire flow with at least one unit not in operation. ? Alarm, short-term storage or disposal provisions, and standby replacement equipment. ? Alarm and long-term storage or disposal provisions. ? Automatically actuated long-term storage or disposal provisions. ? Alarm and standby filtration units. T4-3 References Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering?Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. Third Edition, Chapter 6, Granular Medium Filtration; and Chapter 11, Advanced Wastewater Treatment. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, Inc., 1991. Montgomery, James M. Water Treatment Principles and Design. Chapter 8, Filtration; and Chapter 21, Facilities Design. John Wiley and Sons, 1985. Sanks, Robert L. Water Treatment Plant Design for the Practicing Engineer. Chapter 12, Granular-Media Deep-Bed Filtration; and Chapter 28, Design of Granular-Media Filter Units. 1979. Water Environment Federation. Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants. WEF Manual of Practice No. 8; ASCE Manual and Report on Engineering Practice No. 76, Chapter 16, Add-on Processes for Advanced Wastewater Treatment. New York, NY: WEF and ASCE. 1992. Weber, Walter J. Physicochemical Processes for Water Quality Control. Chapter 4, Filtration. John Wiley and Sons, 1972. December 1998 T5-1 T5. Disinfection This chapter describes the design and safety considerations for the most common types of disinfection practices used in treating wastewater effluent. Using ultraviolet light, ozonation (both air and oxygen-generated ozone), dechlorination, and chlorine in two forms (dry and sodium hypochlorite) are all addressed in this chapter. T5-1 General................................... 3 T5-2 Ultraviolet Light..................... 3 T5-2.1 General ..........................................3 T5-2.1.1 What is Ultraviolet Light? ...................... 4 T5-2.1.2 Mechanism of Germicidal Action........... 5 T5-2.1.3 How UV Light Works ............................ 5 T5-2.1.4 How UV-Damaged DNA is Repaired .... 6 A. Enzymatic Photoreactivation....................... 6 B. Excision Repair ........................................... 6 T5-2.1.5 UV Terminology..................................... 7 A. Fraction Survival......................................... 7 B. Intensity....................................................... 7 C. Time ............................................................ 7 D. Dose............................................................. 7 E. UV Absorbance ........................................... 7 F. Percent Transmission................................... 8 G. UV Absorbance Co-Efficient ...................... 8 H. Hydraulics, Flow Rate................................. 8 I. Suspended Solids .......................................... 8 T5-2.2 Design Considerations .................8 T5-2.2.1 UV Transmission of Absorbance............ 9 T5-2.2.2 Suspended Solids.................................... 9 T5-2.2.3 Flow Rate or Hydraulics......................... 9 T5-2.2.4 Iron ........................................................10 T5-2.2.5 Hardness ................................................10 T5-2.2.6 Wastewater Source ................................11 T5-2.2.7 Disinfection Requirements ....................11 T5-2.2.8 Wastewater Effluent Characterization...12 T5-2.2.9 Hydraulic Considerations ......................12 A. Submergence ..............................................12 B. Plug Flow ...................................................12 C. Head Loss ...................................................13 T5-2.3 Design Details .............................13 T5-2.3.1 Lamp Life ..............................................13 T5-2.3.2 UV Lamps .............................................14 A. Low-Pressure Mercury Lamps ...................14 B. Standard Low-Pressure Mercury Slimline Instant Start Lamp .....................16 C. Medium-Pressure Mercury Lamps .............16 T5-2.3.3 Ballasts/Power Supplies.........................16 A. General Description....................................16 B. Core/Coil Ballast Construction...................16 C. Electronic Ballast........................................17 T5-2.3.4 Types of Ultraviolet Systems.................17 A. Open Channel UV Systems Using Low- Pressure UV Lamps .................................17 1. Horizontal ...............................................18 2. Vertical ...................................................18 B. Open Channel UV Systems Using Medium-Pressure UV Lamps...................19 C. Closed Chamber System Using Medium-Pressure UV Lamps...................19 T5-2.3.5 Sizing Criteria........................................20 T5-2.3.6 Electrical................................................20 T5-2.4 Safety .......................................... 21 T5-3 Ozonation............................. 21 T5-3.1 General........................................ 21 T5-3.2 Application.................................. 21 T5-3.3 Ozone Generation Equipment ... 22 T5-3.3.1 Air Feed.................................................22 T5-3.3.2 Oxygen Feed..........................................22 T5-3.4 Design Considerations .............. 23 T5-3.4.1 Ozone Dosage........................................23 T5-3.4.2 Capacity.................................................23 T5-3.4.3 Mixing and Diffusion ............................24 T5-3.4.4 Contact Period .......................................24 T5-3.4.5 Contact Chambers..................................24 T5-3.4.6 Ozone Off-Gas Destruction ...................24 T5-3.4.7 Sampling, Instrumentation, and Control ..........................................................25 T5-3.5 Design Details ............................ 26 T5-3.5.1 Housing..................................................26 T5-3.5.2 Piping and Connections .........................26 T5-3.5.3 Electrical Supply....................................26 T5-3.5.4 Standby Equipment and Spare Parts......26 T5-3.6 Safety .......................................... 26 T5-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T5-4 Chlorination ......................... 27 T5-4.1 General ........................................27 T5-4.1.1 Forms of Chlorine..................................27 T5-4.1.2 Chlorine Feed Equipment......................27 T5-4.1.3 Chlorine Supply.....................................27 T5-4.1.4 Chlorine Gas Withdrawal Rates ............28 T5-4.2 Design Considerations ...............28 T5-4.2.1 General ..................................................28 T5-4.2.2 Capacity.................................................28 T5-4.2.3 Reliability ..............................................29 T5-4.2.4 Mixing ...................................................30 A. Pipe Flow ...................................................30 B. Open Channel Flow....................................30 C. Mechanical Mixing.....................................30 D. Mixing Reactor...........................................31 T5-4.2.5 Contact Period .......................................31 T5-4.2.6 Contact Chambers..................................32 T5-4.2.7 Dechlorination .......................................33 T5-4.2.8 Sampling, Instrumentation, and Control ..........................................................33 T5-4.2.9 Residual Chlorine Testing .....................33 T5-4.3 Design Details .............................34 T5-4.3.1 Housing (Enclosures) ............................34 A. General .......................................................34 B. Heat ............................................................34 C. Ventilation..................................................34 D. Electrical ....................................................35 E. Plumbing.....................................................35 F. Fire Detection..............................................35 T5-4.3.2 Piping and Connections .........................35 A. Vents ..........................................................35 B. Piping Systems ...........................................35 1. Liquid or Gas ..........................................36 2. Injector Vacuum .....................................36 3. Chlorine Solution....................................37 T5-4.3.3 Water Supply .........................................37 T5-4.3.4 Standby Equipment and Spare Parts......37 T5-4.3.5 Scales.....................................................37 T5-4.3.6 Handling Equipment..............................37 T5-4.3.7 Container Space.....................................37 T5-4.3.8 Automatic Switchover of Cylinders and Containers...............................................38 T5-4.4 Safety...........................................38 T5-4.4.1 Leak Detection and Controls .................38 T5-4.4.2 Breathing Apparatus ..............................38 T5-4.4.3 Container Repair Kits ............................38 T5-4.4.4 Piping Color Codes................................38 T5-4.4.5 Other Requirements...............................38 A. UBC............................................................39 B. UFC ............................................................39 T5-5 Sodium Hypochlorite .......... 42 T5-5.1 General........................................ 42 T5-5.2 Hypochlorite Supply .................. 42 T5-5.2.1 On-Site Generation................................42 T5-5.2.2 Bulk Liquid Purchase ............................42 T5-5.2.3 Drums ....................................................42 T5-5.3 Hypochlorite Feed Equipment... 42 T5-6 Dechlorination ..................... 43 T5-6.1 General........................................ 43 T5-6.1.1 Dechlorinating Agents...........................43 A. Sulfur Dioxide............................................43 B. Sodium Bisulfite.........................................43 C. Sodium Metabisulfite .................................44 T5-6.2 Design Considerations for Liquid Feed Systems ................. 44 T5-6.2.1 General ..................................................44 T5-6.2.2 Uniform Fire and Building Codes .........44 T5-6.2.3 Mixing ...................................................44 T5-6.2.4 Contact Period .......................................44 T5-6.2.5 Sampling, Instrumentation, and Control ..........................................................44 T5-7 References........................... 45 Figures T5-1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum ....................... 5 T5-2. Relative Intensity of the Wavelengths Produced by the Low-Pressure Mercury Lamp ...............................................................15 T5-3. Relative Intensity of the Wavelengths Produced by the Medium-Pressure Mercury Lamp ...............................................................15 Tables T5-1. Classification of Water Hardness ...................11 T5-2. Chlorine Dosing Capacity Guidelines ............29 T5-3. Mixing Energy Values....................................31 Disinfection December 1998 T5-3 T5-1 General Disinfection practices provide substantial public health benefits by reducing discharges of many waterborne pathogenic organisms to water supplies, recreational waters, shellfish waters, and other waters that can potentially transmit disease to humans. Concerns to be considered as a minimum for requiring disinfection are as follows: ? Protection of public water supplies. ? Protection of fisheries and shellfish. ? Protection of irrigation and agricultural waters. ? Protection of water where human contact is likely. Various methods to effectively disinfect wastewater effluent are technically feasible and have been proven to be reliable alternatives. The best method will depend primarily upon the quality of the effluent and the residual disinfectant necessary. Also of concern are the potential adverse effects of residual chlorine or its byproducts on aquatic life and humans. Historically, chlorination has been almost exclusively used to disinfect municipal wastewater because of its relatively low cost, availability, and general effectiveness. Over the years, increasing concern about public safety and toxicity to fisheries has led to other disinfection alternatives, such as ultraviolet light, ozonation, and hypochlorite. ? Ultraviolet light (UV) applied to low-turbidity water is a highly effective means of disinfection. UV has no residual disinfection capacity and thus cannot prevent organism regrowth in downstream facilities. However, this same characteristic also means that UV is not harmful to aquatic organisms in the receiving water. Some constituents in the wastewater that originate with industrial dischargers may inhibit the effectiveness of UV disinfection. ? Ozonation using air- or oxygen-generated ozone is a highly effective disinfectant. Typically generated on-site by electrical discharge, it is energy intensive. Ozone has no residual disinfection capacity and thus cannot prevent organism regrowth in downstream facilities. However, this same characteristic also means that ozone is not harmful to aquatic organisms in the receiving water. ? Chlorine can be used in either a gaseous form or in other common forms such as liquid chlorine, chlorine dioxide, or bromine chlorine. Chlorine residual in the effluent may be toxic to aquatic organisms in the receiving waters and may require the use of dechlorination chemicals. For both environmental and safety reasons, UV is rapidly becoming the disinfection method of choice in the State of Washington, with most new facilities choosing to use UV. T5-2 Ultraviolet Light T5-2.1 General The reason for using any form of disinfection for wastewater is to render the effluent microbiologically safe for any recipient of the effluent. Chlorine and its related compounds were once considered the most effective disinfectant for this purpose. As more emphasis was put on protecting and cleaning up our environment, however, it was shown that halogen-based disinfectants reacted with dissolved organic compounds to T5-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design form possible carcinogens. These halogenated organics have been called trihalomethanes (THMs). It has also been shown that the residuals of halogen disinfectants have a deleterious effect on the aquatic biota in the receiving body of water. These two problems prompted the use of UV. UV has the following advantages and disadvantages: Advantages Disadvantages ? UV light kills viruses, vegetative- and spore- forming bacteria, algae, and yeasts. ? No chemicals are added to the wastewater to change the pH, conductivity, odor, or taste, or to create possible toxic compounds. ? It is impossible to irradiate the water with too much UV light. ? UV provides freedom from handling and storing dangerous toxic chemicals, such as chlorine or other related compounds. ? UV offers a shorter retention time for disinfection, and eliminates the need for large contact chambers. ? UV treatment has few moving parts to adjust or wear out. ? Using UV offers possible capital and operating cost savings. ? Regrowth. ? No residual. ? Potential damage to eyes. ? Higher power cost than chlorine. ? Potential increased labor cost due to bulb. Replacement. ? Need for standby power. ? Potential for additional head loss. T5-2.1.1 What is Ultraviolet Light? The term “ultraviolet light” (UV) is applied to electromagnetic radiation emitted from the region of the spectrum lying beyond the visible light and before X-rays (see Figure T5-1). The upper wavelength limit is 400 manometers (nm) (1 nm = 10 -9 meter) and the lower wavelength limit is 100 nm, below which radiation ionizes virtually all molecules. The region between 400 and 190 nm has been divided into three regions. The longwave UV radiation, or UV-A, can be considered to lie in the wavelength range of 320 to 400 nm. The long wavelength limit represents the beginning of the visible spectrum, while the short wavelength limit corresponds roughly to the point below which proteins and genetic material begin to absorb significantly. Below this region is the middlewave UV region or UV-B (290 to 320 nm), where proteins and genetic material begin to absorb and where sunburn and skin cancer are most effectively produced. Solar-UV radiation or UV radiation present in sunlight at the surface of the earth at noon in clear weather includes both the longwave UV and the middlewave UV regions. Shortwave UV (UV-C) wavelengths range from 200 to 290 nm and, because of their strong absorption by genetic material, are highly destructive to biological matter. These wavelengths are almost all absorbed by the ozone in the stratosphere. Approximately 90 percent of the wavelength of ultraviolet light produced by the low-pressure and medium-pressure mercury lamps and used for the disinfection of water is 254 nm, which is in the shortwave UV or UV- C. The medium-pressure lamp produces a polychromatic output in the UV-C spectrum. Disinfection December 1998 T5-5 Cosmic rays Gamma rays X rays Infrared Radio waves Ultra- violet Violet Visible Red 10 -3 m optical radiation Vacuum UV Longwave UV (UV A) Visible light 800400 Middlewave UV (UV B) Shortwave UV (UV C) X rays 10 -7 m optical radiation 300200100 l(m) l(nm) Figure T5-1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum T5-2.1.2 Mechanism of Germicidal Action The narrow band of UV light lying between the wavelengths of 200 and 300 nm has often been called the germicidal region because UV light in this region is lethal to all microorganisms. The most destructive wavelength is 260 nm. UV light causes molecular rearrangements in the genetic material of microorganisms, preventing them from reproducing. If a microorganism cannot reproduce, it is considered dead. T5-2.1.3 How UV Light Works UV light disrupts the dividing of the DNA and the production of enzymes by the following mechanism. The components within the DNA that absorb the UV light are the nucleotide bases: adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine. Although proteins fulfill many vital functions in cells, their UV absorption compared with that of DNA is of minor consequence. Although the nucleotide bases in DNA are strong UV absorbers, their contributions to the biological effects of UV irradiation are grossly different. This is because the following must occur to have a photochemical reaction and the nucleotides vary with respect to these qualifications: (1) The radiation must be absorbed by the molecule. (2) The molecule must possess a chemical bond that is of importance to the function of the organism. (3) A sufficient amount of the excitation energy of the absorbed UV photon must reach this vulnerable bond to alter it. (4) After the chemical change the new configuration must endure. The nucleotides differ in their ability to absorb UV light and undergo a permanent chemical change. The pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine) are 10 times more sensitive to UV light than the purines (adenine and guanine). Of T5-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design the pyrimidines, thymine undergoes change the most readily and the chemical changes are very stable. UV light reacts with two adjacent thymine molecules to produce a thymine dimer. If these thymine dimers are produced in vital areas of the organism’s DNA, it either cannot produce important enzymes or it cannot produce a functional copy of its DNA when it wants to reproduce. T5-2.1.4 How UV-Damaged DNA is Repaired There are two principal types of repair mechanisms for UV-damaged DNA, enzymatic photoreactivation and excision repair. A. Enzymatic Photoreactivation This process is brought about by illumination of the cell with visible blue light. Such photoreactivation requires a specific enzyme that binds to the defective site on the DNA. Illumination results in the absorption of light energy by the enzyme. The absorbed energy in some manner promotes cleavage of chemical bonds at the defect in a single DNA strand. The most common photoreactivation process is the cleavage of the thymine dimer to yield two free thymine residues. In this way visible light can be used to repair DNA damaged by UV light. Photoreactivation has been observed in almost all microorganisms. B. Excision Repair Excision repair is independent of light and is called a “dark” repair process. It is brought about by the sequential action of four enzyme activities. If the defect is a thymine dimer a DNA polymerase enzyme detects it. This enzyme has a patrolling function and it also makes an incision on one side of the defect. The DNA polymerase then replaces the defective section with the thymine dimer with the correct nucleotide bases. The enzyme then removes the other end of the defective segment. A DNA ligase then attaches the new segment to the old DNA. This has been referred to as the “cut, patch, cut, and seal” process. Under certain situations, damage to an organism from UV irradiation can be repaired by photoreactivation as described above. A standard test for determining the maximum degree of photoreactivation has not been developed but the following is a generally accepted method. During a study with a pilot UV unit, samples from the UV unit should be placed in a transparent and opaque bottle and left in natural sunlight for 1 hour. The difference between the control in the opaque bottle and the transparent bottle is due to photoreactivation. Studies have shown great variations in the degree of photoreactivation but a general rule is that it may increase the count of the fecal or total coliforms by one logarithm at UV doses that are normally used in wastewater treatment plants. The photoreactivation that is observed will be the maximum and may not be indicative of what occurs in the environment. A study by Whitby, et al. (1983) showed that photoreactivation was not significant in a receiving body of water. Photoreactivation can be important if the effluent is subjected to visible light for any period of time before it is sampled or enters the receiving Disinfection December 1998 T5-7 body of water. This could be an open wetwell, a long open channel, or an unused chlorine contact chamber. At very high doses of UV light photoreactivation may not be as significant. This could occur where doses of 100,000 μW . sec/cm 2 or greater are being used for water reuse. T5-2.1.5 UV Terminology A. Fraction Survival When microorganisms are subjected to UV light, a constant fraction of the number present dies in each time interval. The fraction of the initial number of microorganisms present at a given time is called the fraction survival. Each microorganism has its own particular fraction survival curve. For each microorganism and UV wavelength the fraction killed depends upon the product of the UV light intensity and time. B. Intensity The intensity or energy density of the radiation is expressed in terms of energy incident upon a unit area. The unit used in the wastewater industry is the microwatt per square centimeter (μW/cm 2 ). The intensity of a UV lamp can be calculated by dividing the output in watts by the surface area of the lamp. C. Time The time is usually taken as the average residence time within the reaction vessel. In a poorly designed system, the calculated average residence time may be completely different from the actual residence time. This is very important since any short-circuiting of fluid will result in a greater survival of microorganisms. The time is usually given in seconds. D. Dose This product of intensity and time is known as the dose. Dose is the given units of micro- or milli-watt . seconds per square centimeter (μw.sec/cm 2 ). E. UV Absorbance The Bouguer-Lambert-Beer Law describes the absorption of UV light. When a parallel beam of monochromatic radiation (e.g., 254 nm) passes through a nondiffusing absorbing medium (e.g., water), a constant fraction of the radiation is absorbed in each unit distance of the medium traversed. The intensity in the medium falls off with increasing thickness according to an exponential relation. This means, for example, that if one centimeter of a material absorbs 50 percent of the radiation, then the next centimeter will absorb 50 percent of the remaining radiation, and so forth, so that at the end of 1 centimeter, the initial energy will be down to 50 percent, after 2 centimeters to 25 percent, after 3 centimeters to 12 percent and so on. Theoretically the radiation would never be totally absorbed. UV absorbency is normally measured in a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 254 nm. Distilled water or some other form of pure water in a quartz cell with a thickness of 1 centimeter is taken as zero absorbency. The UV absorbance is to the base 10. T5-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design F. Percent Transmission Percent transmission is the ratio of the UV light passing through 1 centimeter of sample divided by the UV light which passes through a sample of distilled water times 100. This value can be measured in a spectrophotometer or it can be calculated from the UV absorbance by the following equation: % Transmittance = 100 x 10 - Absorbance % Transmittance = 100 x e - Absorbance Co-Efficient G. UV Absorbance Co-Efficient This parameter is most often used for design purposes and is expressed in base e: UV Absorbance Co-Efficient, A = (2.303) (UV absorbance, base 10) A fluid with a low UV transmission (high absorbance) may require more UV lamps or more powerful lamps or a slower flow rate to increase the intensity or time to provide the proper dose for disinfection. H. Hydraulics, Flow Rate The hydraulics and flow rate through the UV system will determine the average dose and hence the microbial kill since the dose is equal to the intensity times the residence time. Short-circuiting of water or very little turbulence due to poor hydraulics will lower the kill of microorganisms. The ideal situation is plug flow with a high degree of movement perpendicular to the UV lamps and very little forward mixing. This ensures that all microorganisms are subjected to all of the intensity gradients within the reactor. The flow rate determines the average residence time. The higher the flow rates the lower the UV dose and vice versa for the same piece of UV equipment. The residence time is measured in seconds. I. Suspended Solids Suspended solids are the particles in water that can be removed by filtration. Suspended solids protect microorganisms from UV light by absorbing or reflecting the light. If the UV light cannot hit the genetic material of the microorganism then it will not be killed. The microorganisms that are protected by suspended matter usually limit the microbial kill in wastewater. If a wastewater contains high levels of suspended solids, more UV power will be required. T5-2.2 Design Considerations This section discusses the major parameters that must be taken into consideration when a UV disinfection system is being designed for wastewater. The customer or the consultant must provide this information to the UV manufacturer because each UV system is designed on an individual basis. Disinfection December 1998 T5-9 T5-2.2.1 UV Transmission of Absorbance The “percent transmission or absorbance” is a function of all the factors that absorb or reflect UV light. As the percent transmission gets lower (higher absorbance), the ability of the UV light to penetrate the wastewater and reach the target organisms decreases. It is imperative that the UV transmission of wastewater is measured because it is impossible to estimate the UV transmission by simply looking at a sample of wastewater with the naked eye. The system designer must obtain samples of wastewater during the worst conditions or carefully attempt to calculate the expected UV transmission by testing wastewaters from plants that have a similar influent and treatment process. Practical judgment should be applied when selecting a design for UV transmission. T5-2.2.2 Suspended Solids Some of the suspended solids in wastewater will absorb or reflect the UV light before it can penetrate the solids to kill any occluded microorganisms. UV light can penetrate into suspended solids by using longer contact times and higher intensities but there is still a limit to the killing of indicator organisms. Increasing the retention time increases the probability that enough photons will penetrate the solids to kill more microorganisms. Obtaining the proper information about the level of suspended solids is very important for the sizing of the UV system. If a wastewater treatment plant producing high levels of suspended solids is already in operation, a pilot study will show the frequency of cleaning the quartz sleeves as a result of being fouled by the suspended solids. Pilot testing will also determine whether the disinfection limit can be attained. The UV system must be designed for the maximum level of suspended solids observed in the wastewater treatment plant or the maximum level stated in the permit. T5-2.2.3 Flow Rate or Hydraulics The US EPA provides an in-depth analysis of the effect of hydraulics on the UV disinfection of wastewater in its publication, “Design Manual—Municipal Wastewater Disinfection” (1986). The number of microorganisms inactivated within a UV reactor is a function of the multiplication of the average intensity and residence time. The UV dose (D) is equal to the intensity (I) times the time (t) D = It As the flow rate increases, the number or power of the UV lamps must be proportionately increased to maintain the same disinfection requirements. The UV system must be designed for the maximum flow (peak hour) rate at the end of lamp life. The UV unit must be designed so that it provides as much sideways motion as possible with very little forward mixing. This ensures that every microorganism is exposed to the average dose of UV light. This is especially important when the water has a low UV transmission or high suspended solids. T5-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design The height of the wastewater above the top row of UV lamps must be rigidly controlled by a counter-balanced flap gate or weir at all of the flow rates. Therefore the UV system must be designed for the maximum flow rate. This is especially important if the wastewater treatment plant receives stormwater runoff. The UV system must also be designed for the minimum flow rate. The wastewater has a greater chance to warm up around the quartz sleeves and produce deposits on the sleeves at that time. There is also the possibility of exposing the quartz sleeves to the air. Because the lamps are warm, any compounds left on the sleeves will bake onto them. Water splashing onto these exposed sleeves will also result in UV absorbing deposits. When the flow returns to normal, a layer of water will pass through the UV unit without being properly disinfected, and the designer must be very careful with the selection of the flow control device for this situation. A counter-balanced flap gate has a normal flow range of 1:5, and they all leak at low flow rates. If the wastewater treatment plant experiences very low flow rates it is important to assess the gate’s ability to maintain the proper level of water. It may be better to use a weir or, if there is a wetwell, a recirculation pump could be used. It is possible to reach 1:10, but it is better to use two or more channels. A weir which keeps the lamps fully submerged at zero flow may be a much better solution in small wastewater treatment plants where flows often reach zero during the night. A closed vessel system should be installed in a “trap” in order to make sure the UV lamps are always submerged. T5-2.2.4 Iron Iron affects UV disinfection by absorbing UV light. It does this in three ways. If the concentration of dissolved iron is high enough in the wastewater the UV light will be adsorbed before it can kill any microorganisms. Iron will precipitate out on the quartz sleeves and absorb the UV light before it enters the wastewater. The third mechanism that is just being investigated is the adsorption of iron onto suspended solids, clumps of bacteria, and other organic compounds. This adsorbed iron will prevent UV light from piercing the suspended solids, etc. and killing the entrapped microbes. The UV industry has adopted a level of 0.3 ppm as the maximum allowable level of iron but there is no data to substantiate this limit. The level of iron should be measured in the wastewater. If it approaches 0.3 ppm, a pilot study should be instituted to determine whether the disinfection level can be attained and what the cleaning frequency should be. An in-place cleaning system can be incorporated in the UV design. If possible, a wastewater treatment plant should be designed with a non-iron method of removing phosphate. Examples of non-iron methods for removing phosphates are biological phosphorous removal and alum. T5-2.2.5 Hardness Calcium and magnesium salts, generally present in water as bicarbonates or sulfates, cause water hardness. One problem with hard water is the formation of mineral deposits. For example, when water containing calcium and bicarbonate ions is heated, insoluble calcium carbonate is formed: Ca 2+ + 2HCO 3 → CaCO 3 (precipitate) + CO 2 + H 2 O Disinfection December 1998 T5-11 This product coats any warm or hot surface. The optimum temperature of the low-pressure mercury lamp is 104° F. The medium-pressure lamp operates at 1,112° F. At the surface of the protective quartz sleeve there will be a molecular layer of warm water where calcium and magnesium salts will be precipitated. These precipitates will prevent the UV light from entering the wastewater. Unfortunately no rule exists for determining when hardness will become a problem. Table T5-1 shows the classification of water hardness. Waters that approach or are above 300 mg/L of hardness may require pilot testing of a UV system. This is especially important if very low or no-flow situations are experienced because the water will warm up around the quartz sleeves and produce excessive coating. Table T5-1. Classification of Water Hardness Hardness Range (mg/L as CaCO 3 ) Hardness Description 0 to 75 Soft 75 to 150 Moderately Hard 150 to 300 Hard More than 300 Very Hard T5-2.2.6 Wastewater Source It should be determined if the wastewater treatment plant receives periodic influxes of industrial wastewater that may contain UV absorbing organic compounds, iron, or hardness that may affect UV performance. These industries may be required to pretreat their wastewater. For example, a textile mill may periodically discharge low concentrations of dye into the municipal wastewater system. By the time this dye reaches the treatment plant it may be too diluted to detect without using a spectrophotometer. Dye can readily absorb ultraviolet light, thereby preventing UV disinfection. It is impossible to look at a wastewater and determine the UV transmission. The wastewater may also change during storm events, and it may be necessary to characterize the final effluent during storm events. T5-2.2.7 Disinfection Requirements The number of indicator organisms after disinfection will determine the size of the UV system and whether UV irradiation can attain the level of disinfection that is required. There is a minimum level of indicator organisms that is characteristic for each wastewater and increasing the UV dose has no appreciable effect beyond that minimum plateau. A laboratory or pilot scale study may be required if the wastewater has a high level of suspended solids or a low UV transmission because these affect the minimum level of the indicator organisms. T5-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design A primary effluent will also require a laboratory and pilot scale study, even if the limit for the fecal coliforms is increased from 200 to 1,000 or more per 100 milliliters. T5-2.2.8 Wastewater Effluent Characterization Data should be collected on the influent to the UV disinfection system to thoroughly characterize its quality. For existing facilities planning major treatment process modifications, influent characteristics may be estimated from facilities utilizing a similar treatment process. For existing facilities not planning major treatment process modifications, influent sampling and analysis should be conducted for an adequate period of time to address any seasonal variations. Some UV manufacturers may be willing to analyze samples. In addition, a UV pilot plant may be established to 1) determine UV disinfection effectiveness, 2) develop additional data along with the sampling and analysis for determining UV disinfection design criteria, and 3) assess operational and maintenance requirements for the UV disinfection system. Some UV manufacturers may also be willing to set up a pilot plant. As a minimum, data on the following characteristics of the influent to the UV disinfection system should be obtained: UV transmittance, suspended solids concentration, concentrations of indicator organisms, and dissolved metals. T5-2.2.9 Hydraulic Considerations The UV reactor basin should be designed to provide: ? Adequate submergence of the UV lamps. ? Plug flow characteristics. ? Minimum head loss. A. Submergence To ensure adequate UV irradiation, the maximum water surface elevation within the UV reactor basin must not be any greater than the manufacturer’s recommendations or 1 to 2 inches above the UV lamps, or there will be potential for inadequate disinfection due to short circuiting. The minimum water surface elevation within the UV reactor basin must not expose the UV lamps to air or there will be potential for burning the medium-pressure UV lamps or having compounds dry on the surface of the quartz sleeves of the low-pressure lamps. Because of the water surface limitations, the maximum fluctuation of water surface elevation should be limited to 2 inches over the range of flow conditions. The device typically used to maintain the water surface elevations is a counterbalanced flap gate or a weir. B. Plug Flow Plug flow is defined such that each element of fluid passing through the UV reactor resides for the same period of time within the array of UV lamps. UV systems need a maximum amount of motion perpendicular to the lamps with a minimum amount of forward mixing so that each microorganism is subjected to an average amount of UV light. For plug flow to occur, uniform velocity profiles are required at the entrance to the UV reactor basin. Typically, stilling plates (steel plates with holes) are installed upstream of the first UV bank or module. Disinfection December 1998 T5-13 In some instances, the designer may consider installing removable screens ahead of the stilling plates to capture floatables, algae streamers, and similar debris. C. Head Loss Head loss within the UV reactor basin occurs as fluid passes through each UV bank or module. As mentioned above, submergence and water surface elevation within the UV reactor basin are important. Therefore, the head loss must be accounted for when determining the submergence and water surface elevation. Head loss per UV bank or module can be estimated using the following equation: h L = 3.6 V 2 /2g Where: h L = head loss per UV bank or module (feet) V = approach velocity to UV bank or module (feet/second) g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 feet/second 2 ) Therefore, with an approach velocity of 1.5 feet/second, the estimated head loss is 0.126 feet (1.5 inches) per UV bank or module. Most UV manufacturers can provide actual head loss measurements for their UV equipment that have been performed by an independent laboratory. T5-2.3 Design Details This section describes design details for a UV disinfection system for wastewater. T5-2.3.1 Lamp Life The manufacturers of low-pressure mercury lamps rate their UV lamps for approximately 8,000 hours of continuous use, and these ratings should be evaluated for each system. Rated average useful life is defined by the UV disinfection industry as the elapsed operating time under essentially continuous operation for the output to decline to 50 to 55 percent of the output the lamp had at 100 hours. The UV system must be designed so that the minimum required dose or intensity is at the end of lamp life. Power and lamp replacement costs are the two main factors affecting UV maintenance expenditures. The UV lamps should only be replaced if no other cause for not meeting the disinfection requirements can be found. These other causes may be quartz sleeve fouling or changes in the UV transmission or suspended solids of the wastewater. Until the development of a reliable UV sensor, the operator should plot the number of indicator organisms versus time on a graph. If the number of indicator organisms shows a continual increase, then the quartz sleeves should be cleaned. If the population of indicator organisms continues to increase after cleaning the quartz sleeves and if there are no changes in the quality of the effluent, then the UV lamps should be replaced. T5-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T5-2.3.2 UV Lamps A. Low-Pressure Mercury Lamps The low-pressure UV radiating mercury lamp consists of a transparent tube with an electrode at each end. The tube may be pure transparent vitreous silica for maximum transmission of UV radiation, or may be a UV-transmitting glass. The filling is not mercury alone, but a mixture of mercury and an inert gas, usually argon, at a pressure of a few torr. The mercury is introduced as a single drop and almost all the mercury remains in liquid form during the operation of the lamp. The pressure of mercury is just the vapor pressure of mercury at the operating temperature of the lamp, which is in the region of 40 0 C (104 0 F). The vapor pressure of mercury at this temperature is 7 x 10 -3 torr, which is the optimum for the most efficient production of resonance radiation. The inert gas is at a much higher pressure than the mercury, but contributes almost nothing to the spectral output. Germicidal lamps operate electrically on the same principle as fluorescent lamps. UV light is emitted as a result of an electron flow through the ionized vapor between the electrodes of the lamps. The glass of the germicidal lamp is made of quartz which transmits UV light, and the glass of a fluorescent lamp is made of soft glass which absorbs all of the UV light at a wavelength of 254 nm. The bulb of the fluorescent lamp is coated with a phosphor compound that converts UV to visible light. A germicidal lamp produces about 86 percent of its total radiant intensity at a wavelength of 254 nm and about 1 percent at other germicidal wavelengths. Germicidal lamps with high quality quartz also produce UV light at a wavelength of 185 nm. This wavelength produces ozone that is corrosive to the UV equipment and the ends of the lamps. The UV lamps in UV equipment should not produce ozone. Figure T5-2 and Figure T5-3 depict the spectrums of a low- and medium-pressure mercury lamp. The medium-pressure mercury lamp produces most of its light in the visible range. Disinfection December 1998 T5-15 0 Relative intensity Wavelength (nm) 20 40 60 80 100 120 222.4 236 240 253.7 265 275.3 289.4 302 334.1 406 546.1 1014 1,367.3 Figure T5-2. Relative Intensity of the Wavelengths Produced by the Low-Pressure Mercury Lamp 0 Relative intensity Wavelength (nm) 20 40 60 80 100 120 222.4 236 240 253.7 265 275.3 289.4 302 334.1 406 546.1 1014 1,367.3 Figure T5-3. Relative Intensity of the Wavelengths Produced by the Medium-Pressure Mercury Lamp T5-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design B. Standard Low-Pressure Mercury Slimline Instant Start Lamp Until the introduction of a UV system with medium-pressure UV lamps and an in-place cleaning system, this had been the lamp of choice for 100 percent of the UV wastewater systems. The lamp and ballast produces 26.7 watts of UV-C from 100 watts of power at 0.18 watts of UV-C per centimeter of arc length using a conventional core-coil ballast. The lamp’s optimum operating surface temperature is 40 to 50° C (104 to 122° F). It is called “instant start” because a high voltage is applied to the cathodes to instantly strike an arc. According to the manufacturers, these lamps have a rated average useful life of 9,000 hours, at which time the UV-C output has dropped by 30 percent. Research with full-scale UV systems at wastewater treatment plants has confirmed that the UV lamps drop in output by almost 45 to 50 percent but the lamps are reliable up to 40 months. The power consumption of the lamps and ballasts has been dependent on the UV manufacturer since the introduction of the electronic ballast. C. Medium-Pressure Mercury Lamps This lamp is considered a high-pressure mercury lamp in Europe. These lamps operate at pressures of 10 2 - 10 4 torr. The main body of the quartz envelope operates at 1,112-1,472° F. The total radiation is 79 to 118 watts per centimeter of arc; of this, approximately 12 percent is UV-C. The wavelength spectrum in Figure T5-3 shows that the production of germicidal UV light is very inefficient. The medium-pressure lamps are not as efficient electrically as the low- pressure mercury lamp, but one lamp using 3,000 watts of electricity can replace up to 10 low-pressure lamps using 1,000 watts of electricity with a core/coil ballast. An automatic cleaning system has been incorporated in the design to prevent fouling of the quartz sleeves at the high temperatures of the lamps. T5-2.3.3 Ballasts/Power Supplies A. General Description The principal function of a ballast is to limit the current to a lamp. A ballast also supplies sufficient voltage to start and operate the lamp. A UV lamp is an arc-discharge device. The more current in the arc, the lower the resistance becomes. Without a ballast to limit current, the lamp would draw so much current that it would destroy itself. The most practical solution to limiting current is an inductive ballast. The simplest inductive ballast is a coil inserted into the circuit to limit current. This works satisfactorily for low-wattage lamps. For most lamps the line voltage must be increased to develop sufficient starting voltage. B. Core/Coil Ballast Construction A simple standard ballast is a core and coil assembly. The coil consists of copper or aluminum wire that is wound around the core. The core/coil assembly is impregnated with a nonconductor to provide electrical Disinfection December 1998 T5-17 insulation and aid in heat dissipation. Capacitors may be included in the ballast circuit to assist in providing sufficient voltage to start the lamp and/or correct the power factor. A thermal switch turns the power off above a maximum temperature of approximately 22° F. C. Electronic Ballast Electronic or solid-state ballasts are readily available now for standard fluorescent lights because of the need to conserve power. The UV lamp, G64T5L, which accounts for almost all UV sales, does not completely match any commercially available fluorescent lamp. The closest fluorescent lamp is the F96T12. A ballast and a lamp must be matched. Therefore various firms have developed or attempted to produce the proper ballast. A solid-state ballast has many advantages over the coil/core construction. The main advantages are its energy efficiency, weight, and low heat production. T5-2.3.4 Types of Ultraviolet Systems UV systems can be divided into two main categories depending upon whether they have low- or medium-pressure UV lamps: ? The low-pressure systems can be subdivided into a group that uses the most common UV lamp (G64T5L or G36T6L) and a group that uses low-pressure lamps with enhanced UV output over the G64T5L. These systems are available in pressurized and nonpressurized versions, but the only applicable one for wastewater is the open channel configuration. ? The systems using medium-pressure UV lamps are available in both open channel and closed chamber. A. Open Channel UV Systems Using Low-Pressure UV Lamps Open channel UV systems use low-pressure UV lamps that are immersed in the effluent in a channel so that the water flows parallel to them or they are vertical in a channel so that the water flows perpendicular to them. The UV system is not under pressure. Most UV systems for open channels are made up of three major building blocks. The first one is the lamp rack. The lamp rack is the waterproof frame that contains the UV lamps that are protected from the effluent by the quartz sleeves. Besides protecting the electrical integrity of the lamps, the quartz sleeves also maintain the UV lamps at the proper operating temperature. The second major building block is a group of lamp racks, called either banks (horizontal lamps) or modules (vertical lamps). Each bank (for horizontal systems) or module (for vertical systems) should have separate power feeds to ensure that each bank operates independent of one another. The third major building block is the power control center or the system control center. This can be adjacent or remote to the channel containing the UV banks. The most common center-line spacing of the lamps is 3 inch. Banks or modules are typically placed alone or in series within one or more gravity flow channels. Adequate space should be provided for installation of future banks or modules in case increased UV dosage is required or higher T5-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design flows are expected in the future. The entire area containing the UV lamps is called the UV reactor basin. Each channel requires isolation capabilities (slide gates) at the influent end, whereas isolation at the effluent end is typically not required due to a free discharge. By having a multi-channel installation, flexibility of control over the anticipated range of flows is provided. The water level within each channel is controlled to within 2 inches between the minimum and maximum flows via a counterbalanced flap gate or weir downstream of the last bank or module. A scum skimmer may be required upstream of the first bank or module to remove floating material that may foul the quartz sleeves. Either configuration requires the UV lamps to be cleaned. For smaller installations each UV rack can be removed from the channel and hand cleaned with an acid and/or detergent. For large installations, a dedicated cleaning tank complete with air scrubbing capabilities should be provided. A means (jib crane, monorail, or bridge crane) to remove the UV lamps from within the channel and transport them to the cleaning tank may be required. For larger installations, the UV bank is held inside a frame that can be lifted out of the channel and lowered into a cleaning tank. The cleaning tank will use air or some other means to mix the cleaning solution and scrub the quartz sleeves. A 10- to 20-percent solution of phosphoric acid is used because it can be stored for repeated cleanings. Citric acid is very rarely used because it will not keep in solution without promoting microbial growth and it is not a strong acid. When a low-pressure UV lamp is operating it must not be viewed without adequate protection. No parts of the human body should be exposed to ultraviolet light. The eyes and skin are especially susceptible. 1. Horizontal Horizontal banks typically consist of individual, 3-inch-wide racks stacked side by side. Any channel width not in increments of 3 inches may be accommodated by use of a filler piece. A spacing of 48 inches is required between banks in series. Each rack contains UV lamps arranged one on top of the other. Channel depths from two lamps to 16 lamps are normal. To replace a UV lamp, the active channel must be taken out of service prior to removing individual racks if only one bank in a channel is operating. Failure to do so increases the potential of inadequate disinfection due to short-circuiting. The most important consideration is to have a constant velocity over the cross section of the water entering the first UV bank. There is no hard and fast rule about the distance that is required to equalize the velocity over the cross section of the channel. 2. Vertical Vertical modules typically consist of 40 UV lamps (five rows of 8 UV lamps per row). Overall dimensions are usually 24 inches wide by 30 inches long. As with the horizontal configuration, any required channel width may be accommodated by use of a filler piece. A spacing of 12 inches is required between modules in series. Unlike the horizontal configuration, the active channel does not necessarily need to be removed from service prior to replacing UV lamps. A feature Disinfection December 1998 T5-19 available with the vertical configuration is air scrubbing within the active channel that may increase the interval between cleaning. The most important consideration is to have a constant velocity over the cross section of the water entering the first UV bank. There is no hard and fast rule about the distance that is required to equalize the velocity over the cross section of the channel. B. Open Channel UV Systems Using Medium-Pressure UV Lamps Medium-pressure mercury lamps have significantly higher UV intensities and a broader spectrum of output than the low-pressure UV lamps. Although this results in savings in capital costs and maintenance costs for larger systems, the power costs to operate a medium-pressure system may be higher. Medium-pressure UV lamps can range in size from 30 to 500 kilowatts. The typical sizes for treating wastewater are 2 to 5 kilowatts. Because of their very high intensity and potential harm to the human body, high-intensity lamps must be shielded to ensure that direct contact is always avoided. The open channel use of medium-pressure lamps is somewhat misleading in that the channel is not “open” in the same sense that the system using low-pressure UV lamps is open channel. This system incorporates a mechanism that allows the lamps to swing into and out of a confined flow path. When maintenance is necessary, the UV module is disconnected from the power source and it swings up out of the flow channel. The medium-pressure lamps are positioned within the UV channel in an array that provides a controlled water layer geometry that prevents short- circuiting. The quartz sleeves, which protect the UV lamps, are automatically cleaned using a self-cleaning wiper mechanism. The complete cleaning cycle takes place with the UV modules in their normal operating position without interrupting the normal operation. Cleaning cycles are on an adjustable timer or linked with UV light sensors. The medium-pressure UV lamps must be submerged at all times because they operate at 600 to 800 0 C (1,112 to 1,472 0 F). The equipment must have safety devices that turn the UV lamps off in the event of a loss of flow or if the water drops below the top row of lamps. C. Closed Chamber System Using Medium-Pressure UV Lamps The closed channel/chamber or pressurized systems use the same medium- pressure lamps as described in the open channel systems. These systems use lamps from 2 to 5 kilowatts. The closed channel systems are well suited for belowground installations where the effluent is under pressure and must be confined in a closed vessel. The medium-pressure UV lamps must be submerged at all times because they operate at 600 to 800 0 C (1,112 to 1,472 0 F). The equipment must have safety devices that turn the UV lamps off in the event of loss of flow. The closed channel/chamber module generally includes one or two sets of UV lamps. The orientation of the lamps can be either parallel or perpendicular to the flow. The number of modules is a function of the peak flow condition. Access to the lamps and wiper mechanism is accomplished by stopping the flow to the module and removing the cover plate that seals T5-20 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design the lamp mechanism. The closed chamber should be provided with access hatches to allow full accessibility to the lamps and wiper mechanism without removing the sealed cover plate. The closed chamber/channel systems also have automatic wiper mechanisms but do not incorporate a chemical cleaning mechanism, thus a separate acid cleaning system should be included. Occasionally floating material may find its way into the UV equipment. This floating material, such as plastics or scum, may foul the quartz sleeves or jam the wiper. Consequently, a baffle or strainer should be provided to trap or capture any floating material that may be present. T5-2.3.5 Sizing Criteria Sizing UV disinfection systems is conservative in that it is assumed that there will be a simultaneous occurrence of the worst case conditions for the input variables. Input variables required include maximum, minimum, and average flow; minimum UV transmission; maximum SS concentration; maximum indicator organism log reduction, maximum quartz sleeve fouling; minimum UV lamp output; and allowances for photoreactivation if this is a requirement. The US EPA has developed a sizing program described in its publication, “Design Manual—Municipal Wastewater Disinfection” (1986). HydroQual of Mawah, New Jersey has also developed a computer program based on the EPA manual called UVDIS3.1, available from the authors or most UV companies. The Water Environment Research Foundation has also developed a sizing method called “Comparison of UV Irradiation to Chlorination: Guidance for Achieving Optimal UV Performance.” These books describe in very good detail how to size a UV system for a wastewater treatment plant. These two sizing methods use radically different approaches and each must be carefully used. These models can be used along with the collimated beam or pilot studies to check the sizing information from the UV manufacturer. Pilot testing is always preferable to the collimated beam testing because it looks at the hydraulics of the potential UV system and coating of the quartz sleeves. A chemical/mechanical wiper may not work under all circumstances. “UV Disinfection Technology Assessment, Contract 68-08-0023,” a study for the US EPA, showed that the average wastewater treatment plant uses one low-pressure UV lamp (G64T5L) to treat 18.5 US gpm. This can be used as a rule of thumb for an average effluent and a disinfection criterion of 200 fecal coliforms per 100 mL. T5-2.3.6 Electrical Since disinfection is of utmost importance, the UV disinfection system must operate during periods of power outages by using dual power feeds or placing it on essential circuitry powered by an emergency generator. Each low- pressure UV lamp requires approximately 100 watts of incoming power; each medium-pressure UV lamp requires approximately 3,000 to 5,000 watts of incoming power. Care should be taken when powering the UV disinfection system from the same motor control center (MCC) that powers variable frequency drives (VFDs). UV disinfection systems produce harmonics that may require mitigation (active harmonic filters for the VFDs). Disinfection December 1998 T5-21 T5-2.4 Safety Most of the related safety issues revolve around electrical hazards or exposure to UV irradiation when the lamps are not submerged. Equipment should be provided with safety interlocks that shut down the UV banks or modules if moved out of their position or the water level drops below the top row of lamps in a horizontal system or exposes the top portion of the UV lamps in a vertical system. The vertical system may include light shields that allow a small portion of the tops of the lamps to be exposed to air without being a hazard. Ground fault interruption circuitry should be provided. Whenever low- pressure UV lamps are to be handled, personnel should be equipped with face safety shields rated to absorb light with wavelengths ranging from 200 to 400 manometers (nm) and all exposed skin should be covered. Safety shields for medium-pressure UV lamps should be rated to absorb light with wavelengths ranging from 100 to 900 nm and all exposed skin should be covered. An arc welder’s mask should be used with medium- pressure UV lamps because the intensity of the light will bleach the eyes. Without the safety shields, viewing UV irradiation can cause the same effects as “welder’s flash” and in the long term can cause cancer. If possible no UV lamp should be burned in air without special precautions. T5-3 Ozonation T5-3.1 General Ozonation is not as commonly used as UV and chlorination to disinfect wastewater. Ozone is one of the strongest oxidizing agents, weaker than only fluorine, and is a very effective disinfectant. The main components of an ozone disinfection system are gas pretreatment (for air and recycle-oxygen feed systems), ozone generation, ozone dissolution, and off-gas destruction. The main advantages of ozonation over chlorination include its capability to increase the dissolved oxygen of the effluent and the absence or lack of potentially carcinogenic disinfection byproducts. Also, ozone is capable of destroying a wide spectrum of viruses and bacteria and is not as susceptible to the effects of ammonia and pH as chlorine. Problems associated with transportation of toxic chemicals are eliminated since ozone is normally generated on-site. The main disadvantages of ozonation compared to chlorination are higher capital costs and greater operational complexity. Ozone demand is high for effluent with a high iron content; if the treatment plant influent has a large industrial contribution, ozone disinfection is less cost effective. T5-3.2 Application Generally, ozone disinfection is applied when a high quality effluent is needed, the residual environmental effects of chlorine are undesirable, and/or it is desirable to raise the dissolved oxygen of the effluent prior to discharge from the plant. Ozone disinfection is most effective when applied to filtered and/or nitrified secondary effluent. It is unfavorable for plants with large industrial inputs because the high secondary effluent COD would result in high ozone dosage requirements. Ozonation also becomes less cost T5-22 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design effective for wastewater that is not fully nitrified and contains a significant concentration of nitrite. T5-3.3 Ozone Generation Equipment Ozone is generated by passing a particle-free gas containing dry oxygen through an electrical discharge, commonly referred to as a corona or silent discharge. The components of an ozone generation system include alternating-current electrical power supply, electrodes, dielectric material, and a heat removal mechanism. The three types of generators are the plate-type, the vertical tube-type, and the horizontal tube-type. The dielectric is either glass or ceramic, while ceramic is the more energy-efficient material (Coste and Fiessinger, 1986). Because 85 to 95 percent of the electrical energy supplied to the ozone generator is converted into heat, removal of the heat is required (US EPA, 1986). Heat removal minimizes the temperature of the ozonized gas, which optimizes ozone production (the half-life of ozone decreases as the temperature increases) and increases the life expectancy of the dielectric. Cooling is achieved with water, oil, or freon plus water or air. The amount of ozone produced is affected by the physical characteristics of the equipment (including applied voltage, frequency, and number of dielectrics), the moisture and particle content of the feed gas, the temperature of the ozonized gas, and the feed gas oxygen content. Excessive moisture in the feed gas results in reduced ozone production rate and increased equipment maintenance requirements due to contamination of the dielectrics and corrosion of metal surfaces. Moisture content, expressed in terms of the dew point temperature, should be maintained such that the dew point temperature does not exceed -768° F (US EPA, 1986). Feed-gas to an ozone generator may be air or high-purity oxygen. In addition, oxygen recycle may be incorporated in an oxygen-feed system. T5-3.3.1 Air Feed An air-feed system is most commonly used in small treatment plants where oxygen is not available. The air must be pretreated to remove moisture, particulates, and oil, if present. There are three types of gas treatment systems: low or nominal pressure, medium pressure, and high pressure. The nominal- pressure system is a proprietary process used in conjunction with the Kerag ozone generator and aspirating turbine mixer ozone contactor (US EPA, 1986). Components of the treatment system include filters, compressors/blowers/fans, aftercoolers, and desiccant dryers. The typical design ozone concentration for an air-feed generator is about 1.5 percent by weight. The average specific energy consumption is 8 kWh/lb (US EPA, 1986). T5-3.3.2 Oxygen Feed Once-through oxygen-feed systems are applied in large treatment plants where oxygen-activated sludge is used for secondary treatment. High-purity oxygen contains negligible levels of oil and moisture, so that only particulate removal may be required. The ozone generation equipment and power requirement are about 50 percent lower for an oxygen-feed system than for an air-feed system. The unused oxygen from the ozone disinfection system is used in the biological treatment process. Disinfection December 1998 T5-23 For treatment plants with a large ozone requirement for disinfection but no oxygen-activated sludge treatment, oxygen recycle may be cost effective. In this case, the recycled oxygen, routed from the off-gas destruction units, must be pretreated to remove moisture and particulates before entering the ozone generators. For an oxygen-feed generator, the typical design for oxygen concentration is 3 percent by weight, with an average specific energy consumption of about 4 kWh/lb, which is half of that for an air-feed system (US EPA, 1986). T5-3.4 Design Considerations Design of an ozone disinfection process involves sizing the ozone generation equipment and contact basins to meet the disinfection requirements over the anticipated range of operating conditions. The design requirements for ozonation systems should be based on pilot testing or similar full-scale installations. As a minimum, the following design factors should be considered. T5-3.4.1 Ozone Dosage Ozone dosage is described as either the applied dosage or transferred dosage, the two being related by the ozone transfer efficiency. The applied ozone dosage is a function of the ozone production rate and the wastewater flow rate. The transferred dosage requirement is determined by the applicable effluent standard and the COD content of the wastewater. For filtered secondary effluent, about 12 to 15 mg/L of transferred ozone dosage is typically used to meet an effluent fecal coliform standard of 200 per 100 ml, while for filtered nitrified secondary effluent, the dosage used ranges from 3 to 5 mg/L (WEF Manual of Practice No. 8, 1991). If the wastewater COD concentration is high, as may be the case if the plant influent has a large industrial input, greater dosages would be required. To meet a fecal coliform standard of 2.2 per 100 ml, ozone dosages in the range of 35 to 40 mg/L and 15 to 20 mg/L are used for filtered secondary effluent and filtered nitrified secondary effluent, respectively (WEF Manual of Practice No. 8, 1991). Ozone transfer efficiency is influenced by the physical characteristics of the contactor and the quality of the wastewater. In general, the transfer efficiency increases as the wastewater quality deteriorates and decreases as the applied ozone dosage increases. The transfer efficiency is also related to the bubble size (for bubble diffuser contactor), ozone gas to wastewater liquid (G/L) ratio, and diffuser depth. The optimal bubble size is between 2 and 3 millimeters in diameter. The transfer efficiency decreases as the G/L ratio increases and as the depth of the diffusers decreases. Typical diffuser depth ranges from 16 to 20 feet. About 80 to 95 percent efficiency can be achieved in contactors with diffusers at a depth in this range when treating a high quality secondary effluent at an applied ozone dosage equal to or less than 6 mg/L (US EPA, 1986). Deep diffusers, however, will result in higher capital costs. T5-3.4.2 Capacity Sizing of the ozone generation equipment and contact basins is determined by the wastewater flow rates and ozone dosage requirement. The ozone disinfection system design flow rate is typically two to three times the average daily flow (US EPA, 1986). The ozone generation capacity must be provided to achieve the desirable ozone dosage at the peak design flow rate. T5-24 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T5-3.4.3 Mixing and Diffusion Effective mixing of the ozonized gas and wastewater is needed in the ozone contactor to achieve efficient ozone transfer. Mixing allows the ozone residuals to come into contact with the microorganisms. Back mixing should be prevented as it may increase the potential for short-circuiting. To prevent back mixing, for example, the multiple stages of a bubble diffuser contactor should be positively isolated from each other. The contactor should have a minimum of three stages. T5-3.4.4 Contact Period The contact time required to achieve a specified effluent standard depends on the wastewater quality and applied ozone dosages. Contact times ranging from 2 to 10 minutes have been reported (US EPA, 1986). T5-3.4.5 Contact Chambers The various types of contactors used for ozone disinfection include positive pressure injectors (Otto contactor), packed columns, spray towers, turbine mixers, and bubble diffusers. Spray towers are generally not used due to poor transfer efficiency. Bubble diffusers, the most common type of contactor, generally allow more efficient ozone transfer than positive pressure injectors and packed columns. Bubble diffuser contactors are commonly designed with the countercurrent configuration, in which the wastewater flows through multiple chambers in series with the gas bubbles flowing in the opposite direction. The turbine mixer contactor, usually used in conjunction with the nominal pressure ozone generation system, can achieve similar transfer efficiency and disinfection performance as the bubble diffuser contactor. The contactor should be designed to have sufficient headspace to minimize the amount of froth, float, or foam carried out of the contactor into the off-gas treatment system. T5-3.4.6 Ozone Off-Gas Destruction Because ozone is a toxic gas, excess ozone must be removed from the contact basin off-gas stream prior to venting, recycle, or reuse of the off-gas. Off-gas ozone disposal could be accomplished through reinjection, chemical reduction, dilution, thermal destruction, catalytic destruction, and activated carbon adsorption. Reinjection involves the use of two contact basins in series, with the introduction of fresh ozone gas in the downstream basin and recycle of the ozone off-gas to the upstream basin. The chemical reduction method utilizes an ozone-specific reducing agent to remove ozone in a scrubber. Dilution involves mixing of the off-gas with large volumes of clean air and discharging the gas mixture from a stack at a rate designed to maximize dispersion. Reinjection, chemical reduction, and dilution are generally not used as the sole disposal method since the excess ozone is not effectively removed and additional treatment may be required. Thermal destruction involves heating the off-gas stream to a high temperature and maintaining this temperature for a period of time. This method is typically not used with an oxygen-feed system since the high oxygen concentration increases the potential for uncontrollable fires. About 50 to 100 percent destruction has been reported with temperatures in the range of 480 to 6,608° F for a period of 1 to 3 seconds (US EPA, 1986). Because of the high Disinfection December 1998 T5-25 temperature used, heat recovery by preheating the off-gas from the contact basin with the treated off-gas is often provided. The equipment and piping should be insulated to minimize heat loss. Foam sprays and de-misters should be provided upstream of the ozone destruction unit to reduce foam accumulation on the heating elements. The most common types of catalysts used in catalytic destruction of ozone are metals and metal oxides. Metal catalysts, such as platinum and palladium, can operate at temperatures as low as 858° F, while a metal oxide catalyst operates in the range of 120 to 1,608° F (US EPA, 1986). The advantage of catalytic destruction is the low operating temperature, while the disadvantages include the potential for poisoning by hydrogen sulfide and other organic sulfides, moisture condensation on the catalyst, and the high cost of catalyst replacement. Adsorption and decomposition of ozone by granular activated carbon may also be used. This method may be associated with a high installation cost for the stainless-steel-activated carbon contactors and a high operating cost to pump the off-gas through the carbon bed, as well as for the periodic replacement of the carbon. T5-3.4.7 Sampling, Instrumentation, and Control For the ozone generation system, parameters which should be monitored to maintain system performance include the inlet feed-gas flow rate, inlet feed- gas temperature, inlet feed-gas dew point, inlet pressure, discharge ozone concentration, and discharge ozonized gas temperature. Alarms and shutdown devices should be provided and connected to specified temperature and dew- point set points. For the off-gas ozone destruction units, instrumentation should be provided to monitor and control the inlet and outlet gas temperature, the inlet gas flow rate, and the inlet and outlet ozone concentration. Pressure- vacuum relief valves should be provided on the contact basin to protect the basin from structural damage due to excessive pressure or vacuum. Disinfection process control could be either manual operation with manual or automatic sampling or automatic closed loop control. The control variable could be the applied ozone dosage, the wastewater ozone residual, or the off- gas ozone concentration. Treated effluent characteristics such as turbidity and color may also be used. The applied voltage, frequency, and/or feed-gas flow rate for ozone generation is adjusted to maintain the desirable ozone dosage or ozone concentration in the wastewater or off-gas. Process control based on the applied ozone dosage is relatively simple, but unresponsive to water quality changes. Control based on the wastewater ozone residual may be unreliable because of the difficulty in maintaining accurate calibration of the dissolved ozone analyzer as the liquid characteristics change. Control based on the off- gas ozone concentration is becoming the mode of choice, due to the availability of more well proven instrumentation and the method’s effectiveness to respond to changes in water quality and wastewater flow rate. Wastewater entering and exiting the ozone contactor should be regularly tested for total or fecal coliform count in order to determine disinfection process effectiveness. Long-term disinfection performance data can be used to develop a dose-response relationship between transferred ozone dosage and the level of coliform reduction. T5-26 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T5-3.5 Design Details This section describes design details for an ozone disinfection process. T5-3.5.1 Housing The selection of the materials of construction for the housing, piping, and connections in an ozonation system is important, as ozone is a strong oxidizing agent. All underwater metal parts in the ozone contact chambers should be made from stainless steel (ASCE/AWWA, 1990). The chambers should be covered and sealed as much as possible and have the capability to operate under negative pressure. It may be desirable to isolate gas pressurization equipment in specially treated rooms to reduce noise levels. T5-3.5.2 Piping and Connections Dry ozonated gas piping should be made of flanged or screwed 304 and 316 stainless steel or welded 304L and 316L stainless steel (Robson, 1986). Wet ozonated gas piping should be made of 316 and 316L stainless steel. All valves should have stainless steel face and body. Gaskets should be made of Viton, Teflon, or Hypalon in compression. The use of PVC, unplasticized PVC, or rubber for the piping system is not recommended. T5-3.5.3 Electrical Supply Electrical power supply for ozone generation can be categorized as low or line frequency (50 or 60 Hz), medium frequency (600 Hz), or high frequency (2,000 Hz) (Robson, 1986). The low-frequency, variable-voltage system is most commonly applied in ozone generation. A fixed voltage, variable frequency system is sometimes also used by certain manufacturers. The ozonation system must operate during periods of power outages using dual power feeds or placing it on essential circuitry powered by an emergency generator. T5-3.5.4 Standby Equipment and Spare Parts Standby ozonation capabilities should be provided which will ensure adequate disinfection with any unit out of operation for maintenance or repairs. An adequate inventory of parts subject to wear and breakage, such as the dielectric in the ozone generators, should be maintained at all times. T5-3.6 Safety The recommended ambient ozone exposure limit, as proposed by OSHA, is a time-weighted average of 0.2 mg/cu m (0.1 ppm by volume) for 8 hours or more per workday, with a 10-minute ceiling level of 0.6 mg/cu m (0.3 ppm by volume) (US EPA, 1986). Ambient ozone monitors should be installed to measure ozone concentrations at potential ozone-contaminated locations within the facility. An effective ventilation system should be provided. Disinfection December 1998 T5-27 T5-4 Chlorination T5-4.1 General Chlorine is used in various ways for odor control. See Chapter G2 for design requirements for odor control. Dechlorination of chlorinated effluent should be provided when water quality requirements dictate the need. Capability to add dechlorination systems should be considered in all new treatment plants that will use chlorine for disinfection. The design of all disinfection facilities utilizing chlorine as the disinfectant agent should ensure that the dechlorination requirements are met. Two problems are associated with chlorination as disinfection: effluent toxicity (chlorine residual) and safety. A dechlorination facility would address the toxicity issue and a containment and scrubbing facility would address the safety issue. The dechlorination and containment and scrubbing facilities increase the cost of chlorine-based disinfection. T5-4.1.1 Forms of Chlorine Dry chlorine is defined as elemental chlorine existing in the liquid or gaseous phase, containing less than 150 mg/L water. Unless otherwise stated, the word “chlorine” wherever used in this section refers to dry chlorine. Liquid chlorine in the form of sodium hypochlorite or other types is discussed in T5-5. T5-4.1.2 Chlorine Feed Equipment Chlorinators are used to convert the gaseous chlorine from a positive pressure to a vacuum and to regulate or meter the flow rate of the gas. The principal components of a conventional chlorinator are as follows: ? Inlet chlorine pressure-reducing valve. ? Indicating meter such as a rotameter. ? Chlorine metering orifice, changeable for various ranges of flow. ? Manual feed rate adjuster. ? Vacuum differential-regulating valve. A few other variations also exist, such as sonic flow and remote vacuum chlorinators. Conventional vacuum-type chlorinators are most commonly utilized for dry chlorine. Liquid chlorine evaporators should be considered where manifolding multiple one-ton containers would otherwise be required to evaporate sufficient chlorine. T5-4.1.3 Chlorine Supply Cylinders should be considered where the average daily chlorine use is 150 pounds or less. Cylinders are available in 100- or 150-pound sizes. One-ton containers of chlorine should be considered where the average daily chlorine consumption is more than 150 pounds. Large-volume shipments of chlorine should be considered where the average daily chlorine consumption is more than two tons. Large volumes of chlorine can be secured by tank truck, rail car, or barge. T5-28 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T5-4.1.4 Chlorine Gas Withdrawal Rates The maximum withdrawal rate for 100 or 150-pound cylinders should be limited to 40 pounds per day per cylinder. The maximum withdrawal rate for one-ton containers should be limited to 400 pounds per day per cylinder. T5-4.2 Design Considerations Effective disinfection using chlorine depends upon properly sized chemical handling equipment, a reliable dosage control system, and adequate mixing and contact time with the effluent. In addition, many design considerations relate to safety; see T5-4.4. T5-4.2.1 General Chlorination system design should consider the following design factors: ? Contact time. ? Level of disinfection required. ? Volume of wastewater being treated. ? Concentration and type of residual. ? Mixing with the effluent. ? pH. ? Suspended solids. ? Industrial wastes. ? Temperature. ? Concentration of organisms. ? Type and age of organisms. ? Ammonia and nitrogen compounds concentration. Design of facilities for effluent disinfection must consider the above factors such that reliable disinfection is achieved at all times. Modifications to disinfection system designs and criteria may be considered by Ecology on a case-by-case basis. Some examples include the following: ? Applying chlorine in staged dosing, such as more than one injection point. ? Using more than one type of disinfection method, such as UV for base flows with chlorine for peaks. ? Using the effluent outfall pipe as a contact chamber. ? Batching disinfection, such as using the chlorine contact chamber as a mixed tank operated as fill-and-draw. ? Waiving redundant tankage if plant effluent flow can be stopped, such as by using lagoon systems. ? Using storage basins for intermittent or seasonal discharge of effluent. T5-4.2.2 Capacity Required chlorinator capacity will vary depending on the use and point of application of the chlorine. Chlorine dosage should be established for each Disinfection December 1998 T5-29 individual situation, with those variables affecting the chlorine reaction taken into consideration. For normal wastewater at peak design flow rates, the dosing capacity listed in Table T5-2 may be used as a guide. Table T5-2. Chlorine Dosing Capacity Guidelines Type of Treatment Dosage range, mg/L Prechlorination for odor control 1.5 to 10 Primary effluent 5 to 10 Trickling filter effluent 3 to 10 Activated sludge effluent 2 to 8 Sand filter effluent 1 to 5 The design should provide adequate flexibility in the chlorination equipment and control system to allow controlled chlorination doses at both minimum and peak demands. The system should be easily expandable to increase capacity over the entire life of the treatment plant. Special consideration should be given to the operation to ensure the chlorination system is readily operable at minimum flows and low chlorine demand without overchlorination of the effluent. Several sizes of rotameters must be supplied if necessary to ensure proper dosage throughout the life of the plant. Other inplant uses of chlorine such as odor control, spray water disinfection, sludge bulking control, and scum disinfection should be added to the chlorine use and demand calculations if they are also served by the system. T5-4.2.3 Reliability For reliability it is necessary to have redundant chlorine feed equipment (such as a minimum of two chlorinators and two evaporators). Generally the chlorine demands should be divided into disinfection and nondisinfection uses, and separate equipment provided for each group. Appropriate piping and controls shall be provided so that the equipment used for nondisinfection purposes may also serve as backup for the disinfection equipment. Five criteria must be met to ensure reliable chlorine supply at all times: (1) Adequate reserve supply to meet demands and delays in delivery. (2) Scales to accurately weigh chlorine inventory and monitor use rate. (3) Manifolded system to handle high demands and to utilize backup equipment. (4) Automatic switchover from empty containers to full ones. (5) Alarms to alert operators of an imminent loss of supply. Additional reliability criteria relating to other parts of the chlorine system include: (1) Standby power to keep the evaporators, pumps, and controls functioning normally. (2) Standby equipment available to be put into service promptly. (3) Spare parts on hand for repairs. T5-30 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design (4) Water supply for injector(s). (5) Backup residual analyzer. (6) A means of operating the system manually if necessary. T5-4.2.4 Mixing All chlorination systems shall include a way to thoroughly mix the chlorine solution with the effluent water stream. Mixing will significantly influence coliform destruction and achieve viral and pathogen kills. Mixing will also help minimize chlorine use. The mixing may be accomplished in almost any type of hydraulic vessel (such as open channel, closed pipe, tank, or baffled chamber). The mixing of chlorine (in water solution) and wastewater effluent can be accomplished by hydraulic or mechanical mixing. Hydraulic mixing should be done according to the following criteria: A. Pipe Flow ? A Reynolds number of greater than or equal to 1.9 x 10 4 is required. Hydraulic jumps for baffles may be used to create turbulence. ? A diffuser with orifice velocities of 15 ft/sec (minimum) to 26 ft/sec at peak flows must be used. ? The diffuser must be set as deep as possible and at least two feet below minimum wastewater level at low flows. ? Turbulent flow after mixing must be prevented in order to avoid chlorine volatilization. B. Open Channel Flow A hydraulic jump with a minimum Froude number of 4.5 is necessary to provide adequate hydraulic mixing. The point of chlorine injection should be just upstream of the hydraulic jump because the location of the jump itself will change with variations in flow rate. A Parshall flume is not a satisfactory location for hydraulic chlorine mixing. C. Mechanical Mixing Mechanical mixing should be done according to the following criteria: ? A mixer-reactor tank is necessary that provides 0.1 to 0.3 minutes contact time. ? Inject chlorine just upstream from the mixer with a diffuser. ? Mixer speed should be a minimum speed of 50 revolutions per minute (rpm). ? The diffuser should be set at least 2 feet below the minimum water flow level at low flow rate. ? Turbulent flow after complete chlorine mixing must be prevented in order to avoid chlorine stripping. Disinfection December 1998 T5-31 D. Mixing Reactor The mixing reactor shall be a completely mixed tank(s) with hydraulic retention and mixing energy values as shown in Table T5-3. Table T5-3. Mixing Energy Values Retention Time, sec. Mixing Energy, G (Mechanical) 1 3,000 2 2,500 3 2,000 4 1,500 Design features should be provided as follows: ? All of the effluent flow shall pass through the mixing reactor. ? The mixing energy may vary as flow rate (hydraulic retention time) varies in accordance with Table T5-3. The maximum time in the mixing reactor should be 4 seconds at average annual flow rate. ? A combination of mixing devices may be employed. ? The mixing reactor tank shall contain inlet and outlet baffles to prevent short-circuiting and high axial velocities. ? Tank geometry shall be as near to 1:1:1 (L:W:D) as possible. ? If a closed pipe is used as a mixing reactor, a sampling point (manhole) shall be provided prior to the flow entering the chamber. ? Multiple mixing reactor tanks in parallel may be used if necessary to minimize hydraulic head losses, accommodate specific mechanical mixing equipment, or to allow for shutdown/maintenance of a unit. ? Chlorine solution shall be introduced with a diffuser or by means of a flash mixer. T5-4.2.5 Contact Period Contact chambers shall be sized to provide a minimum of 1-hour detention at average daily design flow or 20 minutes detention at peak daily design flow, whichever is greater. Contact chambers should be designed so detention times are less than 2 hours for initial flows. The size of the contact chamber may be determined by any of the following four methods: (1) If breakpoint chlorination will be practiced, the contact chamber shall be sized to provide a minimum of 15 minutes of detention time at peak design flow and at least 60 minutes at average design flow, whichever is more stringent. T5-32 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design (2) If breakpoint chlorination is not practiced, the contact chamber shall be sized to provide a minimum combined contact time and chlorine dose. (3) The contact chamber shall be designed to minimize short-circuiting and to maximize plug flow characteristics. (4) Other design approaches to be considered on a case-by-case basis include: ? Field testing of existing or similar contact chambers to demonstrate the hydraulic characteristics. This may include tracer studies. ? Computer modeling using appropriate analytical methods and supported by calibration data. T5-4.2.6 Contact Chambers Contact chambers should be designed to minimize short-circuiting and back mixing of the chlorinated water to such an extent that plug flow is approached. It is recommended that baffles be constructed parallel to the longitudinal axis of the chamber with a minimum length-to-width ratio of 40:1. For a serpentine baffled tank, the total length of the channel created by the baffles should be at least 40 times the distance between the baffles. Side water depths should be between 6 and 15 feet. Shallow channels should not be used. Velocities at minimum flow should be at least 0.2 fps. Alternate baffle arrangements will be considered, based on tracer tests indicating a modal value greater than 0.6. The modal time occurs at the highest point of the tracer residence time distribution curve. The modal value is the number derived when the modal time is divided by the theoretical time. Provision shall be made for removal of floating and settleable solids from chlorine contact tanks or basins without discharging inadequately disinfected effluent. To accomplish continuous disinfection, the chlorine contact tank should be designed with duplicate compartments to permit draining and cleaning of individual compartments. A sump or drain within each compartment, going to a plant inlet, should be provided for dewatering, sludge removal, and maintenance. Flushing hydrants should be located nearby for washdown use. Tank drains shall not discharge into the effluent disposal pipeline. A scum skimmer should be provided to prevent the discharge of floating material. Unless otherwise approved by Ecology, all wastewater disinfection shall be accomplished with two reactor/contactor tanks in series. The first tank shall be designed to introduce the chlorine into the effluent stream, mix it thoroughly, and accomplish the initial chlorine demand reactions. The second tank shall be a plug-flow-type contact chamber in which the disinfectant accomplishes germicidal action. The designs for these tanks must be conservative enough to ensure that adequate disinfection is achieved during most normal fluctuations in the plant processes without relying on operator intervention or exceptionally high chlorine doses. Seasonal process variations or other short-term extreme conditions (e.g., peak wet weather flow, plant upsets, or industrial wastes) must be manageable by simple operator adjustments to the system. Disinfection December 1998 T5-33 A readily accessible sampling point shall be provided at the outlet end of the contact chamber. If automated feed dosage controls are used, chlorine residual monitoring points shall be provided at other appropriate locations in the tank. In some instances, the effluent line may be included as part of the chlorine contact tankage provided that the conditions set forth above are met. The effluent pipe may be used to provide contact time during extraordinarily high peak flows. In addition, pipe design and construction must preclude infiltration and exfiltration and must be a full-pipe flow under all conditions. T5-4.2.7 Dechlorination The design of dechlorination facilities should be coordinated with the chlorination facilities so that thorough effluent disinfection is accomplished prior to adding sulfur dioxide, a dechlorinating agent. See T5-6 for requirements for dechlorination. T5-4.2.8 Sampling, Instrumentation, and Control ? An automated dosage control system shall be used for all treatment facilities. The controls should adjust the chlorine dosage rate within an appropriate lag time to accommodate fluctuations in effluent chlorine demand and residual due to changes in flow and water characteristics. This may be accomplished using either closed-loop or feedback control methods. These facilities should also utilize continuous chlorine residual monitoring. ? All sample lines should be designed so that they can be easily purged of sediments, attached growths, and other debris. ? Alarms and monitoring equipment are required to promptly alert the operator in the event of any malfunction, hazardous situation, or inadequately disinfected effluent relating to the chlorine supply, metering equipment, leaks, or other problems. ? Design of instrumentation and control equipment should allow operation at initial and design flows. ? Technology-based maximum chlorine levels should not be exceeded if more stringent water-quality-based standards are not applicable. ? Technology-based standards for total residual chlorine in the effluent are 0.5 mg/l average monthly value and 0.75 mg/l weekly average value. ? Monitoring equipment should be capable of measuring total residual chlorine within the necessary range required by permit limits. T5-4.2.9 Residual Chlorine Testing Equipment should be provided for automatically measuring chlorine residual. The ability to easily take grab samples is required. Where the effluent discharge occurs in environmentally sensitive areas, the installation of facilities for continuous automatic chlorine residual analysis and recording devices shall be required. Where dechlorination is used, additional testing requirements may apply as defined in T5-6. T5-34 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T5-4.3 Design Details Effective disinfection using chlorine depends on properly sized chemical handling equipment, a reliable dosage control system, and adequate mixing and contact time with the effluent. In addition, there are many design considerations that relate to safety. See T5-4.4. T5-4.3.1 Housing (Enclosures) A. General An enclosed structure should be provided for the chlorination equipment. Chlorine cylinders or ton-container storage areas should be shaded from direct sunlight. Any building to house chlorine equipment or containers should be designed and constructed to protect all elements of the chlorine system from fire hazards. If flammable materials are stored or processed in the same building with chlorination equipment, a firewall should be erected to separate the two areas. If gas chlorination equipment and chlorine cylinders or containers are to be located in a building used for other purposes, a gas-tight partition should separate this room from any other portion of the building. Doors to this room should open only to the outside of the building, shall be at or above ground, and should permit easy access to all equipment. Storage areas should be separated from the feed area. At least two means of exiting should be provided from each separate room or building in which chlorine is stored, handled, or used. All exit doors should open outward with panic hardware. A clear glass, gas-tight window should be installed in an exterior door or interior wall of the chlorinator room to permit the chlorinator unit to be viewed without entering the room. Adequate space must be provided for easy access to all equipment for maintenance and repair. The minimum acceptable clearance around equipment is 2.5 feet, except for equipment designed for wall or cylinder mounting. B. Heat Chlorinator rooms should have a means of heating and controlling the room air temperature above a minimum of 55° F. A temperature of 65° F is recommended. The room housing chlorine cylinders or containers in use should be maintained at a temperature less than the chlorinator room, but in no case less than 55° F unless evaporators are used and liquid chlorine is withdrawn from the containers. All rooms containing chlorine shall be protected from excess heat. C. Ventilation All chlorine feed rooms and rooms where chlorine is stored should be force-ventilated, providing one air change per minute. However, lesser ventilation rates are allowed by the UFC. Exceptions to this rule include “package” buildings with less than 16 square feet of floor space, in which an entire side opens as a door, the operator does not actually step into the building, and sufficient cross-ventilation is provided by a window. The Disinfection December 1998 T5-35 entrance to the air exhaust duct from the room should be near the floor and the point of discharge should be located so as not to contaminate the air inlet to any building or inhabited areas. The air inlet should be located to provide cross-ventilation by air at a temperature that will not adversely affect the chlorination equipment functions. Chlorinators and some accessories require individual vents to a safe outside area. The vent should terminate not more than 25 feet above the chlorinator or accessory and have a slight downward slope from the highest point. The outside end of the vent should bend down and have a screen to exclude water and insects from entering. D. Electrical Electrical controls for lights and ventilation systems should operate automatically when entrance doors are opened. Manually controlled override switches should be located adjacent to and outside of all entrance doors, with an indicator light at each entrance. Electrical controls should be excluded from rooms containing pressurized chlorine cylinders or containers, piping, evaporators, or chlorinators. If electrical controls must be in the room, they should be housed in gas-tight enclosures and connecting conduits should be sealed. E. Plumbing All room drains must have wet traps to preclude chlorine leaks from moving to other occupied areas of the same building through the drainage system. F. Fire Detection Most automatic sensing devices used in fire detection and suppression systems are vulnerable to damage by the trace quantities of chlorine gas in the atmosphere of the room. It is recommended that fire suppression systems should only be initiated manually. Fire detection devices should be limited only to rate-of-rise-type thermal detectors. Avoid using ionization chamber-type detectors. T5-4.3.2 Piping and Connections Proper design of chlorine piping is essential for ensuring the safe and efficient function of the system. A. Vents Vents from pressure relief valves and valve diaphragms should not extend outdoors. If they are terminated inside a chlorine containment building, the room should be considered a confined space. Alternatively, the vent(s) may terminate in a separate enclosure that is ventilated sufficiently to satisfy code requirements and is nearly at atmospheric pressure. Provide a chlorine gas detector in the vent enclosure for alarm and treatment control purposes. B. Piping Systems Piping systems should be as simple as possible, with a minimum number of joints. Piping should be well supported, adequately sloped to allow T5-36 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design drainage, protected from mechanical damage, and insulated from temperature extremes. 1. Liquid or Gas The piping system to handle liquid or gas under pressure should be constructed of Schedule 80 black seamless steel pipe with 2,000-pound forged steel fittings. Unions should be ammonia-type with lead gaskets. All valves should be of a type approved by the Chlorine Institute. Gauges should be equipped with a silver protector diaphragm. Piping can be assembled by either welded or threaded connections. All threaded pipe must be cleaned with solvent, preferably trichloroethylene, and dried with nitrogen gas or dry air. Teflon tape should be used for thread lubricant in lieu of pipe dope. Recommendations for liquid chlorine dispensing systems where multiple containers are manifolded together include the following: Valves and manifold ? The gas valves, as well as the liquid valves, on all ton containers must be connected to a common, separate, manifold. The manifold can be optionally connected to the evaporator gas outlet with a manually operated valve to permit complete removal of chlorine from the containers before replacing them with full containers. If this feature is incorporated into the system, then: ? The gas manifold must slope to drain toward the cylinders. ? The gas outlet from the evaporator must be at a higher elevation than the containers. ? Auxiliary valves are recommended for all pigtail connections (not just one end of the pigtail). Containers ? All containers must be at the same elevation. ? Container weighing scales are recommended. Connection to evaporator chamber ? The liquid discharge into the evaporator chamber must be at or near the bottom of the chamber. Valve operation ? All gas valves should be opened first. ? Liquid valves should be closed before gas valves are closed. ? All containers must be at the same temperature before liquid is withdrawn from the manifold. Multiple container manifolding ? Multiple container manifolding should follow instructions from the Chlorine Institute and manufacturers’ literature. 2. Injector Vacuum The injector vacuum line between the chlorinator and the injector should be Schedule 80 PVC or FRP pipe approved for moist chlorine use. Disinfection December 1998 T5-37 3. Chlorine Solution Chlorine solution pipes can be Schedule 80 PVC, rubber-lined steel, sran-lined steel, or FRP pipe approved for moist chlorine use. Valves should be PVC, PVC-lined steel, or rubber-lined steel. T5-4.3.3 Water Supply An ample supply of water should be available for operating the chlorinator or injector. Where a booster pump is required, duplicate equipment should be provided for reliability and, where necessary, standby electric power as well. When connection is made from domestic water supplies, equipment for backflow prevention should be provided. Pressure gauges should be provided on chlorinator water supply lines. The supply water should not contain excessive nitrogen or ammonia compounds (treated effluent). When effluent is used for dilution, the solution pipeline should be as short as possible. T5-4.3.4 Standby Equipment and Spare Parts Standby chlorination capability should be provided which will ensure adequate disinfection with any unit out of operation for maintenance or repair. An adequate inventory of parts subject to wear and breakage should be maintained at all times. T5-4.3.5 Scales Weight scales shall be provided at all plants using chlorine gas. At large plants, scales of indicating and recording type are recommended. Scales should be provided for each cylinder or container in service. One scale is adequate for a group of cylinders or containers connected to a common manifold. Scales should be constructed of, or coated with, corrosion-resistant material. T5-4.3.6 Handling Equipment Handling equipment for 100- and 150-pound cylinders shall be provided as follows: ? A hand truck specifically designed for cylinders. ? A method of securing cylinders to prevent them from falling over. Handling equipment for ton containers shall be provided as follows: ? Hoist with at least a 2-ton capacity. ? A cylinder lifting bar. ? Monorail or bridge beam with sufficient lifting height to pass one unit over another. ? Cylinder trunnions to allow rotating the cylinders for proper connection of piping. T5-4.3.7 Container Space Sufficient space should be provided in the supply area for at least one spare cylinder or container for each one in service. T5-38 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T5-4.3.8 Automatic Switchover of Cylinders and Containers Automatic switchover of chlorine cylinders and containers is recommended at any plants that are periodically unattended. T5-4.4 Safety Since chlorine is inherently a very dangerous chemical, a number of important safety measures must be incorporated into the design. T5-4.4.1 Leak Detection and Controls A bottle of ammonium hydroxide solution should be readily available for detecting leaks. All installations utilizing ton containers that are periodically unattended shall have suitable continuous operating chlorine leak detectors. Whenever chlorine leak detectors are installed, they shall be connected to an alarm system (autodialer) and shall automatically start the exhaust fan in the room. T5-4.4.2 Breathing Apparatus At least one gas mask in good operating condition and of a type approved by the US Bureau of Mines as suitable for high concentrations of chlorine gas shall be available at all installations where chlorine gas is handled and shall be stored nearby but at a safe distance from the chlorine systems. Instructions for using, testing, and replacing mask parts, including canisters, shall be posted. At large installations, where ton containers are used, self-contained oxygen supplying equipment (SCBA) shall be provided. Recommended safety practices include ensuring personnel never work alone and that each person has a personal emergency escape mask in their possession while inside the chlorine building. By never working alone, an injured or incapacitated worker could be rescued after another worker(s) was able to exit the building, get help, and obtain SCBA equipment to safely re-enter. The use of individual emergency escape masks would ensure workers’ safe escape (unless incapacitated or injured) without depending on the building ventilation system. T5-4.4.3 Container Repair Kits All installations utilizing ton containers shall have emergency container repair kits as approved by the Chlorine Institute stored nearby but at a safe distance from the chlorine systems. Other plants using cylinders shall have repair kits on-site and readily accessible. T5-4.4.4 Piping Color Codes It is recommended that all piping related to the chlorine system be painted with a distinctive color and labeled to clearly differentiate it from other plant piping. T5-4.4.5 Other Requirements Comply with all WISHA and OSHA requirements pertaining to disinfection and chemical handling. Disinfection December 1998 T5-39 A. UBC The Uniform Building Code (UBC) establishes a building’s occupancy type (group, class, division, etc.). The storage, production, and use of hazardous materials (including chlorine gas) are limited to certain quantities in specific building control area types. B. UFC The Uniform Fire Code (UFC) Article 80 prohibits any release of toxic or hazardous materials (chlorine) to the environment. To achieve this general goal, the UFC regulations include provisions for containment and neutralization of hazardous chemical spills and toxic gas releases. Specific requirements are detailed and numerous, but only a few significantly affect construction or operation of conventional gas chlorination facilities. Code requirements that impact wastewater treatment plants include containment and neutralization, confined space issues, fire hazards, and emergency response. The UFC classification of chlorine as a toxic, oxidizing, and corrosive compressed gas exempts it from more stringent requirements for smoke detection and explosion-resistant storage structures applied to highly toxic and flammable gases. The guidelines and recommendations of this section are for informational purposes only and not intended to supersede the UFC and its requirements. The local fire authority will make the ultimate determination of compliance with the code. Storage room exhaust air contaminated with chlorine must be contained and treated prior to discharge to the atmosphere. The treatment system must have sufficient capacity to treat the maximum rate of release and neutralize the contents of the largest storage container in the facility. The UFC classifies ton containers as portable tanks (ICBO, 1991), with a specified maximum release rate of the total container contents within four hours. Although the code does not address manifolded containers, a conservative interpretation recognizes that interconnected pressure vessels are functionally equivalent to a single vessel of volume equivalent to the total connected tankage. Systems with automatic switchover devices must include the connected standby containers because these vessels will be emptied as soon as the supply in the online manifold is drained. To ensure containment of gas leaks, the UFC requires that storage buildings be maintained with negative internal pressure relative to the surrounding area. When chlorine vaporizes under ambient conditions, each liter of liquid evaporated generates approximately 450 liters of gas (60 cfg). To maintain the storage building under negative pressure the air exhaust rate must exceed the vapor generation rate. Exhaust air must be discharged to a scrubber system to neutralize the gas prior to venting to the atmosphere. For a system with manifolded containers, the required exhaust volume would be several times higher than the single vessel rate. To ensure safety and welfare of operations personnel, ventilation rates of 30 to 60 air changes per hour are usually recommended; however, UFC stipulates ventilation rates of only 1 cfm/sf. The appropriate ventilation rate is largely dependent upon the training and safety measures practiced by the operations personnel and the specific design of the chlorine building. New designs should coordinate the facility design with the T5-40 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design desired (mandatory) safety procedures that the operations personnel will use and with the local fire authority’s input and approval. There are many different scenarios possible for the containment and scrubbing of a gas leak, together with the related ventilation controls for accommodating workers’ escape from the building. Some typical scenarios are as follows: (1) A common safety practice in private industry is to require that personnel never work alone and that each person has a personal emergency escape mask in their possession while inside the building. See T5-4.4.2. (2) If the chlorine building is ventilated at a high rate (30 to 60 air changes per hour), and workers do not carry personal emergency escape masks, the following scenario is likely. For a typical containment structure, gas detectors would signal the high-rate ventilation system to shut down when a chemical leak occurs, and contaminated air would be directed through a caustic scrubber system at a low rate. Because the automatic initiation of the gas containment sequences would close all exits, workers would need to have a brief escape period. Audible and visual alarms would activate to clear workers from the building before starting the leak containment sequence. A time delay of several seconds allows personnel to escape prior to shutdown of the high rate ventilation system. Due to the high ventilation rate maintained between initial leak detection and caustic scrubber system startup, this control strategy allows some of the leaked chemical to be discharged outside the containment building. (3) If the chlorine building is ventilated at a high rate, and workers do not carry personal emergency escape masks, the following scenario is also a possibility. Initiate alarms upon detection of 1 ppm of gas, but delay the containment and scrubbing sequence until the chlorine concentration increases to 30 ppm, the level defined as an Immediate Danger to Life and Health (IDLH) inside the enclosure. Due to the high ventilation rate maintained between initial leak detection and caustic scrubber system startup, this control strategy allows some of the leaked chemical to be discharged outside the containment building. (4) The manual actuation of the containment system from a location outside the storage building may be considered if an automatic system is not feasible. (5) For scenarios (2), (3), and (4) above, there is an additional issue relating to the exhausted air/gas. Depending on the size of the leak, exhausted chlorine concentrations could exceed the maximum allowable discharge limit of one-half the IDLH or 15 ppm for chlorine. If an intentional, short-duration release of toxic gas is considered unacceptable, the gas storage area must be considered a confined space under all conditions. In this case, operations personnel must wear portable air packs with full-face masks and protective clothing whenever they enter the containment building. Disinfection December 1998 T5-41 UFC Article 80 requires automatic sprinkler systems for fire suppression in all toxic gas storage facilities. Exposure of pressurized gases to excessive heat or fire increases the pressure within the storage tank. A pressure rise beyond the bursting strength of the vessel creates a physical hazard that may threaten emergency response personnel or compromise the integrity of the containment structure. Alternate types of extinguishing systems, such as carbon dioxide or halon, are prohibited. In accordance with the UFC, the following issues should be considered in the design of the facility fire protection system: ? Drainage control and secondary containment of contaminated fire suppression water. ? Handling corrosive mixtures of wet chlorine in the event of a leak simultaneous with sprinkler operation. ? Reliable fire detector equipment and automatic alarms. To ensure containment and scrubbing of leaked gas, the UFC requires a dedicated emergency power generator or dual power sources. The generator must be of sufficient capacity to run all gas detection and alarm systems, exhaust ventilation and scrubber equipment, and emergency lighting. The generator must accelerate to full power within 10 seconds and have a minimum 2-hour fuel supply. The code also requires an independent emergency lighting system and around-the-clock supervision of the storage facility alarm system. The use of scrubbers designed to neutralize the contents of the largest container in the storage building suggests that the toxic hazard could be eliminated without direct intervention by emergency response teams. For storage facilities with manifolded tanks, the neutralization capacity of the scrubber should be at least as much as the capacity of all connected containers. Alternatively, a lesser capacity may be reasonable if automatic isolation valves or flow control valves can limit the leak rate. For very large volume storage (trucks or rail cars), the scrubber capacity may be reduced to a rational size based on the realistic response time for personnel to repair the leak. In any case, it is necessary for the room to be held at a negative pressure relative to atmosphere at all times. Caustic scrubbers for neutralizing chlorine cylinder releases should be designed with performance features such as the following: ? Test results demonstrating the scrubber exhaust has a chlorine concentration less than 1 ppm for 80 percent of the test period and never exceeds 2 ppm. ? The caustic system pressure should not exceed safe levels for Venturi-based scrubbers. ? Limited temperature rise in the caustic system. ? Caustic pumps designed for chemical systems. ? Piping must be corrosion resistant and appropriate for caustic. ? Piping connections that are flexible where necessary to accommodate movement. ? Piping connections that remain tight even after long periods of not being used. T5-42 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design T5-5 Sodium Hypochlorite T5-5.1 General For wastewater disinfection with chlorine, sodium hypochlorite provides an alternative to dry chlorine. As noted in the discussion in T5-4, chlorine gas is mixed with water and injected into the effluent stream. Between 6.0 and 9.0 pH, hypochlorite in an aqueous solution exists as a mixture of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Dry chlorine reacts with water to form the same mixture of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion. Since hypochlorite and dry chlorine behave the same after injection into the wastewater stream, the information presented in T5-4 related to design considerations, design details, and safety is also applicable to this section on sodium hypochlorite. T5-5.2 Hypochlorite Supply T5-5.2.1 On-Site Generation Sodium hypochlorite can be generated on-site by the electrolysis of a salt solution. Several commercially available processes exist. T5-5.2.2 Bulk Liquid Purchase Bulk delivery of sodium hypochlorite is available from several suppliers in Washington State. Typical bulk delivery trucks can carry 4,000 to 4,500 gallons per truckload. Many suppliers will require a minimum of 1,500- to 2,000-gallon-delivery volume. Delivery trucks are typically 55 to 60 feet long, and adequate space must be provided for delivery truck access. T5-5.2.3 Drums Sodium hypochlorite is also available in smaller drums and carboys. Typical sizes include 1- and 5-gallon jugs, 5- and 15-gallon carboys, and 30- and 50-to- 55-gallon drums. Larger, 300-gallon totes, which would be transported by forklift, are also available. T5-5.3 Hypochlorite Feed Equipment Components of a sodium hypochlorite feed system can include the following: ? Storage tank. (Where barrels or carboys are used, the shipping container could be used as the storage tank.) ? Bulk delivery facilities. ? On-site generation equipment, if applicable. ? Day tank and transfer pump, for bulk systems. ? Chemical feed pump compatible for use with 12.5 percent sodium hypochlorite. ? Pressure relief valve. ? Pulsation dampener for use with diaphragm pumps. ? Calibration cylinder for chemical feed pump. ? Process water for purging of feed lines and pump prior to maintenance and for possible dilution of sodium hypochlorite feed. Disinfection December 1998 T5-43 ? Injection tubing. ? Process controls to regulate the sodium hypochlorite dose, including the ability to manually adjust sodium hypochlorite feed rate. T5-6 Dechlorination T5-6.1 General Dechlorination of chlorinated effluent should be provided when water quality requirements dictate the need. Capability to add dechlorination systems should be considered in all new treatment plants that will use chlorine for disinfection. T5-6.1.1 Dechlorinating Agents A. Sulfur Dioxide Sulfur dioxide feed systems are nearly similar to chlorine feed systems. Both chemicals have similar physical properties and are stored as liquefied gases under pressure at ambient temperature conditions. At ambient temperature conditions chlorine exerts approximately 70 psig pressure, whereas sulfur dioxide exerts approximately 30 psig pressure. Sulfur dioxide storage cylinders and containers are identical to those for chlorine storage with the exception that sulfur dioxide containers are generally coded with red paint and chlorine containers are coded with yellow paint. Generally all design considerations for chlorine feed systems also apply to sulfur dioxide feed systems. Sulfur dioxide evaporators and sulfonators are built of the same materials as their chlorine counterparts, with the exception that flow control and measurement devices (orifices, v-notch weirs, rotameters, etc.) are modified to reflect the slightly different fluid behavior properties of these two chemicals. Although sulfur dioxide is intensely irritating to the respiratory tract, eyes, and mucous membranes, it is not as toxic as chlorine gas. Consideration should be given to the need for gas containment and scrubbing as is required for chlorine in accordance with Article 80 of the UFC. The UFC is very specific about chlorine systems, but is not specific with regards to sulfur dioxide. Local fire marshall interpretation is suggested. For dechlorination usage, generally one part of sulfur dioxide is needed to reduce one part of chlorine. Unlike chlorine disinfection, the reduction reaction between sulfur dioxide and chlorine is very rapid. Control systems for sulfur dioxide feed are similar to control systems for the feed of liquid dechlorination agents (such as sodium bisulfite, sodium metabisulfite, etc.). B. Sodium Bisulfite Sodium bisulfite is commercially available in liquid solutions and can be fed in a similar fashion to sodium hypochlorite or other liquid chemical solutions. For dechlorination, a 1:1 molar ratio of bisulfite is needed to T5-44 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design reduce chlorine. Similar to sulfur dioxide, the dechlorination reaction rate is relatively rapid. Both sodium bisulfite and sulfur dioxide gas dechlorinate in a similar fashion. When sulfur dioxide is dissolved in water, it forms sulfurous acid. The sulfite ion from the sulfurous acid reacts with chlorine to form chloride and sulfate. Sodium bisulfite in solution also provides sulfite ions for the reaction. Consequently, many of the design considerations for sulfur dioxide are the same for sodium bisulfite. Sodium bisulfite solution can produce sulfur dioxide vapor that, as mentioned above, can be irritating to sensitive tissue. Some individuals are extremely allergic to sulfites and can have adverse reactions to contact with them. Proper ventilation and appropriate safety equipment should be used at all times. C. Sodium Metabisulfite Sodium metabisulfite, also called pyrosulfite, is available as a granular solid. When hydrated, sodium metabisulfite forms a sodium bisulfite solution. Sodium bisulfite is described in T5-6.1.1B. T5-6.2 Design Considerations for Liquid Feed Systems This section discusses design considerations for liquid feed systems for dechlorinating agents. T5-6.2.1 General Liquid feed systems for dechlorinating agents are similar to those used for hypochlorite feed. Generally, they are composed of storage tanks or day tanks, chemical feed pumps, associated piping and valves, and an injection unit. T5-6.2.2 Uniform Fire and Building Codes Commercial sodium bisulfite solutions are acidic. Consult the manufacturer’s product specification for the pH of the commercial solution. The UBC and Appendix VI-D of the UFC, as revised or amended, define requirements for buildings containing corrosives and define exempt amounts of materials. T5-6.2.3 Mixing See T5-4.2.4. T5-6.2.4 Contact Period Dechlorination reactions have faster reaction times than chlorination, usually on the order of seconds. Long contact times, like those required for chlorination, are not required for dechlorination. T5-6.2.5 Sampling, Instrumentation, and Control An automated dosage control system should be used for all dechlorination facilities. The controls should adjust the dechlorinating agent feed rate, based on continuous chlorine monitoring after dechlorination, within an appropriate lag time to accommodate fluctuations in effluent flow and chlorine residual. Disinfection December 1998 T5-45 A compound loop or equivalent should be used for any system that includes dechlorination or has a maximum chlorine residual limit for effluent discharge. All sample lines should be designed so that they can easily be purged of sediments, attached growths, and other debris. Alarms and monitoring equipment are required to promptly alert the operator in the event of any malfunction, hazardous situation, or inadvertently dechlorinated effluent related to the dechlorination equipment, leaks, or other problems. The dechlorination system should also operate during periods of power outages. Redundancy should be provided. Design of instrumentation and control equipment should allow operation at initial and design flows. T5-7 References American Society of Civil Engineers/American Water Works Association. Water Treatment Plant Design. Second Edition. McGraw Hill, Inc., 1990. Coste, C., and F. Fiessinger. Recent Advances in Ozone Generation. In Proceedings of the AWWA Conference: Ozonation—Recent Advances and Research Needs. 1986. Robson, C.M. Engineering Aspects of Ozonation. In Proceedings of the AWWA Conference: Ozonation—Recent Advances and Research Needs. 1986. US Environmental Protection Agency. Design Manual—Municipal Wastewater Disinfection. US EPA/625/1-86/021. 1986. Water Environment Federation. Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants. Manual of Practice No. 8, Volume II. 1991. Water Environment Federation. Wastewater Disinfection. Manual of Practice No. FD-10. 1996. December 1998 E1-1 E1 Water Reclamation and Reuse This chapter covers the concept of using adequately and reliably treated sewage treatment plant effluent (reclaimed water) for beneficial purposes. Laws, regulations, and other requirements related to water reclamation and reuse are described, as well as design and construction considerations for development of a water reclamation project. The level of treatment and allowable uses for Class A, B, C, and D reclaimed water are discussed. Also included in this chapter is a discussion of the various options for water reuse such as on-site applications, wetlands discharge, ground water recharge, indirect potable reuse, and streamflow augmentation. E1-1 Introduction and Definitions ............................ 4 E1-1.1 Overview........................................4 E1-1.2 Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards......................................4 E1-1.3 Definitions .....................................5 E1-1.4 Applicability ..................................7 E1-1.5 Examples of Reclaimed Water Use.................................................7 E1-1.6 Initiating a Water Reuse Project ...........................................9 E1-2 Regulatory Framework ....... 10 E1-2.1 Management Approaches (DOH Requirements) ..................11 E1-2.1.1 Commercial and Industrial Reuse..........12 E1-2.1.2 Land Application ...................................12 E1-3 Project Implementation ...... 12 E1-3.1 Approval Process for Reuse Projects .......................................13 E1-3.2 Reliability and Redundancy .......13 E1-3.3 Specific Requirements for O&M Manuals..............................17 E1-3.3.1 Operator Certifications ..........................17 E1-3.3.2 Reclamation Treatment Processes .........18 E1-3.3.3 Distribution System ...............................18 E1-3.4 Cross Connection Control Program.......................................18 E1-3.4.1 Type of Backflow ..................................18 A. Back Siphonage..........................................18 B. Back Pressure .............................................19 E1-3.4.2 Reclaimed Water/Wastewater Cross Connection ....................................................19 E1-3.4.3 Backflow Prevention Methods...............19 E1-3.4.4 Approved Backflow Prevention Devices..........................................................20 E1-3.4.5 Degree of Hazard...................................20 E1-3.4.6 Backflow Prevention Recommendations at Reclaimed Water Facilities and Wastewater Treatment Plants.............................................................20 E1-3.4.7 Minimum Wastewater/Reclaimed Water Treatment Plant Backflow Prevention .....................................................21 E1-3.4.8 Bypass of Backflow Prevention Assemblies ....................................................21 E1-3.4.9 Distribution System and Use Area Protections.....................................................24 E1-4 Treatment Technologies .... 25 E1-4.1 Source Water (Secondary Treatment) .................................. 25 E1-4.1.1 Source Water Reliability........................25 E1-4.1.2 Emergency Storage or Disposal.............25 E1-4.2 Regulatory Requirements.......... 25 E1-4.3 Unit Treatment Processes ......... 26 E1-4.3.1 Coagulation and Flocculation................26 A. Mixing........................................................27 B. Coagulant Dosing and Storage ...................27 C. Flocculation................................................28 E1-4.3.2 Filtration ................................................28 A. Backwashing ..............................................28 B. Filtration Methods ......................................29 1. High-Rate Rapid Sand Filters .................29 2. Continuous Backwashing Counter- Current Upflow Filters.........................29 3. Rotating Filter Disk Type .......................30 4. Compressible Fiber Filters......................30 E1-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E1-4.3.3 Disinfection Requirements ....................30 E1-5 Distribution and Storage .... 31 E1-5.1 Conveyance Requirements ........31 E1-5.1.1 Disinfection ...........................................31 E1-5.1.2 Distribution System Requirements ........31 A. Pressure ......................................................31 B. Minimum Depth .........................................31 C. Minimum Separation..................................32 E1-5.1.3 Pipe Identification..................................32 A. General .......................................................32 B. Conversion of an Existing Potable System to a Reclaimed System ................32 C. Identification Tape......................................33 E1-5.1.4 Valve Box and Other Surface Identification .................................................33 A. General .......................................................33 B. Identification...............................................33 E1-5.1.5 Blow-Off Assemblies ............................33 E1-5.1.6 Fire Hydrants .........................................34 E1-5.2 Storage and Supply ....................34 E1-5.2.1 Seasonal Storage....................................34 E1-5.2.2 Operational Storage Facilities................34 E1-5.2.3 Emergency Storage and Supply (Including Backup Supply) ...........................35 E1-5.2.4 Fencing ..................................................35 E1-5.2.5 Identification..........................................35 E1-5.3 Pumping ......................................35 E1-5.3.1 Marking .................................................35 E1-5.3.2 Sealing Water ........................................35 E1-5.3.3 Surge Protection ....................................36 E1-5.4 Tank Trucks.................................36 E1-6 On-Site Applications........... 36 E1-6.1 Strainers at Meter........................36 E1-6.2 Controllers...................................37 E1-6.3 Pipe Identification.......................37 E1-6.4 System Identification..................37 E1-6.4.1 Hose Bibbs.............................................37 E1-6.4.2 Potable Water Systems Lines ................37 E1-6.5 Drinking Fountain/Public Facilities ......................................38 E1-6.6 Construction Water.....................38 E1-6.6.1 Permits...................................................38 E1-6.6.2 Equipment..............................................38 E1-6.6.3 Ponds .....................................................38 E1-6.7 Special Provisions......................38 E1-6.8 Irrigation Application Rate and Practice .......................................39 E1-6.9 Equipment and Facilities........... 39 E1-6.10 Warning Signs and Labels....... 39 E1-7 Wetlands Discharge............ 40 E1-7.1 Site Conditions and Constraints................................. 40 E1-7.2 Hydrologic Regime .................... 41 E1-7.3 Water Quality.............................. 41 E1-7.4 Biology/Ecology......................... 42 E1-7.5 Wetland Mitigation, Enhancement, or Restoration Plans........................................... 42 E1-8 Ground Water Recharge..... 42 E1-8.1 Ground Water Protection Areas........................................... 43 E1-8.2 Hydrogeologic Conditions and Constraints................................. 43 E1-8.3 Geotechnical Conditions and Constraints................................. 44 E1-8.4 Water Quality.............................. 44 E1-8.4.1 Surface Percolation................................44 E1-8.4.2 Direct Injection......................................45 E1-8.5 Injection Wells and Monitoring Wells ........................................... 46 E1-9 Indirect Potable Reuse ....... 46 E1-9.1 Hydraulic Regime....................... 46 E1-9.2 Water Quality.............................. 47 E1-10 Streamflow Augmentation..................... 48 E1-10.1 Receiving Water ....................... 48 E1-10.2 Hydraulic Regime..................... 48 E1-10.3 Outfall Design........................... 48 E1-11 References......................... 49 Figures E1-1. Backflow Prevention, Example One ..............22 E1-2. Backflow Prevention, Example Two..............23 Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-3 Tables E1-1. Treatment and Quality Requirements for Reclaimed Water Use....................................... 8 E1-2. Staged Planning Program to Determine Feasibility of a Reclaimed Water System .......10 E1-3. Laws and Regulations That Apply to Reclaimed Water Projects ...............................11 E1-4. Reliability and Redundancy Requirements of Articles 10 and 11 of the Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards .......................................14 E1-5. Cross Connections Associated with Wastewater......................................................19 E1-6. Relative Level of Protection by Backflow Preventers........................................................20 E1-7. Backflow Prevention for Reclaimed Water....24 E1-8. Characteristics of the Four Classes of Reclaimed Water.............................................26 E1-9. Representative Coagulant Dosing Rate ..........27 E1-10. Representative Filter Hydraulic Loading Rates................................................................28 E1-11. Disinfection Regulatory Requirements for Reclaimed Water.............................................30 E1-12. Identification Standards for Reclaimed Water Systems.................................................32 E1-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E1-1 Introduction and Definitions This section introduces the concept of reclaimed water and outlines planning considerations for a water reclamation system. Reasons why an agency would want to pursue a reclamation plan are discussed, including potential benefits. E1-1.1 Overview State legislators agreed that encouraging the use of reclaimed water, while still assuring the health and safety of all Washington citizens and the protection of the environment, could enable the State of Washington to use its water resources in the best interest of present and future generations. The Reclaimed Water Act was approved by the legislature in 1992 and codified as Chapter 90.46 RCW. This act encourages using reclaimed water for land applications and industrial and commercial uses and treating wastewater as a potential resource. The basic premise for reclamation is that the water must be used for direct, beneficial purposes. Chapter 90.46 RCW was amended by the legislature in 1995 to provide for non- consumptive uses of reclaimed water. This legislation provided for the reuse of reclaimed water through surface percolation (infiltration) or direct injection. Another use of reclaimed water included in Chapter 90.46 RCW is wetland discharges and stream flow augmentation. This legislation established that reclaimed water is no longer considered wastewater. Ecology has signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the Department of Health (DOH) concerning review and permitting of reclaimed water projects. The basic intent of the MOU is to ensure there will be no duplication (unless required) in the review, processing of permits, and enforcement of reclaimed water requirements. There are four classes of reclaimed water: A, B, C, and D, with Class A being the highest. Class A water has the most reuse potential and the least restrictions on its use. The major difference between Class A reclaimed water and the other classes is that Class A water is filtered and water in the other classes is not. Refer to the definitions in E1-1.3. To ensure the product is safe, state regulations require the water be continuously and reliably treated. In order to comply with this requirement, redundant facilities are required in the treatment process. This is one of the primary differences between a wastewater treatment facility and a water reclamation facility. For every unit treatment process, a water reclamation facility requires a fully operational and functional backup component. Even though Class A reclaimed water will meet most drinking-water standards for raw water, human consumption is not permitted. Bodily contact with Class A reclaimed water, however, is permitted. E1-1.2 Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards In order to gain public confidence and support for water reuse, the legislature directed the Departments of Health and Ecology to jointly develop reclaimed water standards for the reuse of wastewater from municipal treatment plants. The legislature also instructed DOH and Ecology to undertake necessary steps to encourage the development of water reclamation facilities so that reclaimed water may be made available to help meet the growing water needs of the state. The reuse standards describe allowable direct beneficial reuses of reclaimed wastewater, and the required level of treatment appropriate for each use. The standards require treatment and disinfection that is over and above what most conventional wastewater Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-5 treatment facilities are required to provide. The standards also require automated alarms, redundancy of treatment units, emergency storage and stringent operator training and certification to meet the reliability criteria. The reclaimed water standards were developed in a collaborative effort with DOH, Ecology, the Water Reuse Advisory Committee, interested stakeholders, and a consultant team of nationally recognized water reuse experts which has provided Washington State with some of the most comprehensive and technically sound reuse standards in the US. E1-1.3 Definitions A list of commonly used terms to describe reclaimed water, its uses, classifications, and related processes, is provided here. The list is intended to help establish a level of understanding in this relatively new and still developing field. Approved use area is a site with well defined boundaries, designated in a user permit issued by the agency to receive reclaimed water for an approved use, and in conformance with regulations of all applicable regulatory agencies. Class A reclaimed water means reclaimed water that, at a minimum, is at all times an oxidized, coagulated, filtered, disinfected wastewater. The wastewater shall be considered adequately disinfected if the median number of total coliform organisms in the wastewater after disinfection does not exceed 2.2 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for which analyses have been completed, and the number of total coliform organisms does not exceed 23 per 100 milliliters in any sample. See also Table E1-8. Class B reclaimed water means reclaimed water that, at a minimum, is at all times an oxidized, disinfected wastewater. The wastewater shall be considered adequately disinfected if the median number of total coliform organisms in the wastewater after disinfection does not exceed 2.2 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for which analyses have been completed, and the number of total coliform organisms does not exceed 23 per 100 milliliters in any sample. See also Table E1-8. Class C reclaimed water means reclaimed water that, at a minimum, is at all times an oxidized, disinfected wastewater. The wastewater shall be considered adequately disinfected if the median number of total coliform organisms in the wastewater after disinfection does not exceed 23 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for which analyses have been completed, and the number of total coliform organisms does not exceed 240 per 100 milliliters in any sample. See also Table E1-8. Class D reclaimed water means reclaimed water that, at a minimum, is at all times an oxidized, disinfected wastewater. The wastewater shall be considered adequately disinfected if the median number of total coliform organisms in the wastewater after disinfection does not exceed 240 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for which analyses have been completed. See also Table E1-8. Direct beneficial use means the use of reclaimed water that has been transported from the point of production to the point of use without an intervening discharge to the waters of the state for a beneficial purpose. E1-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Direct recharge means the controlled subsurface addition of water directly to the ground water basin that results in the replenishment of ground water. Direct recharge of reclaimed water is typically accomplished via injection wells but may contain other methods that directly recharge into the ground water saturated zone by a subsurface means. Greywater means wastewater having the consistency and strength of residential domestic type wastewater. Greywater includes wastewater from sinks, showers, and laundry fixtures, but does not include toilet or urinal waters. Indirect potable reuse means the discharge of reclaimed water into a reservoir used as a raw water source for drinking water supply, or into a stream which flows into such a reservoir or into an aquifer and extracted for a drinking water source, with the concurrence and participation of the water supply utility in the indirect potable reuse project. Planned Ground Water Recharge Project means any reclaimed water project designed for the purpose of recharging ground water, via direct recharge or surface percolation. Reclaimed water means effluent derived in any part from sewage from a wastewater treatment system that has been adequately and reliably treated, so that as a result of that treatment, it is suitable for a beneficial use or a controlled use that would not otherwise occur and is no longer considered wastewater. Streamflow augmentation means the discharge of reclaimed water to rivers and streams of the state or other surface water bodies, but not wetlands. Surface percolation means the controlled application of water to the ground surface for the purpose of replenishing ground water. Wetland or wetlands means areas that are inundated or saturated by surface water or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted to life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas. Wetlands regulated under this chapter shall be delineated in accordance with the manual adopted by Ecology pursuant to RCW 90.58.380 (Reclaimed Water Act, 1997 definition). Wetland or wetlands means areas that are inundated or saturated by surface water or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas. Wetlands do not include those artificial wetlands intentionally created from nonwetland sites, including but not limited to irrigation and drainage ditches, grass-lined swales, canals, detention facilities, wastewater treatment facilities, farm ponds, and landscape amenities, or those wetlands created after July 1, 1990 that were unintentionally created as a result of the construction of a road, street, or highway. Wetlands may include those artificial wetlands intentionally created from nonwetland areas to mitigate the conversion of wetlands. (Chapter 90.58 RCW, Shoreline Management Act and Growth Management Act, 1995 definition.) Wetlands constructed beneficial use means those wetlands intentionally constructed on nonwetland sites to produce or replace natural wetland functions and values. Constructed beneficial use wetlands are considered “waters of the state.” Wetlands constructed treatment means those wetlands intentionally constructed on nonwetland sites and managed for the primary purpose of wastewater or storm water Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-7 treatment. Constructed treatment wetlands are considered part of the collection and treatment system and are not considered “waters of the state.” Wetland enhancement means actions taken to intentionally improve the wetland functions, processes, and values of existing but degraded wetlands where all three defining criteria are currently met (that is, hydrology, vegetation, and soils). Wetland restoration means actions taken to re-establish a wetland area, including its functions and values that were eliminated by past actions, in an area that no longer meets the definition of a wetland. E1-1.4 Applicability In order to meet the requirements for all classes of reclaimed water, the wastewater must be fully oxidized. Fully oxidized wastewater is a wastewater in which organic matter has been stabilized such that the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) does not exceed 30 mg/L and the total suspended solids (TSS) do not exceed 30 mg/L, is nonputrescible, and contains dissolved oxygen. Biological treatment to produce oxidized wastewater is discussed in Chapter T3. What differentiates a water reclamation facility from a wastewater treatment facility is the reclamation facility is required to have additional reliability and redundancy features. These features ensure that the water is being adequately and reliably treated so that, as a result of that treatment, it is suitable for a direct beneficial use. E1-4 provides guidelines for treatment and disinfection technologies that will meet the requirements to produce reclaimed water. E1-1.5 Examples of Reclaimed Water Use Reclaimed water can be used for a variety of purposes including irrigation, impoundments, ground water recharge, and various commercial and industrial uses. Examples describing reclaimed water uses and associated treatment and quality requirements are displayed in Table E1-1. E1-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Table E1-1. Treatment and Quality Requirements for Reclaimed Water Use Type of Reclaimed Water Allowed Use Class A Class B Class C Class D Irrigation of Nonfood Crops Trees and Fodder, Fiber, and Seed Crops Sod, Ornamental Plants for Commercial Use, and Pasture to Which Milking Cows or Goats Have Access YES YES YES YES YES YES YES NO Irrigation of Food Crops Spray Irrigation All Food Crops Food Crops Which Undergo Physical or Chemical Processing Sufficient to Destroy All Pathogenic Agents Surface Irrigation Food Crops Where There is No Reclaimed Water Contact With Edible Portion of Crop Root Crops Orchards and Vineyards Food Crops Which Undergo Physical or Chemical Processing Sufficient to Destroy All Pathogenic Agents YES YES YES YES YES YES NO YES YES NO YES YES NO YES NO NO YES YES NO YES NO NO YES YES Landscape Irrigation Restricted Access Areas (e.g., Cemeteries and Freeway Landscapes) Open Access Areas (e.g., Golf Courses, Parks, Playgrounds, School Yards and Residential Landscapes) YES YES YES NO YES NO NO NO Impoundments Landscape Impoundments Restricted Recreational Impoundments Nonrestricted Recreational Impoundments YES YES YES YES YES NO YES NO NO NO NO NO Fish Hatchery Basins YES YES NO NO Decorative Fountains YESNONONO Flushing of Sanitary Sewers YES YES YES YES Street Cleaning Street Sweeping, Brush Dampening Street Washing, Spray YES YES YES NO YES NO NO NO Washing of Corporation Yards, Lots, and Sidewalks YES YES NO NO Dust Control (Dampening Unpaved Roads and Other Surfaces) YES YES YES NO Dampening of Soil for Compaction (at Construction Sites, Landfills, etc.) YES YES YES NO Water Jetting for Consolidation of Backfill Around Pipelines Pipelines for Reclaimed Water, Sewage, Storm Drainage, and Gas, and Conduits for Electricity YES YES YES NO Fire Fighting and Protection Dumping from Aircraft Hydrants or Sprinkler Systems in Buildings YES YES YES NO YES NO NO NO Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-9 Type of Reclaimed Water Allowed Use Class A Class B Class C Class D Toilet and Urinal Flushing YESNONONO Ship Ballast YES YES YES NO Washing Aggregate and Making Concrete YES YES YES NO Industrial Boiler Feed YES YES YES NO Industrial Cooling Aerosols or Other Mist Not Created Aerosols or Other Mist Created (e.g., Use in Cooling Towers, Forced Air Evaporation, or Spraying) YES YES YES NO YES NO NO NO Industrial Process Without Exposure of Workers With Exposure of Workers YES YES YES NO YES NO NO NO Wetlands (see E1-7) All Wetlands Noncontact Recreational or Educational Use With Restricted Access Fisheries Use, or Noncontact Recreational or Educational Use with Open (Unrestricted) Access Potential Human Contact Recreational or Educational Use YES YES YES YES YES YES YES NO YES YES NO NO YES NO NO NO Ground Water Recharge (see E1-8) YESNONONO Indirect Potable Reuse (see E1-9) YESNONONO Streamflow Augmentation (see E1-10) YESNONONO E1-1.6 Initiating a Water Reuse Project Many communities in this state are approaching or have reached the limits of their available water supplies. Water reclamation and reuse can become an attractive option for conserving and extending available water resources. Water reuse may also present an opportunity for pollution abatement when it replaces effluent discharge to sensitive surface waters. The use of reclaimed water to replace potable water in nonpotable applications conserves potable water and stretches the potable water supply. A water reuse facility is a very reliable source of water and using reclaimed water instead of potable water can avoid costs. Furthermore, using reclaimed water can help preserve water rights for potable water sources to accommodate growth. A reuse program can reduce or totally eliminate the effluent discharge to surface bodies of water, thus reducing pollutant loading in the environment. Protection of salmon runs or shellfish beds is also a benefit. Wastewater reuse is viewed as a very environmentally progressive approach to dealing with a community’s waste stream. Reclaimed water can be viewed as a commodity and sold. Utilizing reclaimed water for a beneficial purpose instead of wasting it can help a community recapture some of its financial investment in wastewater treatment. E1-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Any operating agency considering water reclamation and reuse should start with a staged planning program to determine the feasibility of a reclaimed water project (refer to Chapter G1 for the staged planning process). The various planning stages described in Table E1-2 should lead to a conceptual plan which could be the basis for the design and construction of the proposed system. Table E1-2. Staged Planning Program to Determine Feasibility of a Reclaimed Water System Planning Stage Characterization 1. Preliminary investigations. The preliminary investigation stage is a fact-finding phase in which physical, economic, institutional, and legal limitations should be identified. All potential sources of reclaimed water and markets should be identified. 2. Screening of potential resources and markets. The screening of potential markets stage should consist of a comparison between the unit costs of potable water and of reclaimed water to the same market. The costs and pricing constraints should be evaluated under both present and future conditions to ensure that initial capital costs do not overshadow long-term benefits. Present and future quantity and quality requirements should also be taken into consideration to determine if it is, and will remain, cost-effective to serve the users of reclaimed water. Reliability of supply, value of reclaimed water nutrients, and social benefits should also be considered, as well as possible savings in the potable system due to the reduced demand on it. 3. Detailed evaluation of facilities alternatives to serve selected markets, including engineering and economic feasibility, financial analysis, and environmental analysis. The final stage of the planning program is the detailed evaluation of the selected markets. In this stage, by looking in more detail at the conveyance routes and storage requirements of each alternative system to serve selected markets, refinements to preliminary cost estimates for delivery of reclaimed water can be made. Funding options can be compared, user costs developed, and a comparison made between the unit costs of potable and reclaimed water for each alternative system. It should also be possible to assess in more detail the environmental, institutional, and social aspects of each alternative. E1-2 Regulatory Framework The objective of any water reuse project design is to apply proper reclamation techniques to wastewater to allow the resulting product to be beneficially used. Knowledge of specific reclaimed water statutes and applicable administrative regulations is necessary so that appropriate levels of treatment can be used for specific beneficial uses and permitting requirements. Proposers of reclaimed water projects should review this section and corresponding regulations closely before proceeding with detailed design. These concepts are particularly important in reclaimed water projects because some portions of the reclaimed water statute override administrative rule while all other existing requirements will still apply. One of the main objectives in reclaimed water permitting is issuing a single permit to the generator. While this concept may be different than requirements for other wastewater facilities, it underscores the change from treatment plant effluent to reclaimed water. Table E1-3 lists statutes and rules that apply to reclaimed water projects. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-11 Table E1-3. Laws and Regulations That Apply to Reclaimed Water Projects Statutes (RCWs) and Rules (WACs) Application Chapter 90.46 RCW Reclaimed Water This statute is the basis for permitting, standards, and legislative intent of reuse projects. A key aspect of this law is the definition section. Please refer to specific definitions for reclaimed water, ground water recharge criteria, and reclamation criteria. The statute also provides that facilities that reclaim water shall not impair existing downstream water rights (RCW 90.46.130). Chapter 90.48 RCW Water Pollution Control This is the main statute for Ecology’s authority to regulate domestic wastes from sewage treatment facilities. Chapter 90.03 RCW Water Code and Chapter 90.44 RCW Regulation of Public Ground Waters These statutes are the basis for the appropriation and beneficial uses of public waters. Use and distribution of the reclaimed water is exempt from water rights permit requirements. Chapter 43.20 RCW State Board Of Health This statute provides the authority for DOH to adopt rules (WACs) for sewage and drinking water systems. Chapter 173-200 WAC Water Quality Standards for Ground Waters This rule would apply, except as amended in Chapter 90.46 RCW, to any reclaimed water beneficial use that discharges to ground water. Chapter 173-201A WAC Water Quality Standards for Surface Waters This rule would apply to any reclaimed water that would discharge to surface waters of the state. Chapter 173-216 WAC State Waste Discharge Permit Program This rule would permit reclaimed water used for irrigation, impoundments, non- discharging wetlands (not regulated as waters of the state), and planned ground water recharge projects if no other permit existed to allow the generation of reclaimed water. Chapter 173-220 WAC National Pollution Discharge Elimination System Program (NPDES) This rule delegates to Ecology the NPDES permitting program from EPA and is one of the primary permits the agencies use for reclaimed water. A NPDES permit could be used for either land application of reclaimed water or certain commercial and industrial uses of reclaimed water. Chapter 173-240 WAC Submission of Plans and Report for Construction of Wastewater Facilities This rule governs the engineering submittal requirements for Ecology in addition to the guidance provided in the reclamation criteria. Chapter 246-271 WAC Public Sewage This rule covers the basic investigative powers of DOH for regulating municipal sewage system discharges and engineering documents. DOH issues approval of reclaimed water projects under this rule and the authority granted by Chapters 90.46 and 43.20 RCW. Chapter 246-290 WAC Group A Public Water Systems This rule establishes requirements for public water systems consistent with the Safe Drinking Water Act and other DOH statutes and WACs. For reclaimed water projects, requirements for water system plans, cross connections, design standards (distribution systems), and source protection may apply to specific projects. Chapter 173-154 WAC Policies and Procedures This rule establishes protection of upper aquifer zones from excessive water level declines or reductions in water quality. Chapter 173-218 WAC Policies and Procedures This rule establishes an undergound injection control program for the injection of fluids through wells. This rule is applicable to reclaimed water that would discharge to ground water by way of an injection well. E1-2.1 Management Approaches (DOH Requirements) A given reuse project may require management approaches by the reclaimed water generator and/or the user. The proponent of a project should be aware of specific management areas for reclaimed water projects, as follows: E1-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E1-2.1.1 Commercial and Industrial Reuse In areas where workers may be exposed to or come in direct contact with reclaimed water, a specific worker safety program must address potential and actual contact with the reclaimed water. Although reclaimed water can be deemed safe for workers after a given treatment, there are general precautions for hygiene, emergency situations, and ingestion that must be covered in operation and maintenance manuals or user agreements with the generator. Worker safety programs are viewed as part of proper management of the reclaimed water after meeting permit requirements. Reclaimed water that is delivered to a commercial building is required to have adequate back-flow prevention on the domestic water line entering the building (see cross connection control, Chapter 246-290 WAC). However, the purveyor may not require any additional cross connection control for water facilities within the building. It is recommended that a cross connection management agreement be in place to protect the water supply in the building from cross connection with reclaimed water. The recommendation may be required by DOH for buildings where reclaimed water is used for toilet and urinal flushing. E1-2.1.2 Land Application Management approaches for land application projects (typical irrigation) are directed to ensure irrigation water is used in a responsible manner and protects drinking water supplies. A project should be designed to utilize spray irrigation during times when possible human exposure is least likely to happen. While the reclaimed water is safe for direct exposure, irrigation during night and early morning hours ensures limited public contact and helps curb public perception issues about using reclaimed water. Reclaimed water that is delivered to existing irrigation systems must include provisions for testing and a site survey to identify any faucet or hose bibb that could be used for drinking water. Dye testing of existing systems to verify that no connection with potable water supplies is possible is a good design practice. In proper circumstances, specific conductance can also be used to test for absence of connections. E1-3 Project Implementation This section discusses the regulatory aspects of implementing a water reclamation and reuse project and obtaining agency approvals and permits. These items are intended to be consistent with good engineering practices for these types of projects; however, this listing is not intended to be a complete roster of all the engineering or construction practices that may be required for a particular project. Project owners, project managers, and design professionals are reminded to verify and address other legal, technical, managerial, economic, and financial requirements for their project, including land use and right-of-way issues, building code compliance (architectural, structural, mechanical, plumbing, electrical, etc.), contract administration for consultant and construction contracts, economic feasibility evaluation, project financing (internal funds, grants/ loans, bonds, other financial instruments), etc. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-13 E1-3.1 Approval Process for Reuse Projects Reclaimed water projects are administered jointly by the State Departments of Ecology and Health. Lead roles in permitting and approval are based on the type of reuse proposed. Land application (irrigation) of reclaimed water is permitted by Ecology in RCW 90.46.040. Commercial and industrial reuse is permitted by DOH through Ecology’s waste discharge permit program (state permit or NPDES) consistent with RCW 90.46.030. Both agencies will provide review of planning and engineering documents in keeping with roles and responsibilities delineated within a MOU on reuse and land treatment systems. Many reuse projects contain both land application and commercial and industrial reclaimed water uses and applicants should coordinate with each review agency. The approval process for water reuse projects generally involves the preparation, regulatory review, and approval of planning, design, and implementation products, as follows: ? Comprehensive water system plan. ? Comprehensive sewer plan. ? Facilities plan or project engineering report. ? SEPA compliance documentation. ? Plans and specifications documents. ? Water reuse permit application/permit. Project Implementation Subject Cross Reference to Other Chapters/Sections Approval Process See Chapter G1 for a discussion of general aspects of the regulatory approval process for facility planning and implementation. Specific aspects of regulatory roles and responsibilities in the review and permit approval for water reuse projects are discussed in E1-2. Comprehensive Water/Sewer Planning G1-3 Facility Planning and Engineering G1-4.1 Environmental Review G1-2.6 Plans and Specifications G1-4.2 O&M Manuals G1-4.4 Reclaimed Water Permits E1-3 E1-3.2 Reliability and Redundancy Compliance with reliability and redundancy requirements of Articles 10 and 11 (Table E1-4) of the Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards should be verified. E1-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Table E1-4. Reliability and Redundancy Requirements of Articles 10 and 11 of the Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards Article Requirements Article 10— General Requirements of Design 1. Flexibility of Design The design of process piping, equipment arrangement, and unit structures in the reclamation plant must allow for efficiency and convenience in operation and maintenance and provide flexibility of operation to permit the highest possible degree of treatment to be obtained under varying circumstances. There shall be no bypassing of untreated or partially treated wastewater from the reclamation plant or any intermediate unit processes to the point of use. 2. Power Supply The power supply shall be provided with one of the following reliability features: (a) Alarm and standby power source. (b) Alarm and automatically actuated short-term storage or disposal provisions as specified in Article 11, item 1. (c) Automatically actuated long-term storage or disposal provisions as specified in Article 11, item 1. 3. Storage Where No Approved Alternative Disposal System Exists (a) Where no alternative disposal system is permitted, a system storage or other acceptable means shall be provided to ensure the retention of reclaimed water under adverse weather conditions or at other times when reuse is precluded. (b) When wet weather conditions preclude the use of reclaimed water, the system storage volume shall be established by determining the storage period that would be required for the duration of a 10-year storm, using weather data that is available from, or is representative of, the area involved. A minimum of 20 years of climatic data shall be used in storage volume determinations. (Note that the designer must select an appropriate storm duration to provide the protection of a 10-year recurrence interval.) (c) At a minimum, system storage capacity shall be the volume equal to three times that portion of the average daily flow of reuse capacity for which no alternative reuse or disposal system is permitted. (d) Reclaimed water storage ponds or quarantine which can impound a volume of 10 acre-feet (equivalent to 435,600 cubic feet or 3.258 million gallons) or more may be subject to state dam safety regulations. See G1-1.4.6E. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-15 Article Requirements Article 11— Alternative Reliability Requirements 1. Emergency Storage or Disposal (a) Where short-term storage or disposal provisions are used as a reliability feature, these shall consist of facilities reserved for the purpose of storing or disposing of untreated or partially treated wastewater for at least a 24-hour period. The facilities shall include all the necessary diversion works, provisions for odor control, conduits, and pumping and pump-back equipment. All of the equipment other than the pump-back equipment shall be either independent of the normal power supply or provided with a standby power source. (b) Where long-term storage or disposal provisions are used as a reliability feature, these shall consist of ponds, reservoirs, percolation areas, downstream sewers leading to other treatment or disposal facilities, or any other facilities reserved for the purpose of emergency storage or disposal of untreated or partially treated wastewater. These facilities shall be of sufficient capacity to provide disposal or storage of wastewater for at least 20 days, and shall include all the necessary diversion works, provisions for odor and nuisance control, conduits, and pumping and pump-back equipment. All of the equipment other than the pump-back equipment shall be either independent of the normal power supply or provided with a standby power source. (c) Diversion to a different type of reuse is an acceptable alternative to emergency disposal of partially treated wastewater provided that the quality of the partially treated wastewater is suitable for that type of reuse. (d) Subject to prior approval by DOH and Ecology, diversion to a discharge point where the wastewater meets all discharge requirements is an acceptable alternative to emergency disposal of partially treated wastewater. (e) Automatically actuated short-term storage or disposal provisions and automatically actuated long-term storage or disposal provisions shall include, in addition to provisions of (a), (b), (c), and (d) listed above, all the necessary sensors, instruments, valves, and other devices to enable fully automatic diversion of untreated or partially treated wastewater to approved emergency storage or disposal in the event of failure of the treatment process, and a manual reset to prevent automatic restart until the failure is corrected. 2. Biological Treatment All biological treatment unit processes shall be provided with one reliability feature, as follows: (a) Alarm and multiple biological treatment units capable of producing oxidized wastewater with one unit not in operation. (b) Alarm, short-term storage or disposal provisions, and standby replacement equipment. (c) Alarm and long-term storage or disposal provisions. (d) Automatically actuated long-term storage or disposal provisions. 3. Secondary Sedimentation All secondary sedimentation unit processes shall be provided with one reliability feature, as follows: (a) Multiple sedimentation units capable of treating the entire flow with one unit not in operation. (b) Standby sedimentation unit process. (c) Long-term storage or disposal provisions. E1-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Article Requirements Article 11— Alternative Reliability Requirements (continued) 4. Coagulation (a) All coagulation unit processes shall be provided with all features for uninterrupted chemical feed, as follows: ? Standby feeders. ? Adequate chemical storage and conveyance facilities. ? Adequate reserve chemical supply. ? Automatic dosage control. (b) All coagulation unit processes shall be provided with one reliability feature, as follows: ? Alarm and multiple coagulation units capable of treating the entire flow with one unit not in operation. ? Alarm, short-term storage or disposal provisions, and standby replacement equipment. ? Alarm and long-term storage or disposal provisions. ? Automatically actuated long-term storage or disposal provisions. ? Alarm and standby coagulation unit process. 5. Filtration All filtration unit processes shall be provided with one reliability feature, as follows: (a) Alarm and multiple filter units capable of treating the entire flow with one unit not in operation. (b) Alarm, short-term storage or disposal provisions, and standby replacement equipment. (c) Alarm and long-term storage or disposal provisions. (d) Alarm and standby filtration unit process. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-17 Article Requirements Article 11— Alternative Reliability Requirements (continued) 6. Disinfection (a) All disinfection unit processes where chlorine is used as the disinfectant shall be provided with all features for uninterrupted chlorine feed, as follows: ? Standby chlorinator. ? Standby chlorine supply. ? Manifold systems to connect chlorine cylinders. ? Chlorine scales. ? Automatic switchover to full chlorine cylinders. ? Continuous measuring and recording of chlorine residual. (b) All disinfection unit processes where chlorine is used as the disinfectant shall be provided with one reliability feature, as follows: ? Alarm and standby chlorinator. ? Alarm, short-term storage or disposal provisions, and standby replacement equipment. ? Alarm and long-term storage or disposal provisions. ? Automatically actuated long-term storage or disposal provisions. ? Alarm and multiple point chlorination. Each point of chlorination shall have an independent power source, separate chlorinator, and separate chlorine supply. (c) Alarms required for various unit processes as specified in other sections of these regulations shall be installed to provide warnings, as follows: ? Loss of power from the normal power supply. ? Failure of a biological treatment process. ? Failure of a disinfection process. ? Failure of a coagulation process. ? Failure of a filtration process. ? Any other specific process failure for which warning is required by DOH and Ecology. (d) All required alarms shall be independent of the normal power supply of the reclamation plant. (e) All other disinfection unit processes shall be provided with one reliability feature, as follows: ? Alarm and standby disinfection unit capable of treating the design flow rate with the largest operating unit out of service. ? Alarm, short-term storage or disposal provisions, and standby replacement equipment. ? Alarm and long-term storage or disposal provisions. ? Automatically actuated long-term storage or disposal provisions. E1-3.3 Specific Requirements for O&M Manuals This section describes the requirements for operations and maintenance (O&M) manuals and operator certification specific to water reclamation and reuse. The requirements of G1-4.4 also apply to water reuse projects. E1-3.3.1 Operator Certifications The treatment plant (including reclamation facilities) must be rated according to the wastewater treatment plant criteria in Chapter 173-230 WAC to arrive at a plant rating commensurate with the complexity of the treatment processes used at that facility. Operators at a given facility must hold wastewater certification at a grade commensurate with the complexity of the combined wastewater treatment and E1-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design water reclamation process at that facility. Since some of the treatment unit processes (coagulation and filtration, for example) are traditionally associated with potable water, it is recommended that plant operators receive special training in O&M for these treatment processes. E1-3.3.2 Reclamation Treatment Processes Some treatment unit processes (coagulation and filtration, for example) are traditionally associated with potable water, so those sections of the O&M manual will need to consult references for water treatment O&M as well as for wastewater treatment O&M. E1-3.3.3 Distribution System O&M policies and procedures should address the unique operational aspects of the reclaimed water distribution system either as a supplement to the potable water distribution system O&M policies and procedures or as a supplement to the water reclamation plant O&M manual. The text should include a map of the reclaimed water distribution system. Responsibility for distribution system O&M (either by the water utility or sewer utility) should be clearly identified. Other distribution and on-site requirements are given in E1-5 and E1-6. E1-3.4 Cross Connection Control Program The purpose of this section is to provide guidance for protecting potable water systems from contamination by reclaimed water and for protecting reclaimed water from potential contamination by sewage or partially treated wastewater. The provisions of this section apply equally to the protection of potable water supplies, sources, and systems from contamination by sewage and partially treated wastewater. A cross connection could be any physical arrangement whereby a potable water supply is connected, directly or indirectly, with any nonpotable or unapproved water supply system, sewer, drain, conduit, pool, storage reservoir, plumbing fixture, or any other device which contains, or may contain, contaminated water, liquid, gas, sewage, or other waste of unknown or unsafe quality which may be capable of imparting contamination to the potable water supply as a result of backflow. Cross connections include bypass arrangements, jumper connections, removable sections, swivel or change-over devices and other temporary, permanent, or potential connections through which, or because of which, backflow could occur. E1-3.4.1 Type of Backflow Backflow is flow in piped systems in reverse of the normal direction. It occurs as a result of pressure or hydraulic head differential between two points in the system. Backflow may occur due to either back siphonage or back-pressure conditions. A. Back Siphonage Back siphonage is caused by negative pressures in the supply piping, including piping extensions such as hoses. Common causes include the following: ? High pipeline velocities (Venturi effect). Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-19 ? Leaks or breaks lower than an entrance point. ? Low pipeline pressure (excessive usage upstream). ? Reduced supply pressure on pump suction. B. Back Pressure Back pressure occurs when the protected system is connected to another piping system with higher pressure that forces nonpotable water or fluids back into the distribution system. Examples or common causes include the following: ? Booster pumps. ? High-rise buildings (taller than three stories). ? Pressure tanks. ? Boilers. ? Interties with higher pressure piping. ? Elevated piping (higher than 30 feet above finished grade). E1-3.4.2 Reclaimed Water/Wastewater Cross Connection Any cross connection between reclaimed water and raw sewage and/or partially treated wastewater renders the reclaimed water as wastewater and prohibits that water from being delivered for beneficial use. Reclaimed water and wastewater treatment and pumping facilities present many opportunities for cross connection, some so common that they are often overlooked. Many common cross connections are listed in Table E1-5 to assist in recognizing these situations. Table E1-5. Cross Connections Associated with Wastewater Facilities Water Uses Equipment Reclaimed water treatment plants Wastewater treatment plants Lift stations Combined sewage overflows Pressure regulator stations Pump seal water Foam control Flushing Cleaning screens and racks Washdown activities Pump primers Chlorinators Cooling Heating (boilers) Fire systems Landscape/irrigation Water-operated sewage sump ejectors Water-cooled compressors Aspirators (laboratory) Sterilizers (laboratory) Janitor sinks Trap primers Flush-O-Meter valves Condensers Heat exchangers Hand tools E1-3.4.3 Backflow Prevention Methods The type and degree of backflow prevention is determined by the degree of hazard and type of backflow encountered. Backflow will be the result of either back-pressure or back-siphonage conditions. The degree of hazard must be identified, and adequate protection for the most severe hazard encountered E1-20 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design must be provided. The selection of specific backflow-prevention devices is determined from the degree of hazard, probability of occurrence, acceptable risk level, and reliability of the backflow preventer. Basic types of backflow preventers applicable to reclaimed water facilities and wastewater treatment plants are shown in Table E1-6. Table E1-6. Relative Level of Protection by Backflow Preventers Backflow Preventer Degree of Hazard Backflow Type Air gap (AG) high and low back pressure and back siphonage Reduced pressure backflow assembly (RPBA) high and low back pressure and back siphonage Double-check valve assembly (DCVA) low back pressure and back siphonage Pressure vacuum breaker (PVB) high and low back siphonage Spill-resistant vacuum breaker (SBVB) high and low back siphonage Atmospheric vacuum breaker (AVB) very low back siphonage Hose bibb vacuum breaker (HBVB) very low back siphonage Lab faucet vacuum breaker (LFVB) very low back siphonage E1-3.4.4 Approved Backflow Prevention Devices State regulation requires that all installed RPBAs, DCVAs, and PVBs (see Table E1-6) installed shall be models included on the current list of backflow assemblies approved for installation in Washington State and maintained and published by Ecology (WAC 246-290-490 (2)(b)). The list or information on specific devices is available from the regional offices of DOH, Division of Drinking Water. E1-3.4.5 Degree of Hazard Degrees of hazards posed by potential contaminants are classified as severe, high, or low. The Cross connection Control Manual includes lists of facilities, fixtures, and equipment requiring specific types of backflow prevention. Further, Group A Public Water System Regulations, WAC 246-290-490, specifically identifies sewage treatment plants and facilities having a nonpotable auxiliary water supply (among others) as requiring backflow prevention appropriate for the degree of hazard, air gaps, or both to be installed on service connections or within the facilities. E1-3.4.6 Backflow Prevention Recommendations at Reclaimed Water Facilities and Wastewater Treatment Plants The purveyor-approved program is as follows: ? An approved cross connection control program is required to receive regulatory approval for all reclaimed water projects and facilities. The cross connection program (CCP) must be created and implemented by the public drinking water systems serving potable water in all reclaimed water treatment facilities, distribution facilities, and disposal or use areas. ? The CCP must conform to the “Cross connection Control Manual, Accepted Procedure and Practice” (latest edition), and must be Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-21 approved by DOH, Division of Drinking Water. An approved program may be the program included as a portion of an approved Water System Plan conforming to WAC 246-290-110 (Group A Public Water Systems?Water System Plans), or may be created as a separate, approved document. It is the responsibility of the permit holder or person(s) who distribute reclaimed water to ensure CCP compliance by all public water systems providing potable water service in the treatment, distribution, and use areas. ? For public water systems with an approved water system plan, conformance with these requirements may be demonstrated by proving that a cross connection control program was included in that plan. The permittee or distributor must also ensure coordination with future water system plan updates required of public water systems every six years along with any modifications to the CCP. ? For public water systems that have a CCP approved separately from a water system plan, conformance with these requirements may be demonstrated by producing the letter approving that plan from DOH. Again, the permittee or distributor must also ensure coordination with future program updates and modifications to the CCP. ? If one or more of the public water systems serving the treatment, distribution, or use areas does not have a currently approved water system plan or CCP, the permittee or distributor must coordinate with the water system(s) to ensure submittal and approval of an acceptable CCP by the water system prior to approval of the reclaimed water facilities. E1-3.4.7 Minimum Wastewater/Reclaimed Water Treatment Plant Backflow Prevention Wastewater and reclaimed water treatment pumping facilities constitute extreme hazards related to the potential for backflow. Minimum protection for wastewater and reclaimed water treatment plants includes a reduced-pressure backflow assembly on the potable water service line into the facility, appropriate premise protection in the control building and laboratory for standard devices, and an air gap with repumping facilities between potable makeup water and any raw sewage, partially treated wastewater, secondary wastewater, or reclaimed water used at the plant site for any reason. Examples of these requirements are shown in Figure E1-1 and Figure E1-2. E1-3.4.8 Bypass of Backflow Prevention Assemblies No bypass of any backflow prevention assembly is allowed. E1-22 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Water service meter To laboratory, boilers, chlorinator, or washdown water Not for human consumption Water connected directly to, or could come in contact with, raw or partially treated wastewater Not for human consumption C1 C2 C3 City water main Distribution system Potable water use Reduced pressure backflow assembly Reduced pressure backflow assembly Approved air gap and booster pump C1 C1 to treatment plant Figure E1-1. Backflow Prevention, Example One Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-23 Water service meter To janitor sink Pump seal water C1 C2 C3 City water main Distribution system Reduced pressure backflow assembly Reduced pressure backflow assembly Approved air gap and booster pump C1 C1 to treatment plant To boiler Atmospheric vacuum break Reduced pressure backflow assembly To drinking fountain C1 C2 Reduced pressure backflow assembly To restroom C1 C2 To chlorinator Reduced pressure backflow assembly To eye wash C1 C1 To drinking fountain Reduced pressure backflow assembly C2 Cooling water Reduced pressure backflow assembly C2Wash- down Atmospheric vacuum break To janitor sink C1 Pump seal water C3 Approved air gap and booster pump C2 Reduced pressure backflow assembly Reduced pressure backflow assembly Atmospheric vacuum break C2 To laboratory C1 To drinking fountain Reduced pressure backflow assembly C2 Foam control screenings Figure E1-2. Backflow Prevention, Example Two E1-24 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E1-3.4.9 Distribution System and Use Area Protections Depending upon the level of treatment provided, reclaimed water presents a high-to-extreme health hazard because of the potential for backflow. Specific backflow prevention needs and situations are identified in Table E1-7. Table E1-7. Backflow Prevention for Reclaimed Water Situation Comment General Cross connections between potable water and reclaimed water of any classification are not allowed under any circumstance. The potable water supplier is responsible for ensuring compliance with provisions of their approved cross connection control program. The reclaimed water permit holder is responsible to DOH and Ecology to demonstrate the acceptance of the water purveyor of the CCP for a specific use area. The reclaimed water permit holder shall also ensure the submittal of annual CCP reports documenting annual facilities inspections, test results, repair and replacement requirements, and the proper installation of new backflow prevention assemblies at reclaimed water use sites during the year to DOH and Ecology. Site with Potable Water Any site being served with reclaimed water and potable water shall be provided with service-line protection equal to a reduced-pressure backflow prevention assembly or an approved air gap. Reclaimed Water Lines Serving and Within a Dwelling Unit Reclaimed water shall not enter any dwelling unit or building containing a dwelling unit except to provide fire protection and/or toilet flushing water at approved sites. The reclaimed water service pipe and building plumbing shall conform to all pipeline separation, marking, and warning requirements of this section, reclaimed water use standards, and state and local plumbing codes. Pipeline Separation Inadequate pipeline separation for pipelines installed in trenches is considered a cross connection by some water purveyors. Adequate pipeline separation is defined as 10-feet pipe-to-pipe separation for horizontal separations and 18-inch pipe-to-pipe vertical separation. Separations not conforming to these standards must provide additional protections. The most common means of protection is to provide exterior casing consisting of pressure pipe with sealed joints extending past the area of conflict by at least 10 feet at both ends. Bypasses Bypassing any backflow prevention device is not allowed, including bypasses of backflow-prevention assemblies that provide use area or premise protection downstream of service line backflow-protection assemblies. Hose Bibbs on Potable Water Lines Hose bibbs within use areas shall be approved hose bibb vacuum-breaker assemblies. The installation of hose bibbs in reclaimed water use areas shall be approved by DOH and Ecology. Hose Bibbs on Reclaimed Water Lines Hose bibbs on reclaimed water lines are prohibited, except as authorized by DOH and Ecology. Markings and Warnings All backflow-prevention assemblies and downstream piping shall be adequately marked and color-coded in conformance with the industry practice and applicable standards to identify the hazards and fluids downstream of the assembly. Tank Truck Hauling Tank trucks used to transport reclaimed water shall be filled from sources protected by an approved air gap. All tank trucks used to transport reclaimed water shall be inspected and approved for such use prior to transporting the reclaimed water by the water supplier that provides potable water to the use area at which the reclaimed water will be used. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-25 E1-4 Treatment Technologies The discussion of treatment technology guidelines begins with a summary of source water characteristics and the four reclaimed-water class definitions recognized in the water reclamation and reuse standards. Design guidelines for coagulation, filtration, and disinfection follow. E1-4.1 Source Water (Secondary Treatment) At a minimum, reclaimed water must be oxidized and disinfected to meet minimum standards of secondary treatment. Secondary stabilization must achieve an effluent with a 5-day BOD 5 concentration which does not exceed 30 mg/L and has a TSS concentration which does not exceed 30 mg/L. The effluent must also contain dissolved oxygen. With a BOD of 30 mg/L, an effluent stream still has organic pollutants present in both soluble and particulate forms. With a TSS of 30 mg/L, an effluent stream still has solids (usually organic in nature) that are not in a dissolved state. Applications of acceptable biological treatment technologies and design criteria are discussed in Chapter T3. Lagoons and stabilization ponds cannot reliably and consistently produce an effluent with BOD 5 and TSS concentrations of 30 mg/L. Therefore, using these treatment processes for reclaimed water projects will require additional treatment units for aeration and solids separation. Ammonia and other nitrogen compounds are additional water quality parameters important in defining the quality of water. Many wastewater treatment plants have effluent permits that limit the ammonia concentration in effluent to protect aquatic life. Some permits also limit total nitrogen in effluent to control nutrients in the receiving water. Although parameters for these compounds are not stipulated in the reclamation and reuse standards, the quantity of nitrogen in reclaimed water is important if it is used for irrigating crops or vegetation. Other constituents found in wastewater effluent include metals, organic and inorganic compounds, dissolved gases, and microorganisms. Some of these pose concerns when effluent is reused; both beneficial and detrimental effects are possible. The designer must determine if excess amounts of these constituents can be removed in the secondary treatment process, or if removal must take place in the advanced treatment processes (reclamation). E1-4.1.1 Source Water Reliability It is important to minimize the potential for release of reclaimed water that would threaten public health. Efficient operation of the reclamation processes and consistent production of a high-quality reclaimed water product is very dependent upon the quality of the secondary wastewater source. Special attention to the reliability of this source water is required. E1-4.1.2 Emergency Storage or Disposal Emergency storage and disposal measures must be in compliance with the water reclamation and reuse standards. E1-4.2 Regulatory Requirements There are four classes of reclaimed water, differentiated by the degree (or absence) of additional treatment provided following secondary treatment. The four reclaimed water E1-26 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design classes are defined in E1-1.3 and further described in Table E1-8. Typical uses for the reclaimed water classes are summarized in Table E1-1. Table E1-8. Characteristics of the Four Classes of Reclaimed Water Class Characteristics A Class A reclaimed water will at all times be oxidized, coagulated, filtered, and disinfected wastewater. State water reclamation and reuse standards call for Class A reclamation water to be filtered to a turbidity level which does not exceed an average operating turbidity of 2 nephelometric units (NTU), determined monthly, and which does not exceed 5 NTU at any time. Filtration can be achieved by passing oxidized wastewater through natural undisturbed soils or through filter media such as sand or anthracite. Class A reclaimed water must be disinfected such that the median number of total coliform organisms in the wastewater after disinfection does not exceed 2.2 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for which analyses have been completed, and such that the number of total coliform organisms does not exceed 23 per 100 milliliters in any sample. Class A reclaimed water is currently the only reclaimed water class for which Ecology requires coagulation and filtration. Further, the disinfection requirements for Class A reclaimed water are more stringent than for Class C or D reclaimed water (the disinfection requirements for Class B reclaimed water are identical to those for Class A). Class A reclaimed water must be used where the potential for public exposure to reclaimed water is high. B Class B reclaimed water will at all times be oxidized and disinfected wastewater. The wastewater will be considered adequately disinfected if the median number of total coliform organisms in the wastewater after disinfection does not exceed 2.2 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for which analyses have been completed, and the number of total coliform organisms does not exceed 23 per 100 milliliters in any sample. C Class C reclaimed water will at all times be oxidized and disinfected wastewater. The wastewater will be considered adequately disinfected if the median number of total coliform organisms in the wastewater after disinfection does not exceed 23 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for which analyses have been completed, and the number of total coliform organisms does not exceed 240 per 100 milliliters in any sample. D Class D reclaimed water will at all times be oxidized and disinfected wastewater. The wastewater will be considered adequately disinfected if the median number of total coliform organisms in the wastewater after disinfection does not exceed 240 per 100 milliliters, as determined from the bacteriological results of the last seven days for which analyses have been completed. E1-4.3 Unit Treatment Processes The unit treatment processes discussed in this section are those processes required to produce Class A, B, C, or D reclaimed water from secondary effluent. Accordingly, the process influent is assumed to be a secondary effluent with BOD 5 and TSS concentrations not exceeding 30 mg/L. The treatment processes discussed are coagulation and flocculation, filtration, and disinfection. The discussions on coagulation and filtration only apply to Class A reclaimed water; the discussion on disinfection technologies is applicable to all reclaimed water classes. E1-4.3.1 Coagulation and Flocculation Coagulation and flocculation are the processes of blending or mixing coagulating chemical(s) into a secondary wastewater stream to improve the removal of particulate and colloid material in a subsequent filtration step. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-27 A. Mixing Coagulants must be thoroughly mixed with the secondary effluent prior to filtration. Acceptable mixing methods include mechanical mixing in a flash mixing basin, air mixing, hydraulic mixing, and inline blending using either mechanical or static mixers. Pump mixing can also be used. Coagulants should be introduced into the secondary effluent stream with multiport diffusers or multiple coagulant injection nozzles to ensure thorough initial coagulant dispersion. For mechanical mixing, sufficient mixing energy should be applied to achieve a G value in the range of 1,000 sec-1 to 3,000 sec-1. For other mixing techniques for which G-value representations of mixing energy may not be applicable, mixing equipment should be sized to achieve thorough mixing in one to three seconds. G means “velocity gradient.” It is the measure of mixing intensity provided in chemical flash mixing and flocculation processes. G is defined mathematically as: V P G μ = where: G = velocity gradient, sec -1 or 1/sec P = power input, ft-lb/sec μ = dynamic viscosity, lb-sec/ft 2 V = volume, ft 3 (G = the square root of P divided by the symbol mu times V) B. Coagulant Dosing and Storage Acceptable coagulants and representative dosing rates are shown in Table E1-9. Other coagulants can be used only if coagulant performance is first verified through pilot testing. Table E1-9. Representative Coagulant Dosing Rate Coagulant Representative Dosing Rate, ppm Alum Ferric chloride Polymers 30 to 150 15 to 75 0.05 to 2 In addition, coagulant usage shall include the following: ? Provisions for using multiple coagulants. ? Separate injection point for each coagulant. ? Provisions for using caustic soda or lime for pH control. ? The injection point for caustic soda or lime should be located upstream from the coagulant injection points. E1-28 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C. Flocculation If flocculation is to be provided, then flocculation basins supplying a G value of 20 sec -1 to 70 sec -1 over a minimum 20-minute period shall be provided. Baffling shall be included to minimize short-circuiting. E1-4.3.2 Filtration Coagulated and flocculated secondary effluent must be filtered to achieve a minimum turbidity of 2 NTU. Many filtering techniques are available that are capable of providing this level of effluent turbidity. Examples of filter types include conventional slow and rapid sand filters, automatic backwashing filters such as traveling bridge filters, and moving-bed, continuous backwash filters. These filter types have been used for conventional water treatment purposes long enough that pilot testing is unnecessary. Use of other filter types, such as fabric filters, cartridge filters, and screens, will require pilot testing to be accepted. Filter media size is dependent upon necessary porosity ratios and is related to media depth; this is something that must be determined by pilot testing. Additional information on filtration is included in T4-2. Representative hydraulic loading rates for different filter types are shown in Table E1-10. Table E1-10. Representative Filter Hydraulic Loading Rates Filter Type Hydraulic Loading Range, gpm/sf Rapid sand Single medium 3 Multimedia 6 Slow sand 0.1 Automatic backwash 3 Moving bed, continuous backwash Fabric See Note A Cartridge See Note A Screens See Note A Note A: Dependent upon demonstration values and justification of manufacturing literature values. A. Backwashing Backwashing is the procedure used to clean filter media and restore its initial capacity to remove particulate matter from water. As material is removed by the filter, it is stored at the filter surface and in the filter bed. Increased pressure is required to maintain filter capacity. These higher pressures cause the materials stored at the surface of the filter and in the filter to be pushed through the filter and degrade water quality. The backwash procedure is intended to remove stored materials sufficiently to restore the capacity of the filter, prevent impact to the filtration capabilities and loads to other filters, and ensure that filter media is not significantly lost and damaged in the process. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-29 Backwashing will result in reduction of turbidity and solids removal capability when a filter is first returned to service following the cleaning procedures. The level of degradation is dependent upon site conditions, and can range from relative insignificance to major significance. Following a period of filter “ripening,” the removal capacity of the filter will return to levels required. General procedures provide for a “filter-to- waste” capability for this initial period by providing control elements and piping to divert the initial filter production to a waste stream. This division is maintained until the required removal capacity has been restored in the filter media. In the absence of assurance that filter-to-waste is not necessary for the facility based on past experience or extensive pilot study, these facilities should be incorporated into the facilities design. B. Filtration Methods There are four basic types of reclamation filters: traditional high-rate rapid sand filters, continuously washing counter-current upflow filters, rotating filter disk type, and compressible fiber filters. Some basic backwashing approaches for each type are as follows. 1. High-Rate Rapid Sand Filters Backwashing is initiated by either high effluent turbidity, high head loss, timer setpoint, or operator preference. The standard hydraulic backwash cycle usually employs water flowing in an up-flow mode at a rate of 18 to 25 gpm/sf (rates that are intended to produce about a 30-percent bed expansion; these rates are functions of water temperature and media type). Generally the backwashing procedure is maintained for 10 to 15 minutes depending on how rapidly the media is cleaned. Commonly, 3 to 5 percent of the total filter throughput is used for hydraulic backwashing. Where air scour is used to supplement hydraulic washing, air is first injected at a rate of 2 to 5 scfm/sf for 2 to 5 minutes, followed by hydraulic backwashing at rates of approximately 10 gpm/sf (to achieve a bed expansion of 10 percent). This sequence will generally consume less water (approximately 2 to 3 percent of the filter throughput) than conventional hydraulic backwashing. 2. Continuous Backwashing Counter-Current Upflow Filters For this type of filter, backwashing is performed continuously by the use of an air lift tube located in the center of the filter. The water to be filtered enters near the bottom of the filter and flows to the top of the filter. A small portion of the dirty filter media is pumped continuously by an air lift tube from the bottom of the filter to the top of the filter. During passage up the air lift tube, the dirty media is scrubbed with air and water separating the debris from the media. A collection box is used to separate the heavy sand media from the lighter debris fraction. The cleaned media is returned to the top of the filter to renew the filter cycle and the debris stream is discarded in the backwash waste stream. The experience with the this type of filter installed at King County’s East Section Reclamation Plant in Renton, Washington indicates that the backwashing stream constitutes 3 to 5 percent of the total filter E1-30 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design throughput. The backwashing process usually is operated at a rate of 0.1 to 0.5 gpm of water per square foot of filter media surface area and 0.4 to 0.1 scfm air flow per square foot of media surface area. 3. Rotating Filter Disk Type A rotating filter disk device consists of a series of disks covered in a fine mesh filter fabric. This type of unit is backwashed intermittently (depending on raw water quality) with a small portion of the filter under backwashing while the remainder of the filter is in filtration mode. As the disks rotate, they expose a small portion of the disk to an automatic backwash stream. Approximately 1 percent of the filter throughput is generally used for backwashing. Two filter disks are backwashed in the filter unit until all disks are washed. This backwashing procedure reverses the flow of water across the filter media by conveying clean water through the filter fabric to the inlet side of the backwash pump. Periodically, a high-pressure-wash jet cycle can also be used to augment filter cleaning. 4. Compressible Fiber Filters These filters, consisting of compressible fiber sphere media, are backwashed with an air scour/hydraulic backwash regimen. Since the media is very light, compressible, and filtration is done in an upflow mode, an upper plate (movable) is used to retain media in the filter. This filter retaining plate is moved upwards during the backwash cycle to permit media expansion. Air is applied at a rate of up to 15 scfm/sf and backwash water is applied at values of 10 gpm/sf. Backwashing typically utilizes approximately 2 to 4 percent of the filtered water throughput. After the backwashing cycle in which the media is allowed to expand, a flush cycle is used to complete the backwashing procedure while the media retaining plate is lowered to its “filtration” position. E1-4.3.3 Disinfection Requirements Disinfection is probably the most important step in the production of reclaimed water. The different classes of reclaimed water (Class A, B, C, and D) are largely differentiated by the respective levels of disinfection required. The regulatory requirements are listed in Table E1-11. See Chapter T5 for additional information on disinfection. Table E1-11. Disinfection Regulatory Requirements for Reclaimed Water Class Total Coliforms (Number per 100 ml) Maximum Total Coliform for a Single Sample (Number per 100 ml) A2.2 23 B2 C 23 240 D 240 Not applicable Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-31 When chlorine is used as the disinfectant, a total chlorine residual of at least 1.0 mg/L after a contact time of at least 30 minutes is required. In addition, a minimum residual chlorine concentration of 0.5 mg/L must be maintained in the conveyance system to the use area(s). (Note: This requirement may be waived by DOH and Ecology.) Maintenance of a chlorine residual is not required in reclaimed water impoundments and storage ponds, and at the discretion of DOH and Ecology, may not be required in reclaimed water distributed from storage ponds. E1-5 Distribution and Storage This section is intended to provide criteria for protection against the misuse of distribution facilities. Assurances that reclaimed water is adequately disinfected are required to ensure public safety and to minimize growth in the distribution systems. Cross connection control is needed to prevent a reclaimed main from mistakenly being connected to a potable system. Therefore, the location, depth, identification, and type of aboveground appurtenances, such as air/vac assemblies and blow-offs, should be studied carefully to avoid cross connections or inappropriate uses. E1-5.1 Conveyance Requirements E1-5.1.1 Disinfection See E1-4.3.3 for a discussion of disinfection requirements for the four classifications of reclaimed water. The distribution system should take into account several important concerns about disinfection from Article 9, Section 5 of the water reclamation and reuse standards. See also general information in Chapter T4. E1-5.1.2 Distribution System Requirements Where the reclaimed water distribution system is not under direct control of the permittee, a binding agreement among the parties involved is required to ensure that construction, operation, maintenance, and monitoring meet all requirements of DOH and Ecology. All reclaimed water valves and outlets shall be of a type (or secured in a manner) that permits operation only by authorized personnel. A. Pressure Pressure requirements should be based on system design and practice. In any case, minimum pressure at the user’s meter should be maintained at the peak demand hour. It is desirable that a pressure differential of 10 psi or greater be maintained, with the potable water supply having the higher pressure. B. Minimum Depth The top of the pipe should be a minimum of 36 inches below the finished street grade. E1-32 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C. Minimum Separation When running parallel, reclaimed water lines should be installed a minimum of 10 feet horizontal from any potable water lines or sanitary sewer lines. Whether running parallel or crossing, reclaimed water lines should be installed a minimum of 18 inches below any potable water lines and 1 foot above any sanitary sewer lines. Where separations cannot be maintained, special construction requirements should be provided, such as providing a sleeve, using ductile iron pipe, encasing in concrete, or other method approved by DOH and Ecology. See Chapter G1 for additional information on minimum separation of pipelines. E1-5.1.3 Pipe Identification A. General All new, buried distribution piping in the reclaimed water system, including service lines, valves, and other appurtenances, should be identified as follows: ? Be color-coded and embossed or be integrally stamped/marked with the approved warning (see Table E1-12). ? Be installed with identification tape or a polyethylene vinyl wrap (see Table E1-12). The warning shall be stamped on opposite sides of the pipe and repeated every 3 feet or less. Table E1-12. Identification Standards for Reclaimed Water Systems Item Suggested Standard (Must be Acceptable to the Review Agencies) Color Pantone 512 or 522, or other shades of purple acceptable to review agencies. Warning Should be either one of the following phrases: ? WARNING: RECLAIMED WATER-—DO NOT DRINK ? WARNING: NONPOTABLE WATER-—DO NOT DRINK Identification (Warning) Tape The tape (color-coded, as listed above) should include the warning (listed above) in high-contrast lettering. The overall width of the tape should be at least 3 inches. Equipment Tags and Surface Identification The words RECLAIMED WATER should be clearly inscribed on equipment tags and the top surface of below-grade appurtenances, such as valve boxes. Facility Signs Signs (color-coded, as listed above) should include the warning (listed above) in high-contrast lettering and must have the universal symbol for “do not drink.” An adequate number of signs in English and other primary languages spoken in the area should also be posted on the surrounding fence and at the entrance of each facility. B. Conversion of an Existing Potable System to a Reclaimed System Existing potable water lines that are being converted to reclaimed use should first be accurately located and tested in coordination with regulatory agencies. If required, the necessary actions to bring the water line and appurtenances into compliance with the water reclamation and Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-33 reuse standards should be taken. If the existing lines meet approval of the water supplier and regulatory agency, the lines may be approved for reclaimed distribution. If verification of the existing lines is not possible, the lines should be uncovered, inspected, and identified prior to use. Specific precautions should be made to ensure there are no unintended connections to the existing water system. Prior to being used, the line should be thoroughly tested, using dye, pressure, or other methods, to ensure there are no cross connections or unapproved connections. In actual practice, it will be very difficult to fulfill the above requirements, verify that there are no cross connections or unapproved connections, and ensure that all potable water customers have been removed from the intended water lines. There are serious concerns for converting an existing potable water system to a reclaimed water system and accordingly this practice is discouraged by Ecology. C. Identification Tape Tape (see Table E1-12) should be installed and centered on top of the transmission pipe longitudinally. The identification should be continuous on the pipe and fastened to each pipe length at least every 10 feet. Tape attached to sections of pipe before they are placed in the trench should have flaps sufficient for continuous coverage. Other satisfactory means of securing the tape during backfill of the trench may be used if approved by the review agency. Color-coded identification tape differentiating the reclaimed piping from other utility lines should be consistent throughout the service area. The agency should develop a standard specification and details for meeting these requirements, and be consistent. Other pipe and construction warning tape schemes may be acceptable to the review agencies provided the colors and messages are consistent with the details of E1-5.1.3. E1-5.1.4 Valve Box and Other Surface Identification A. General Valve boxes should be a standard concrete or fiberglass box with a special triangular, heavy-duty cover. All valve covers on offsite reclaimed transmission water lines should be of noninterchangeable shape with potable water covers and a recognizable inscription cast on the top surface (see Table E1-12). B. Identification All aboveground facilities should be consistently color-coded (see Table E1-12) and marked to differentiate reclaimed water facilities from potable water or wastewater facilities. E1-5.1.5 Blow-Off Assemblies Either an inline or end-of-line type blow-off or drain assembly should be installed for removing water or sediment from the pipe. The line tap for the E1-34 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design assembly should be no closer than 18 inches to a valve, coupling, joint, or fitting unless it is at the end of the line. If there are restrictions on discharge or runoff, the regulatory agencies should be consulted to find an acceptable alternative. E1-5.1.6 Fire Hydrants Where the reclaimed water system includes fire hydrants, each fire hydrant shall be identified with a tag in addition to being color-coded (see Table E1-12). The fire department and municipal water department should be instructed in the use and care of the equipment when the hydrants are being flushed to avoid overspray, and on the care of any equipment that may be subsequently used for a potable water use. E1-5.2 Storage and Supply Because there are daily and seasonal imbalances between reclaimed water supply and demand, storage facilities may be needed in the reclaimed water system. In addition to operational storage, when reclaimed water is used as the primary source of supply, seasonal storage may be needed because wastewater treatment is continuous while most reuse applications are seasonal. E1-5.2.1 Seasonal Storage When considering the size of reservoirs to meet irrigation requirements, open reservoirs may prove to be the most economical alternative. However, algal growth and suspended solids from open reservoirs have been recognized as sources of particles that may clog the sprinkler system. Most sprinkler system control valves and sprinkler heads can readily pass particles which pass through a 30-mesh screen. This corresponds to a screen opening of 0.0233 inch or 600 microns. It is recommended that all irrigation water that enters the distribution system from open reservoirs be filtered through a filtration process similar in performance to the filters used at the reclamation plant or, as a minimum, screened through a micro-strainer with a 200-mesh screen. The use of a very fine strainer or filter will remove the greatest percentage of suspended solids at central reservoir sites and minimize the need for special maintenance of the local sprinkler systems. E1-5.2.2 Operational Storage Facilities Operational storage provides a continuous supply of water during periods of downtime at the treatment plant, meets peak daily fluctuations in water demands, and allows for optimum plant operation. The size of the storage facilities depends on the degree of fluctuation and availability of supplemental supplies. Frequently, the reservoir is constructed to save costs by reducing peak period pumping charges. If there are supplementary sources to meet peak demands, smaller operational storage facilities may be used to control supplies into the distribution system. Operational storage facilities should be sized to hold at least one and one-half to two times the average summer-day demand volume. An option is to consider potable makeup water to offset part of the operational storage requirements. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-35 E1-5.2.3 Emergency Storage and Supply (Including Backup Supply) The distribution system may require supplementary sources to meet demand in case of a plant disruption or main supply interruption. Each system’s required storage capacity will be different, depending on the reliability of treatment processes, peak summer demands, availability of other sources, the proposed reliability of the system, end user (customer) agreements, and the ability to recover to normal conditions. Seasonal or operational storage facilities may be able to meet emergency storage requirements, depending on their storage capacities. If a system lacks necessary emergency storage capacity, and the agency has made commitments ensuring an uninterrupted supply, it should have at least one reliable supply source to meet its demand. If the reclaimed water supply can be interrupted by agreement, emergency storage systems may not be necessary. If the system requires potable water makeup, the potable water shall be introduced into the reclaimed water system with an air-gap pump station. E1-5.2.4 Fencing Reclaimed water supply reservoirs that are closed to the public should be enclosed within a fenced area or other enclosure that will prohibit public access. Fencing should also help minimize vandalism or damage from animals. Adequate measures shall be taken to prevent breeding of vectors with potential effects on public health and the creation of odors, slimes, or aesthetically displeasing deposits. E1-5.2.5 Identification All storage facilities should be identified by signs (see Table E1-12). E1-5.3 Pumping Agencies with pumping facilities to distribute reclaimed water should make special provisions to identify the type of water being handled, provide acceptable backflow protection, and avoid release of reclaimed water in an uncontrolled manner. E1-5.3.1 Marking All exposed and aboveground piping, fittings, pumps, valves, and so on should be color-coded (see Table E1-12). In addition, all piping should be identified using an accepted means of labeling with the approved warning (see Table E1-12). In a fenced pump station area, at least one sign (see Table E1-12) should be posted on the fence which can be easily read by all operations personnel using the facility. E1-5.3.2 Sealing Water Any potable water used as seal water for reclaimed water pump seals should be adequately protected from backflow, and proper drainage of the packing seal water should be provided. E1-36 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E1-5.3.3 Surge Protection All pumping systems should have proper surge protection facilities to prevent damage resulting from water hammer and pressure surges that can cause broken piping or damage to pumping equipment. E1-5.4 Tank Trucks Tank trucks and other equipment used to distribute reclaimed water shall meet certain criteria, as follows: ? Be clearly identified with advisory signs. ? Not be used to transport potable water that is used for drinking or other potable purposes. ? Not be filled using onboard piping or hoses that may subsequently be used to fill tanks with water from a potable water supply. ? Be inspected and approved for such use by the water supplier that provides potable water to the use area prior to transporting reclaimed water. E1-6 On-Site Applications The purpose of this section is to describe operational features and design issues with the distribution of reclaimed water. Because suspended matter may exist in the reclaimed water, certain features must be incorporated into the design of a project for safe and adequate distribution of the water. E1-6.1 Strainers at Meter Depending on the quality of reclaimed water and the type of storage used, strainers may be required at the consumer’s meter. Strainer types that are generally satisfactory are as follows: ? Wye strainers. Not recommended for belowground installations (in vaults). ? Basket strainers. Suitable for aboveground or belowground installations (in vaults). ? Filter strainers. Normally used above ground on drip systems. Strainers are normally the same size as the line and can be installed before or after the meter. In choosing the location, consider the following: ? Installation before the meter will protect the meter as well as the on-site reclaimed water system. Maintenance of the strainer will be the responsibility of the reclaimed water purveyor. ? Installation after the meter will not provide meter protection, and maintenance is usually not the responsibility of the purveyor. It should be noted in advance of this placement if there will be debris in the reclaimed water that may plug the screen in the meter. Strainers can range in mesh size from 20 to 325. A mesh size of 20 to 80 is normally adequate. An analysis of the potential debris in the reclaimed water will aid in prescribing Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-37 the optimum size. In order to reduce maintenance, material that will not plug on-site irrigation nozzles should normally be allowed to pass. E1-6.2 Controllers Controllers are used to automatically open and close on-site distribution valves. The following design features should be followed: ? Controllers should be fully automatic. ? Controllers should have multiple starting times that can be selected for any time of day, seven days a week, and should be equipped with moisture sensors to avoid activation during rainy periods. ? A station’s duration should be capable of delivering water from 1 to 60 minutes per each start time. ? Controllers for reclaimed water shall be color-coded to distinguish them from potable water. ? Controllers shall be labeled inside and outside to indicate that the system uses reclaimed water. The labels should also alert the system owner/maintenance personnel of any operational constraints. ? An appropriately sized drawing of the area served by the controller should be sealed in a plastic cover, placed in the controller, and updated as needed. E1-6.3 Pipe Identification See E1-5.1.3. E1-6.4 System Identification In differentiating a reclaimed water system from a potable water system, specific identification needs are as follows. E1-6.4.1 Hose Bibbs Hose bibbs are not allowed on reclaimed water systems. Quick couplers should be used if hose connections are necessary. Fittings should be designed to prevent interconnection between potable and nonpotable systems. Hoses used with reclaimed water shall not be used with the potable water systems. Signs (see Table E1-12) should be used to identify reclaimed-water quick couplers. When potable-water quick couplers are within 60 feet of a reclaimed water system, both should be equipped with appropriate signs. E1-6.4.2 Potable Water Systems Lines When potable water is being supplied to an area also being supplied with reclaimed water, the potable main should be clearly identified. A warning tape with the words CAUTION—DRINKING WATER LINE should be fastened directly to the top of the potable water pipe and run continuously the entire length of the pipe. In addition, the color of the potable water pipe shall differentiate it from reclaimed water. E1-38 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E1-6.5 Drinking Fountain/Public Facilities Potable drinking water fountains and other public facilities shall be located away from the irrigation area in which reclaimed water is used or otherwise isolated and protected. Exterior drinking fountains and other public facilities should be shown on the construction plans. If no exterior drinking fountains, picnic tables, food establishments, or other public facilities are present in the design area, then it should specifically state in the plans that none are planned. E1-6.6 Construction Water Water trucks, hoses, drop tanks, etc. should be identified as containing reclaimed water and unsuitable for drinking. E1-6.6.1 Permits The use of reclaimed water for construction purposes requires a permit from the regulatory agencies. The reclaimed water permit issued to the generator must authorize the construction water use. Additional permits may be required for construction water from the purveyor of the reclaimed water. E1-6.6.2 Equipment Equipment operators should be instructed about the requirements in applicable reuse standards, regulations outlined in this chapter, and the potential health hazards involved with using reclaimed water. Reclaimed water shall not be introduced into any domestic water piping system. No unprotected connection should be made between equipment containing reclaimed water and any part of a domestic water system. E1-6.6.3 Ponds Ponds used for storage of construction reclaimed water should be fenced and posted to limit public access. E1-6.7 Special Provisions Some special restrictions are placed on the operation of reclaimed water systems as a matter of good practice and to protect public health. Restrictions applied by the regulatory agencies should be in the detailed design, as follows: Runoff conditions Conditions which directly or indirectly cause runoff outside the approved use area are prohibited. Ponding conditions Conditions which directly or indirectly cause ponding outside or within the approved use area are prohibited. Overspray conditions Conditions which directly or indirectly permit windblown spray or overspray to pass outside the approved use area are prohibited. Unapproved uses Using reclaimed water for any purpose other than explicitly approved in a current effective user permit/agreement issued by the operating agency, and without the prior knowledge and approval of the appropriate regulatory agencies, is prohibited. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-39 Reuse/disposal in unapproved areas Reuse/disposal of reclaimed water for any purpose, including approved uses, in areas other than those explicitly approved in the current effective user permit/agreement issued by the operating agency, and without prior knowledge and approval of the appropriate regulatory agencies, is prohibited. Cross connections Cross connections resulting from using a reclaimed water service, whether by design, construction practice, or system operations, is prohibited. Hose bibbs Hose bibbs on reclaimed water systems are prohibited. Replacement of hose bibbs with quick couplers is required (see E1-6.4.1). Food establishments/ public facilities To prevent food from being exposed to spray from irrigation systems, reclaimed water irrigation systems should not be installed near food establishments or public facilities such as picnic tables and drinking fountains (see E1-6.5). E1-6.8 Irrigation Application Rate and Practice An irrigation system designed with reclaimed water should specify type and placement of sprinkler, type of soil, type of plants, slope, landscape to be used to prevent runoff, ponding, and overspray. Reclaimed water should be applied at a rate that does not exceed the infiltration rate of the soil. The irrigation system should not be allowed to operate longer than the landscape’s water requirements dictate. If runoff or ponding occurs before the landscape’s water requirement is met, the automatic controls should be reprogrammed with additional watering cycles to meet the requirements and prevent runoff. As much as possible, the irrigation system should be operated during periods of minimal public use of the approved area. E1-6.9 Equipment and Facilities Any equipment or facilities such as tanks, temporary piping, valves, or potable pumps that have been used with reclaimed water should be cleaned and disinfected before removal from the approved use area for use at another job site. The disinfection and cleaning should ensure protection of public health in the event of any subsequent use as approved by the agency supervisor. The disinfection process should be performed in his/her presence. E1-6.10 Warning Signs and Labels Agency warning signs and labels should be installed on designated facilities, including, but not limited to, controller panels, washdown, or blow-off hydrants on water trucks, and temporary construction services. The signs and labels should indicate that the system contains reclaimed water that is unsafe to drink (see Table E1-12). Where reclaimed water is used for recreational impoundments, warning signs should be installed to notify that the water in the impoundment is unsafe to drink. A detailed plan should be prepared showing placement and spacing of the proposed signs. Where reclaimed water is used for irrigation, warning signs should be installed. E1-40 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E1-7 Wetlands Discharge This section discusses the end use of reclaimed water for wetlands discharge. Prior to that discharge, the reclaimed water must meet all other requirements for treatment, reliability, distribution, labeling, etc. as addressed in other sections. In order to utilize a wetland discharge, complete project details must be included in a comprehensive water/sewer planning document (see E1-3.1, G1-4, and G1-5.1). The wetlands discussed in this section function as receiving waters. The use of constructed treatment wetlands as part of the treatment process is discussed in G3-3.7. Wetlands that are candidates to receive reclaimed water fall into four general types, as follows: ? Natural wetlands in a healthy, fully functional condition. ? Natural wetlands in a degraded condition. ? Mitigation wetlands. ? Constructed beneficial use wetlands. Natural wetlands and mitigation wetlands are considered jurisdictional wetlands and waters of the US and state. Beneficial use wetlands constructed on upland sites to produce natural habitat or for water quality enhancement, but not required as mitigation for loss of natural wetlands, are considered nonjurisdictional wetlands and are regulated as treatment facilities equivalent to constructed treatment wetlands. Wetland functions typically fall into general categories, as follows: ? Hydrologic. Storm/flood peak reduction, shoreline stabilization, ground water exchange (recharge, base flow). ? Water quality. Sediment accretion, nutrient uptake, etc. ? Food chain support. Structural and species-diversity components of habitat for plants, aquatic organisms, and wildlife. ? Recreation/aesthetic. Open space, passive recreation, education, etc. The beneficial uses of a wetland are closely related to the wetland’s functions. In order for a wetlands discharge project to be considered a beneficial use of reclaimed water, some enhancement, restoration, or creation of wetland functions should be demonstrated. E1-7.1 Site Conditions and Constraints For projects that propose to discharge reclaimed water to wetlands, information must be included within the facilities plan or project engineering report as follows: (1) A detailed map of site soils and topography to a 1-foot contour interval. Show existing wetland area, surrounding upland area, relevant natural and manmade features, soil types, and property boundaries. (Wetlands must be delineated per “Washington State Wetlands Identification and Delineation Manual,” Ecology Publication No. 96-94, March 1997 or latest edition.) (2) For jurisdictional wetlands, list wetland rating category (I, II, III, or IV). See Ecology Publication No. 93-74 or No. 91-58. (3) Identify property owner(s) and other property controls (lease, easement, covenant, etc.) for original wetland property, adjacent property to accommodate increase in wetland area, and surrounding upland buffer zone. Verify owners’ permission to use their land for this project. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-41 E1-7.2 Hydrologic Regime For projects that propose to discharge reclaimed water to wetlands, information must be included within the facilities plan or project engineering report as follows: (1) Show entire flow of reclaimed water from pipe outlet through the wetland to hydraulically connected surface or ground water. List surface water body, aquifer, or geologic formation by name. (2) Describe site soils, geology, and hydrogeology. Verify suitability of adjacent upland soils for increase in wetland area due to volume increase in water balance. Verify suitability for increased ground water exchange in the projected water balance under new conditions. (3) Measure or compute monthly baseline water balance for existing conditions. Include the following: ? Surface inflows and outflows; natural fluctuations. ? Subsurface inflows and outflows; natural fluctuations. ? Hydroperiod; water depths; natural fluctuations. ? Permanent pool; depth/surface area relationships. (4) Compute monthly projected water balance for new conditions, including reclaimed water flows. Include the following: ? Surface inflows and outflows. ? Subsurface inflows and outflows. ? Hydroperiod; water depths; changes induced by reclaimed water inflows. ? Permanent pool; depth/surface area relationships; changes induced by reclaimed water inflows. ? Increase in wetland surface area due to volume increase in water balance. (5) Verify compliance with hydrologic and hydraulic requirements of Article 3 of the Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards for wetlands discharge. (6) Show preliminary design of hydraulic buffer between pipe outlet and inlet to the wetland to control water velocities going into the wetland, with brief description of the hydraulic operation or performance of the buffer. (The hydraulic buffer may be a detention pond, constructed wetland, surge tank, or similar feature, with weir, orifice, or similar outlet control features to moderate the instantaneous discharge of reclaimed water into the wetland.) (7) Describe the overall management and operation controls to limit the volume discharge of reclaimed water to allowable limits in the water reclamation and reuse standards. (8) Describe the overall management and operational long-term commitment to maintain a reliable discharge of reclaimed water to the wetland once the wetland ecosystem has come to depend upon this inflow of water. E1-7.3 Water Quality Verify compliance with the water quality criteria of Article 3 of the Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards for wetlands discharge. E1-42 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E1-7.4 Biology/Ecology (1) Verify compliance with biological criteria requirements of Article 4 of the Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards for wetlands discharge, in particular for baseline reference conditions, mature biological structure, sampling methods, and locations. (2) Discuss expected biological and ecological adjustments to the new hydrologic regime (with reclaimed water inflows), including vegetation within the area of wetland expansion into adjacent upland areas. Describe the proposed planting scheme and schedule for wetlands plants, or conversely, the expected rates of natural propagation of wetlands vegetation into the new wetland areas. (3) Discuss the size and dimensions of an upland buffer zone necessary for the functions to be performed by the wetland. Show location of upland buffer zone, with property ownership and control and map. Verify that property ownership or control is consistent with upland buffer requirements, or conversely, identify land use conflicts with upland buffer requirements. (4) Discuss the role of this wetland within fisheries and wildlife management by agencies such as US Fish and Wildlife Service and State Department of Fish and Wildlife. For example: ? Identify whether wetland is used by migratory birds or anadromous fish. ? Determine whether the wetland is part of a larger habitat corridor or is isolated from other wildlife habitat. E1-7.5 Wetland Mitigation, Enhancement, or Restoration Plans Verify compliance with the requirements from any separate wetland mitigation plan, enhancement plan, or restoration plan, if applicable. Conversely, if not applicable, verify that a separate wetland mitigation plan, enhancement plan, or restoration plan has not been required by regulatory agencies. E1-8 Ground Water Recharge This section discusses the end use of reclaimed water for ground water recharge. Prior to this stage in the reuse project, the reclaimed water must meet all other requirements for treatment, reliability, storage, distribution, identification, and so on as addressed in other sections. In order to use reclaimed water for ground water recharge, the complete project details must be included in a comprehensive water/sewer planning document (see E1-3.1, G1-4, and G1-5.1). The primary recharge mechanisms are surface percolation and direct injection. Recharge that may occur as outflow from a wetland is addressed in E1-7. Water quality requirements for ground water recharge by surface percolation are codified in RCW 90.46.080. See also Chapter 173-154 WAC for state policy to protect upper aquifer zones from excessive water level declines or reductions in water quality. Development of standards for ground water recharge by direct injection was authorized by RCW 90.46.042. See also Chapter 173-154 WAC for state policy and authority to restrict new or additional large-volume withdrawals to lower aquifer zones. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-43 E1-8.1 Ground Water Protection Areas The following ground water protection areas have been recognized in state and federal laws and regulations: (1) Wellhead protection areas: Zones 1, 2, 3; contribution; influence. (2) Sole source aquifer. (3) Aquifer protection area (Chapter 36.36 RCW). (4) Critical aquifer recharge area (Growth Management Act). (5) Special (ground water) protection area (WAC 173-200-090). (6) Ground water management area (RCW 90.44.400; Chapter 173-100 WAC). For project sites located within or near a designated ground water protection area, the facilities plan or project engineering report should identify the type of area and any special requirements to be placed on the project. E1-8.2 Hydrogeologic Conditions and Constraints For projects that propose to use reclaimed water for ground water recharge, the following information must be included within the facilities plan or project engineering report: (1) As much as possible based on existing data, provide a complete hydrogeologic characterization of the project site. Be sure to include: ? Topographic and geologic maps and cross sections. ? Ground water elevations, contours and hydraulic grade lines, and natural fluctuations. ? Hydrologic/hydraulic features, recharge areas, streams, springs, wells, and other discharge areas, such as leakage to other aquifers, and deep seepage to marine waters. ? Water balance, recharge, follow-through, discharge, precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, base flow, and natural fluctuations. ? Aquifer co-efficients, hydraulic conductivity/permeability, transmissivity, storage, leakage, and directional transmissivity in anisotropic aquifers. ? Basic data, well logs, pumping test data sheets, and sample calculations. (2) Discuss adequacy of existing data and whether new test wells and/or aquifer testing might be needed to provide an adequate hydrogeologic characterization of the project site. (3) Show location of spreading basins or injection wells relative to hydrologic/hydraulic features on a map. Be sure to show proximity to nearby wells (both monitoring and water supply wells), surface discharges from the aquifer, and other discharges from the aquifer. Show plan and profile views of spreading basins, including key dimensions and elevations. Show profile view of injection wells, including key design features, dimensions, and elevations. (4) Calculate height, elevation, and lateral dimensions of ground water mound that will form beneath the spreading basins or around injection wells. Show water levels for pre-recharge conditions and predicted water levels for post-recharge conditions. E1-44 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design (5) Calculate and discuss hydraulic residence time in the aquifer and time of travel to nearby water supply wells. (6) Discuss hydraulic continuity between ground water and surface water. Calculate impacts of recharged ground water on surface base flows. (7) Discuss physical impacts of recharged ground water on areas of seawater intrusion, ground water contamination, or other degraded ground water quality. How will changes in hydraulic gradients induce movement of poor quality ground water to new areas? (8) Intent for water rights. ? Describe the intended water rights status for the recharged ground water. Will the recharged ground water be reserved as artificially stored ground water per Chapter 173-136 WAC; available for appropriation by others; reserved for instream flow needs for surface streams in hydraulic continuity with ground water; or a combination of these? Discuss. ? If it is intended to be reserved, file the appropriate water rights applications and include a copy in the facilities plan or engineering report. E1-8.3 Geotechnical Conditions and Constraints For projects that propose to use reclaimed water for ground water recharge, information must be included within the facilities plan or project engineering report, as follows: (1) Provide map showing features that might be vulnerable to high water tables or high artesian pressures, including building foundations, buried tanks (septic tanks, fuel tanks), pipelines (water, sewer, gas, fuels), surface slopes, and deep excavations. Show soil and subsurface conditions near these features. (2) Discuss water table or artesian pressure elevations, including capillary fringe and natural fluctuations, relative to these features. Discuss changes in soil strength and slope stability that might be induced by higher water tables or higher artesian pressures resulting from recharged ground water. Verify that changes in soil strength and slope stability will not jeopardize these features or cause other property damage. E1-8.4 Water Quality The designer must verify compliance with the water quality requirements of the water reclamation and reuse standards for ground water recharge. The required quality of reclaimed water depends on the method of ground water recharge. E1-8.4.1 Surface Percolation The basic water quality requirement in RCW 90.46.080 is that the reclaimed water must meet the ground water recharge criteria (specifically, the contaminant criteria found in the drinking water quality standards) as measured in ground water beneath or down-gradient of the recharge project site. Toward this end, specific items must be addressed as follows: (1) Reclaimed water must comply with or exceed standards for Class A reclaimed water. Include calculation of CT values for the disinfection process. Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-45 (2) The advanced secondary treatment or tertiary treatment process used to provide oxidized wastewater must include appropriate treatment to reduce the nitrogen content in the final reclaimed water to the level required by the ground water recharge criteria. (3) Verify adoption of an approved pretreatment program (either by local delegation or in conjunction with Ecology), and discuss the sewer utility’s implementation policies and practices. Identify major industrial dischargers to the sewer system, and discuss their compliance history and performance with regard to pretreatment requirements. (4) Document background/natural ground water quality. Be sure to include bacteria, physical and inorganic chemicals, organic chemicals, and radionuclides. Identify areas of seawater intrusion, ground water contamination, or other degraded ground water quality. (5) Verify compliance with drinking water quality criteria as measured in ground water beneath or down-gradient of the recharge project site for the new mixture of ground water and reclaimed water. Discuss ability of soil and aquifer materials and processes to provide a safe, potable ground water; the fate of residual pollutants from the reclaimed water while in residence within the vadose (unsaturated) zone and the aquifer; and hydraulic residence time for reclaimed water in the vadose zone and the aquifer before extraction by nearby water supply wells and/or discharge to nearby surface waters. (6) Discuss additional water quality monitoring for constituents found in reclaimed water for which drinking water criteria have not been established. Identify recommended sampling locations within the treatment and conveyance facilities and from monitoring wells. (7) For nearby surface waters in hydraulic continuity with ground water, discuss surface water quality impacts of surface discharges from the aquifer. (8) Discuss water quality impacts of recharged ground water on areas of seawater intrusion, ground water contamination, or other degraded ground water quality. E1-8.4.2 Direct Injection Verify compliance with treatment, water quality, operational, and pilot plant study requirements of Articles 3, 4, 6, and 11 of the Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards for direct ground water recharge. The treatment and water quality requirements apply to the reclaimed water at the point of injection. Designers should note that the reverse-osmosis process produces water that is quite pure, but may also be rather aggressive. Typical design practice is to include a step for water quality stabilization following the reverse-osmosis step. To avoid undesirable reactions between sodium compounds and any clay particles that may be in the aquifer, it may be prudent to use calcium compounds to reduce the corrosivity of the reverse-osmosis treated water. These issues should be examined during the pilot study. Designers also need to consider the disposal problems associated with reject water from the reverse-osmosis process. Reject water is a concentrated brine solution containing organic constituents, inorganic constituents such as salts E1-46 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design and metals, and, in some cases, microbial agents not removed by preceding treatment processes. Means of disposal that have been successful elsewhere include discharge to the ocean, pumping back to the headworks of a wastewater treatment plant, deep well injection to nonpotable aquifers, and disposal via evaporation ponds if site-specific conditions are acceptable to Ecology. It is important to resolve this issue early in the facilities planning process. E1-8.5 Injection Wells and Monitoring Wells Injection wells and monitoring wells must be designed and constructed in accordance with requirements of state minimum standards for construction and maintenance of wells. (See Chapter 173-160 WAC.) Injection and monitoring wells should be designed and well locations selected with the assistance and concurrence of a qualified hydrogeologist. Injection wells and monitoring wells must be installed by a licensed well driller in accordance with requirements of Chapter 173-162 WAC. E1-9 Indirect Potable Reuse This section discusses the beneficial use of reclaimed water for indirect potable reuse. As used here, indirect potable reuse means the discharge of reclaimed water into a reservoir used as a raw water source for drinking water supply, or into a stream which flows into such a reservoir, with the concurrence and participation of the water supply utility in the indirect potable reuse project. The intent is to augment the natural flow of the stream/reservoir system with additional flow from the reclaimed water system. These drinking water sources are subject to the requirements of the Surface Water Treatment Rule of the Safe Drinking Water Act. Potable use of ground water through recharge using reclaimed water is addressed in E1-8. For projects that propose to use reclaimed water for indirect potable reuse, the complete project details must be included in a comprehensive water/sewer planning document (see E1-3.1, G1-4, and G1-5.1). Prior to discharge into the receiving stream or reservoir, the reclaimed water must meet all other requirements for treatment, reliability, conveyance, distribution, identification, and so on as addressed in other sections. The reclaimed water may be discharged directly to the receiving stream or reservoir, or may pass through a wetland (see also E1-7) on its way to the stream or reservoir. According to Chapter 90.46 RCW, reclaimed water projects for streamflow augmentation, including indirect potable reuse, must comply with the federal Clean Water Act and the State’s Water Pollution Control Act (Chapter 90.48 RCW). In practice, this means the discharge must be allowed by an NPDES permit and meet the surface water quality standards in Chapter 173-201A WAC. The provision in state law that “reclaimed water is no longer wastewater” does not supersede these requirements of federal law. Washington State currently has no specific requirements for indirect potable reuse. Requirements for specific reuse projects will be determined on a case-by-case basis in consultation with Ecology and DOH, with general elements in mind as described in this section. E1-9.1 Hydraulic Regime For projects that propose to use reclaimed water for indirect potable reuse, information must be included within the facilities plan or project engineering report, as follows: Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-47 (1) Provide a site map to show the stream/reservoir system, reclaimed water outfall location, and drinking water intake location. Identify the receiving surface water body by name. (2) Provide a stage-storage curve for the reservoir. Presentation may be graphical or tabular format, with presentation in both formats preferred. (3) Calculate the shortest hydraulic residence time for reclaimed water in the reservoir prior to withdrawal for drinking water supply. Consider the combination of low stream flows, high diversion flows, and low reservoir water levels and storage volumes that will give the shortest hydraulic residence time in the reservoir. (4) Intent for water rights: ? Describe the intended water rights status for the augmented streamflows. Will the project increase appropriation and diversion for drinking water supply; provide additional surety just for current appropriation and diversion; reserve a portion for instream flow needs downstream of the reservoir; or a combination of these? Discuss. ? If it is intended to increase the appropriation and diversion for water supply, and/or to be reserved for instream flows, file the appropriate water rights applications, and include a copy in the facilities plan or engineering report. (5) Describe the overall management and operational long-term commitment to maintain a reliable discharge of reclaimed water to the stream/reservoir system once the water supply system and downstream instream flows have come to depend upon this inflow of water. (6) Outfall design as outlined in E1-10.3. E1-9.2 Water Quality As noted previously, Washington State currently has no specific requirements for indirect potable reuse. Reclamation treatment processes and water quality requirements for specific reuse projects will be determined on a case-by-case basis in consultation with Ecology and DOH, with general elements in mind as follows: (1) Reclaimed water must comply with or exceed standards for Class A reclaimed water. Actual treatment and quality requirements will probably be similar to those for direct injection for ground water recharge (see E1-8.4.2), and may be more stringent for some constituents. (2) Verify compliance with the surface water quality standards for lake class waters as required by the NPDES permit. Consult with Ecology and DOH regarding nutrient removal requirements for protection of aquatic habitat and for aesthetic qualities of the water supply including taste, impacts on disinfection, and so on. (3) Verify adoption of an approved pretreatment program (either by local delegation, or in conjunction with Ecology), and discuss the sewer utility’s implementation policies and practices. Identify major industrial dischargers to the sewer system, and discuss their compliance history with regard to pretreatment requirements. (4) Verify compliance with surface water treatment rule requirements for the new mixture of natural and reclaimed water. Discuss hydraulic residence time for reclaimed water in the reservoir; fate of residual pollutants from the reclaimed E1-48 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design water while in residence within the reservoir; and the ability of the filtration treatment process to provide a safe, high-quality drinking water. E1-10 Streamflow Augmentation This section discusses the beneficial use of reclaimed water for streamflow augmentation, including maintenance of lake water levels. Indirect potable reuse is a special case of streamflow augmentation, addressed separately in E1-9. For projects that propose to use reclaimed water for streamflow augmentation, the complete project details must be included in a comprehensive water/sewer planning document (see E1-3.1, G1-4, and G1-5.1). Prior to discharge into the receiving stream or lake, the reclaimed water must meet all other requirements for treatment, reliability, conveyance, distribution, identification, and so on as addressed in other sections. The reclaimed water may be discharged directly to the receiving lake or stream, or may pass through a wetland (see E1-7) on its way to the lake or stream. According to RCW 90.46.100, reclaimed water projects for streamflow augmentation must comply with the federal Clean Water Act and the State’s Water Pollution Control Act (Chapter 90.48 RCW). In practice, this means the discharge must be allowed by an NPDES permit, and must meet the surface water quality standards in Chapter 173-201A WAC. The provision in state law that “reclaimed water is no longer wastewater” does not supersede these requirements of federal law. For projects that propose to use reclaimed water for streamflow augmentation, additional information must be included within the facilities plan or project engineering report, as follows: E1-10.1 Receiving Water Identify receiving water class (AA, A, B, C, or lake), and any TMDL requirements, and verify compliance with respective water quality criteria as required by NPDES permit. See Chapter E2 for additional information on effluent disposal to surface water. E1-10.2 Hydraulic Regime (1) Intent for water rights: ? Describe the intended water rights status for the augmented streamflows. Is it reserved for instream flow needs, or available for appropriation and diversion? ? If intended to be reserved for instream flows, file a water rights application for instream flow reservation and include a copy in the facilities plan or engineering report. (2) Describe the overall management and operational long-term commitment to maintain a reliable discharge of reclaimed water to the stream or lake once the downstream ecosystem and diversion water rights (if any) have come to depend upon this inflow of water. E1-10.3 Outfall Design The physical discharge of reclaimed water to the receiving stream, lake, or reservoir may occur directly through a piped outfall or indirectly through a pond or wetland (See Water Reclamation and Reuse December 1998 E1-49 E2-3.2 for additional information). The respective information requirements are as follows: (1) Provide a site map showing outfall location and key design features. (2) For a direct piped outfall, provide information as follows: ? Reclaimed water pipeline diameter and material. ? If pumping is required, show pump location and capacity (flow, TDH, hp). ? A drawing showing details for diffuser or other outfall structure. ? A hydraulic profile for reclaimed water discharges. Verify hydraulic performance over the normal range of water levels for the stream, lake, or reservoir. ? Outfall site soils, geology, and fluvial geomorphology. Is the natural stream channel migrating? Is the channel subject to significant scour or sedimentation at this location? ? Discuss design features that will keep the outfall pipeline, diffuser, and/or structure in place and functioning during the normal range of streamflows, especially during high flow periods. (3) For a pond or wetland outfall, provide information as follows: ? Specify the pipe diameter and material for the reclaimed water pipeline to the pond or wetland. ? If pumping is required, show pump location and capacity (flow, TDH, hp). ? Provide a drawing showing details for outfall structure from pipeline into the pond or wetland. Identify whether the pond or wetland is natural or constructed. ? Provide a drawing showing details of the outlet from pond or wetland to the receiving stream, lake, or reservoir. Note that the pond or wetland outlet may be constructed or natural. ? Provide the hydraulic profile for reclaimed water discharges from pipeline through the pond or wetland to the receiving stream, lake, or reservoir. Verify hydraulic performance over the normal range of water levels for the stream, lake, or reservoir. ? For a wetland outfall to a receiving stream, see also requirements in E1-7. E1-11 References Camp, Dresser and McKee, Inc. Guidelines for Water Reuse. January 1996. Pacific Northwest Section—American Water Works Association, Cross connection Control Committee. Cross connection Control Manual, Accepted Procedure and Practice. Sixth Edition, Chapter 1. December 1995. Washington State Department of Ecology. Washington State Wetlands Identification and Delineation Manual. Publication 96-94. March 1997 or latest edition. E1-50 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Washington State Departments of Health and Ecology. No Longer Wastewater: Water Reclamation and Reuse Implementation. Final Report to Washington State Legislature. Publication 97-29. December 1997. Washington State Departments of Health and Ecology. Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards. Publication 97-23. September 1997 or latest edition. December 1998 E2-1 E2 Effluent Disposal to Surface Water This chapter contains information on the requirements, criteria, and guidance for achieving a functioning surface water outfall. Types of outfalls, types of surface receiving waters, and siting objectives are described. Environmental and design considerations are provided by receiving water type, including marine and ocean water, estuaries, rivers, lakes, and intermittent streams. E2-1 Overview of Applicable Requirements of Department of Ecology ....... 3 E2-1.1 Surface Water Quality Standards......................................3 E2-1.1.1 Classes of Surface Waters ...................... 3 E2-1.1.2 Numerical and Narrative Criteria ........... 3 E2-1.1.3 Mixing Zones.......................................... 3 E2-1.1.4 Antidegradation ...................................... 3 E2-1.2 Sediment Management Standards......................................3 E2-1.2.1 Numerical Criteria .................................. 4 E2-1.2.2 Screening-Level Evaluation.................... 4 E2-1.2.3 Sediment Impact Zone (SIZ) .................. 4 E2-1.3 NPDES Permit ...............................4 E2-1.3.1 Receiving Water and Effluent Data........ 4 E2-1.3.2 Effluent Mixing Study/TMDL Determination................................................. 4 E2-1.3.3 Effluent Limits........................................ 5 E2-1.3.4 Outfall Evaluation................................... 5 E2-2 Overview of Applicable Requirements of Other Agencies............................... 5 E2-2.1 Federal Agencies ..........................5 E2-2.1.1 Environmental Protection Agency.......... 5 E2-2.1.2 Corps of Engineers ................................. 5 E2-2.2 Other State Agencies....................6 E2-2.2.1 Department of Health ............................. 6 E2-2.2.2 Department of Natural Resources........... 6 E2-2.2.3 Department of Fish and Wildlife ............ 6 E2-2.3 Local Agencies .............................6 E2-3 General Guidance ................. 6 E2-3.1 Objective .......................................6 E2-3.2 Outfalls ..........................................7 E2-3.2.1 General Design Considerations .............. 7 E2-3.2.2 Types of Outfalls .................................... 7 E2-3.2.3 Reliability ............................................... 9 E2-3.2.4 Operations and Maintenance .................. 9 E2-3.3 Types of Surface Receiving Waters......................................... 10 E2-3.3.1 Marine and Ocean..................................10 E2-3.3.2 Salt-Wedge Estuary and Tidally Reversing River.............................................10 A. Salt-Wedge Estuary....................................10 B. Tidally Reversing River..............................10 E2-3.3.3 River and Run-of-the-Reach Reservoir .......................................................11 E2-3.3.4 Intermittent Stream................................11 E2-3.3.5 Natural and Constructed Wetlands ........11 E2-3.4 Siting Objectives........................ 11 E2-3.5 Effluent Characteristics............. 12 E2-3.5.1 Effluent Quality .....................................12 E2-3.5.2 Seasonal Discharges ..............................12 E2-3.5.3 Seasonal Effluent Limitations................12 E2-3.5.4 Intermittent Discharges..........................12 A. Combined Sewer/Sanitary Sewer Overflows.................................................13 B. Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)...............13 C. Tidally Influenced Lagoon .........................13 D. Equalization and Holding Basin.................13 E2-4 Guidance by Receiving Water Type ......................... 14 E2-4.1 Objective..................................... 14 E2-4.2 Marine and Ocean Outfalls ........ 14 E2-4.2.1 Environmental Considerations...............14 A. Ambient Data .............................................14 B. Effluent Mixing ..........................................15 C. Siting ..........................................................15 E2-4.2.2 Design Considerations...........................16 A. System Hydraulics......................................16 B. Diffuser Hydraulics ....................................16 E2-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design C. Geomorphology Studies .............................16 D. Geomorphology Design .............................17 E. Siting Hazards.............................................17 F. Pipe Design.................................................17 E2-4.3 Salt-Wedge Estuary and Tidally Reversing River Outfalls ........................................18 E2-4.3.1 Environmental Considerations...............18 A. Ambient Data .............................................18 B. Effluent Mixing ..........................................19 C. Siting ..........................................................19 E2-4.3.2 Design Considerations...........................20 A. System Hydraulics......................................20 B. Geomorphology..........................................20 C. Siting Hazards ............................................20 D. Pipe Design ................................................21 E2-4.4 River and Run-of-the-Reach Reservoir Outfalls.......................22 E2-4.4.1 Environmental Considerations...............22 A. Ambient Data .............................................22 B. Effluent Mixing ..........................................22 C. Siting ..........................................................22 E2-4.4.2 Design Considerations...........................23 A. System Hydraulics......................................23 B. Geomorphology..........................................23 C. Siting Hazards ............................................23 D. Pipe Design ................................................24 E2-4.5 Lake and Reservoir Outfalls.......25 E2-4.6 Intermittent Stream Outfalls.......25 E2-4.6.1 Environmental Considerations...............25 E2-4.6.2 Design Considerations...........................25 E2-4.7 Natural and Constructed Wetlands Outfalls .......................25 E2-5 References........................... 25 Tables E2-1. Types of Outfalls and Their Uses.................... 8 E2-2. Types of Seasonal Discharges........................12 E2-3. Required Oceanographic Data for Siting and Designing Marine and Ocean Outfalls ............15 Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-3 E2-1 Overview of Applicable Requirements of Department of Ecology This section includes the applicable requirements of the Department of Ecology for surface water effluent disposal. See Chapter G1 for additional information on Ecology requirements. E2-1.1 Surface Water Quality Standards Water quality standards ensure that the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of Washington’s surface waters are maintained. Wetlands are included in these water quality standards. Treated effluent must be discharged to a receiving wetland in a way that preserves the existing wetland functions and meets the antidegradation requirements. These standards are codified in Chapter 173-201A WAC, Water Quality Standards for Surface Waters of the State of Washington (aquatic life-based) and in 40 CFR Part 131, the National Toxics Rule (human-health based). (See Chapter VI in Ecology’s “Permit Writer’s Manual” for more overview.) Several key parts of the standards relative to outfall design development are as follows: E2-1.1.1 Classes of Surface Waters The first part of the standards is a categorization of water bodies based on the expected beneficial uses of those water bodies. Washington’s highest classification is Class AA (extraordinary) and the lowest is Class C (fair). All characteristic uses assigned to a water body must be fully protected by any approved discharge activity. E2-1.1.2 Numerical and Narrative Criteria The second part of the standards is the water quality criteria deemed necessary to support the uses described for each class. Conventional parameters and some toxicants are assigned numeric criteria; aesthetics and deleterious “nontoxic” materials have narrative requirements; and toxic substances are assigned both numerical and narrative criteria. E2-1.1.3 Mixing Zones A third part of the standards allows the use of mixing zones for discharges that would otherwise exceed the water quality criteria for aquatic life or human health. Mixing zones are areas surrounding permitted outfalls where the water quality standards may be exceeded, but the area is insignificant enough so as not to interfere with beneficial uses of the receiving water. Mixing zones are a regulatory recognition that the concentrations and effects of most pollutants diminish rapidly after discharge due to dilution. E2-1.1.4 Antidegradation A fourth part of the standards is the antidegradation plan which is designed to ensure discharges are only allowed where they are technically necessary and in the overriding public interest. E2-1.2 Sediment Management Standards Sediment management standards ensure that there are no acute or chronic adverse effects on biological resources and no significant health risk to humans caused by aquatic sediment contamination. These standards are codified in Chapter 173-204 WAC. E2-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Additional information on this is contained in Ecology’s “Permit Writer’s Manual.” Several key parts of the standards relative to outfall design are as follows: E2-1.2.1 Numerical Criteria Chemical, biological, and other criteria are established as standards for the quality of sediments to protect beneficial uses and human health. These are called sediment quality standards and are equivalent to the numerical criteria in the surface water quality standards. E2-1.2.2 Screening-Level Evaluation A screening-level evaluation of the potential for a discharge to cause sediment impacts is conducted when a permit application is submitted for a new or existing discharge. If the evaluation indicates that it is likely the discharge would adversely impact the receiving sediments, the permit is issued or renewed with sediment monitoring requirements, a Sediment Impact Zone (SIZ) authorization, and/or sediment quality-based effluent limits. E2-1.2.3 Sediment Impact Zone (SIZ) The standards allow the use of SIZs for discharges that have the potential to impact sediments. Ecology can require any information needed to simulate sediment contamination using its SIZ models. The models project contamination over a 10-year period to determine whether a SIZ is necessary and to determine the area, extent, and location of the SIZ. E2-1.3 NPDES Permit A NPDES permit is a legal document that allows an entity to discharge wastewater, but limits the concentration and/or loading of particular pollutants that can be discharged. All outfalls to surface waters require NPDES permits. These permits are authorized by Section 402 of the federal Clean Water Act and administered by states. Model permits and fact sheets (shells) are available on Ecology’s web page, or refer to Chapters I and II in Ecology’s “Permit Writer’s Manual” for more details. Several important components of NPDES permits are as follows: E2-1.3.1 Receiving Water and Effluent Data Sufficient receiving water and effluent information must be collected to determine if there is a reasonable potential that any pollutant(s) might cause a violation of the water quality standards. If reasonable potential exists (100-per- cent certainty is not required by law), then this information will be used to calculate effluent limits. E2-1.3.2 Effluent Mixing Study/TMDL Determination If, after completing an antidegradation determination, it is determined that a discharge can be authorized but cannot meet water quality criteria without dilution, then a mixing study will be necessary. The degree of effluent and receiving water mixing which occurs within the mixing zone must be determined before effluent limits can be calculated. The key outcome from studying the mixing zone’s characteristics is a set of dilution factors. The study should be undertaken in accordance with “Guidance Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-5 for Conducting Mixing Zone Analyses,” which is included as Appendix 6.1 to Ecology’s “Permit Writer’s Manual.” Dischargers to stressed receiving waters (as identified in Ecology’s 303(d) list) may have to defer to the results of a TMDL determination. TMDLs determine the loading capacity (assimilative capacity) of a receiving water. This is the maximum load a segment of water can receive from various sources for a particular pollutant without violating a water quality criterion for that pollutant. E2-1.3.3 Effluent Limits A NPDES permit contains discharge limitations for a list of pollutants and the allowable concentration or loading of each. The effluent limits can be based on water quality or sediment quality. E2-1.3.4 Outfall Evaluation All permittees are required to inspect the outfall line and diffuser to document its integrity and continued functioning. E2-2 Overview of Applicable Requirements of Other Agencies This section includes the applicable requirements specifically relating to surface water quality effluent disposal. See Chapter G1 for additional information on other agency requirements. E2-2.1 Federal Agencies E2-2.1.1 Environmental Protection Agency Many federal programs administered by the EPA can be managed by state government through delegation. In Washington, Ecology’s applicable requirements are strongly influenced by the federal Clean Water Act. Appendix 1.1 to Chapter I of Ecology’s “Permit Writer’s Manual” is an index of all federal NPDES regulations. Section 401 of the federal Clean Water Act requires that EPA be provided a water quality certification from the state that a discharge complies with federal discharge regulations and state aquatic protection regulations. Timing of certification is tied to the Corps of Engineers permit processes. E2-2.1.2 Corps of Engineers The Corps of Engineers (Corps) requires all work in US navigable waters to undergo the Corps Section 10 permit process. Work in wetlands or the discharge of dredge and fill material into water or wetlands is subject to Section 404 of the federal Clean Water Act permit process. Not every activity requires a separate, individual permit application. However, many of the state and local permit processes mentioned in this chapter are triggered in conjunction with one of these two permit processes. E2-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E2-2.2 Other State Agencies In 1995, directors of the Departments of Ecology, Fish and Wildlife, Health, and Natural Resources signed the Inter-Agency Permit Streamlining Document. This document is an agreement for use in siting and expanding outfalls in marine waters. Relevant requirements of the Departments of Health and Natural Resources are applicable only for discharges in marine waters and are thoroughly discussed in the implementation guidance completed in 1996. A Comprehensive Alternatives Analysis (CAA) is required to determine if a “reasonable and feasible” alternative for siting or expanding an outfall exists. If the agencies determine that a proposed outfall project will have potentially significant adverse impacts on shellfish resources and that mitigation proposed in the CAA is not sufficient to prevent a net loss of harvestable shellfish resources, a Shellfish Mitigation Plan should be prepared by the project proponent. A hydraulic permit approval (HPA) required by Fish and Wildlife is applicable to projects in both fresh and marine receiving waters. E2-2.2.1 Department of Health The state Department of Health (DOH) has the principal responsibility for protecting human health and has specific duties for commercial and recreational shellfish harvesting. It sets shellfish closure zones, including zones in the area of outfalls. E2-2.2.2 Department of Natural Resources The Department of Natural Resources (DNR) is the steward of publicly-owned aquatic lands and is responsible for their maintenance. Any outfall project located in aquatic lands managed by DNR must have a valid lease from the DNR. E2-2.2.3 Department of Fish and Wildlife The Department of Fish and Wildlife administers hydraulic project approvals (HPA) under the Hydraulics Act for in-water construction (see Chapter 75.20 RCW). Any outfall project will necessarily include in-water construction, and so is required to have an HPA. E2-2.3 Local Agencies Local county or city government is responsible for regulating development. Their requirements pertain to local zoning and building codes, comprehensive land use and shoreline plans, and local development policies. See Chapter G1 for information on local permit requirements. E2-3 General Guidance E2-3.1 Objective This section categorizes outfalls based upon configuration, type of receiving water, and discharge characteristics. For each category of outfall, general criteria are provided for Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-7 successful siting, design, and construction, and smooth operation and maintenance. E2-4 expands upon the general criteria by addressing specific criteria for receiving waters. E2-3.2 Outfalls E2-3.2.1 General Design Considerations The primary functions of an outfall are to discharge effluent with maximum hydraulic efficiency, maximize dispersion of effluent into receiving waters, and minimize environmental impacts of the discharge. To achieve these goals, an iterative process is required using these criteria concurrently: ? Engineering alternatives and criteria are defined. ? Functional performance is assessed. ? Water quality and beneficial use impacts are evaluated. E2-3.2.2 Types of Outfalls Outfalls may be functionally categorized as single-port submerged, multiple- port diffusers, and side-bank exposed. Types of outfalls and their uses are described in Table E2-1. E2-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Table E2-1. Types of Outfalls and Their Uses Types Uses Comments Single-Port Submerged A single-port submerged outfall is typically applied in situations where: ? Ambient conditions favor rapid dilution ? There is a very large bulk mixing ratio ? Bathymetry or bottom stability precludes a diffuser Port scour velocities should exceed 2 fps. The port is normally oriented to inject effluent away from the shoreline and sensitive (beneficial use) areas. Multi-Port Diffuser A multi-port diffuser consists of a header pipe containing two or more ports (with or without risers) discharging in any orientation. Multi-port diffusers include wyes and other atypical arrangements. Multi-port diffusers are typically applied in situations where: ? Maximizing dispersion is imperative ? Effluent flow rates are greater than 1 mgd ? Bathymetry is not extreme ? Underwater slope stability is good General design criteria for multi-port diffusers include the following: ? There should be adequate flow velocities in the diffuser to prevent deposition of solids carried with the flow. Practically speaking, this is very difficult to achieve for low flows. Minimum flow speeds in the 2 to 3 fps range should be achieved for peak flows in order to scour any material that has settled during low flows. An end structure or cleanout port is normally placed at the terminus of the diffuser for blowing out accumulated material. ? Overall head losses should be kept as low as possible to minimize pumping costs. ? Individual port velocities should exceed 2 fps at average dry weather flows, if adequate head is available. Maximum port velocity should rarely exceed 15 fps. Across-port flow variations should be no more than 20 percent under the normal diffuser operating flow range. ? All ports should be fully occupied by discharging wastewater, that is, no seawater intrusion should occur while the diffuser is in operation. This can be assured, for all ports, with a Froude number greater than 1. The Froude number is defined as the ratio of port velocity to the square root of relative density difference (ambient less discharge) times port diameter. ? The total area of ports downstream of a diffuser section, with few exceptions, should not exceed one- half to two-thirds of the area of that section. ? Hydraulic analysis of multi-port diffusers may be performed on a spreadsheet or computer using the iterative process developed in “Diffusers for Disposal of Sewage in Sea Water” (Rawn, A.M., et al., ASCE, March 1960). ? To ensure design criteria are met under startup flow, blind flanges may be placed on a portion of the ports. These ports are placed in service as annual flow increases. Other general design criteria for multi-port diffusers may be found in “Marine Outfall Systems” (Grace, R.A., 1978). Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-9 Types Uses Comments Side-Bank Exposed Side-bank exposed outfalls include single open-ended pipes discharging on riprap or energy dissipation structures and perforated pipe buried in shore river gravel (that is, an exfiltration gallery). Side-bank exposed outfalls are typically applied in riverine situations where: ? River stability (geomorphology) precludes a submerged outfall ? Near-shore plume attachment is not a critical concern (that is, shoreline beneficial uses are minimal or would not be affected) ? The outfall is not visible to the public ? The potential for human contact is low Special provisions for side-bank exposed outfalls include trash racks and barrier screens to prevent animal entry, careful posting of potential hazards to passersby, energy dissipation structures, tide gates (if applicable), and bank erosion control. E2-3.2.3 Reliability Reliability, or the uninterrupted discharge of effluent, can be incorporated into an outfall design as follows: ? Use construction materials suitable for the receiving water corrosiveness, including cathodic protection where appropriate. ? Provide a cleanout and access manhole on the shore where the offshore portion of the outfall begins. ? Provide equalization storage and holding or a safe emergency bypass in the event of outfall malfunction and to facilitate outfall cleaning and maintenance. ? Provide easily removed orifice plates on diffusers. ? Avoid siting outfalls in hard-to-reach places, such as adjacent to heavily used docks and navigation channels. ? Choose suitable armoring for the outfall. ? Provide check devices and cleanouts to eliminate accumulation of sediment and objects in the diffuser. ? Provide air and vacuum release facilities where feasible. ? Consider risk of damage from boat anchors in navigable waters. ? Consider the impact of changing river channels on outfall design and siting. E2-3.2.4 Operations and Maintenance Proper siting, design, construction, and reliability provisions will minimize operations and maintenance of the outfall. Outfalls should be visually inspected by divers every two to five years for corrosion, plugging, uneven port discharge, and other signs of deterioration. Anodes should also be checked on systems with cathodic protection. Injecting a tracer, such as Rhodamine WT, into the outfall during inspection will aid in identifying leaks and uneven flow distributions. In extremely turbid waters, visual inspection may not be possible. Performance testing may include tracking long-term changes in pump or gravity driving head. E2-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E2-3.3 Types of Surface Receiving Waters Surface waters of the state of Washington are classified in the Water Quality Standards (Chapters 173-201A-120, -130, and -140 WAC). These classifications are for the purposes of applying water quality standards and defining beneficial uses. Surface waters are also typed in the Water Quality Standards (Chapter 173-201A-100) as follows: ? Marine. ? Estuarine. ? Rivers, streams, and lakes and reservoirs with a mean detention time of less than 15 days. ? Lakes and reservoirs with a mean detention time greater than 15 days. This typing is for the purpose of defining mixing zone dimensions, which differ with each type. The following receiving water types are loosely aligned with the above classifications and types. These types are more useful for the purpose of developing guidance in E2-4. E2-3.3.1 Marine and Ocean For the purposes of this section and E2-4, marine and ocean waters may generally be classified as those waters of Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and the Pacific Ocean where bottom salinities and diurnal tidal currents are not significantly altered by riverine effects. E2-3.3.2 Salt-Wedge Estuary and Tidally Reversing River A. Salt-Wedge Estuary A salt-wedge estuary may be classified as the lower reaches of a tidally influenced river in which upstream intrusion of marine waters occurs. A salt-wedge estuary is characterized by a well-defined pycnocline (density gradient), at least during high tides. In a salt-wedge estuary, water composition at a fixed location may vary by season, river flow, and tidal exchange. B. Tidally Reversing River A tidally reversing river is the tidal portion of the river (as evidenced by river current changes as a result of tide or tidal exchange) upstream of the maximum extent of sea water intrusion. Effluent and receiving water mixing in a salt-wedge estuary and tidally-reversing river is heavily influenced by both riverine and tidal effects. The transition from a salt- wedge estuary to tidally-influenced river is in accordance with WAC 173- 201A-060(2). Tidally influenced rivers may be further classified into those in which the river reverses direction under certain combinations of river flow and tide, and those in which the river slows but does not reverse direction under any combination of river flow and tide. The period in which the river reverses direction, or in which currents diminish to near zero, is critical to effluent mixing. This period, which may vary in duration depending on river flow and tide, causes short-term effluent “pooling.” Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-11 E2-3.3.3 River and Run-of-the-Reach Reservoir A river is a free-flowing freshwater body without tidal effects. A run-of-the- reach reservoir is a manmade water impoundment with a mean detention time of less than 15 days. Mean detention time is obtained by dividing a reservoir’s mean annual minimum total storage by the 30-day, 10-year low-flow from the reservoir. E2-3.3.4 Intermittent Stream An intermittent stream is a river in which flow ceases seasonally or periodically because net water losses are greater than net water supply. Losses may be due to irrigation and other surface water withdrawals, a lowered water table, evaporation, and/or plant transpiration. Historical flow records should be evaluated prior to considering an intermittent stream as a receiving water. Effluent may be discharged to intermittent streams on a seasonal basis or ambient flow basis if water quality standards can be met. E2-3.3.5 Natural and Constructed Wetlands Discharges of wastewater to natural and constructed wetlands are discouraged in the State of Washington. For more information about using reclaimed water in wetlands, see Chapter E1. For more information about using constructed wetlands in the treatment process, see Chapter G3. E2-3.4 Siting Objectives The primary objective of siting is to balance economic efficiency with environmental impact. Furthermore, both treatment costs and outfall costs must be considered within the context of economic efficiency. In general, the closest suitable water body in which water quality standards can be met with AKART treatment should first be evaluated. Once a suitable water body has been found, a location is chosen that meets the following criteria: ? Optimizes far-field dilution (near-field dilution can be optimized with outfall configuration). ? Minimizes the potential for effluent reflux. ? Minimizes contact with humans. ? Minimizes contact with fisheries and other aquatic habitat (such as spawning beds, shellfish beds, and eelgrass beds). ? Minimizes contact with the shoreline. ? Minimizes potential of net sediment deposition. ? Minimizes potential for effluent pooling. ? Minimizes surfacing of effluent plume. ? Minimizes navigational hazards. ? Facilitates ease of access. In general, a deep discharge in a marine water body is preferable to a shallow riverine or estuarine discharge. Generally, the screening evaluation should yield a chronic dilution of 100:1 or greater and an acute dilution of 30:1 or greater. Specific siting objectives for receiving waters are discussed in E2-4. E2-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E2-3.5 Effluent Characteristics E2-3.5.1 Effluent Quality Effluent quality should be assessed prior to outfall planning as part of the iterative solution process described in E2-4.2.1. Effluent should be of the highest quality to meet all of the following: ? AKART for the plant type under consideration. ? TMDL wasteload allocations for the water body of interest, if any. ? Water quality standards, including antidegradation requirements. Effluent toxicants with the highest reasonable potential for exceeding water quality standards for municipal discharges are chlorine, ammonia, copper, mercury, and zinc. Nontoxic parameters of concern which must be evaluated for any receiving water are dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, fecal coliforms, turbidity, and floatables. E2-3.5.2 Seasonal Discharges Seasonal discharges are described in Table E2-2. Table E2-2. Types of Seasonal Discharges Type Description 1. Discharge to two separate water bodies depending on season and/or receiving water conditions. The first type of seasonal discharge is encouraged in water bodies with an extreme critical period (such as intermittent stream). An example of seasonal discharge is a riverine discharge during wet weather and spray field irrigation in the dry season. 2. Large seasonal effluent flow variations. The second type of seasonal discharge is exhibited in seasonal industries (such as fruit processing). Both high and low effluent flow in conjunction with receiving water conditions apparent during the seasonal discharge must be evaluated. 3. Large seasonal effluent quality variations. The third type of seasonal discharge may be exhibited in conjunction with the second, or exhibited due to seasonal treatment process changes (such as nitrification due to temperature effects). Seasonal effluent quality in conjunction with receiving water conditions apparent during the seasonal discharge must be evaluated. Seasonal discharge outfalls should be equipped with back-check devices to prevent sediment accumulation in the outfall during periods of little or no effluent flow. E2-3.5.3 Seasonal Effluent Limitations The NPDES permit writer may elect to develop seasonal or flow-based effluent limitations for a discharger. E2-3.5.4 Intermittent Discharges Intermittent refers to a discharge of limited frequency and duration. Section 1.3 of Appendix 6.1 in Ecology’s “Permit Writer’s Manual” provides guidance on how to treat the time-varying nature of intermittent discharges when evaluating compliance with water quality standards. Four types of intermittent discharges are identified here, as follows: Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-13 A. Combined Sewer/Sanitary Sewer Overflows During rainfall events, sewage treatment facilities that serve combined sewers or receive high infiltration and inflow can exhibit widely fluctuating effluent flow rates and effluent pollutant concentrations. Guidance on CSO/SSOs is provided in Section 3.4 of the “Permit Writer’s Manual” and in Chapter C3. B. Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) The fill/treat/decant cycle causes the discharge to be periodic. Evaluation of compliance with four-day average chronic water quality criteria is the same as with a continuous discharge. Evaluation of compliance with one- hour average acute water quality criteria is based on the procedures given in the “Permit Writer’s Manual.” See Chapter T3 for more information on SBRs. C. Tidally Influenced Lagoon A tidally influenced lagoon exhibits periodic discharge as a function of tide stage. Evaluation of compliance with four-day average chronic water quality criteria is the same as with a continuous discharge. Evaluation of compliance with one-hour average acute water quality criteria is based on acute mixing ratios evaluated at highest periodic flow. The maximum one- hour periodic flow may be determined by hydraulic routing analysis with the lagoon at maximum level and downstream outlet control. A tide-check valve is normally used for tidally influenced lagoons where there is potential for backflow. D. Equalization and Holding Basin Equalization and holding basins may be used to: ? Modulate discharge from SBRs to achieve a more uniform flow. ? Retain effluent during an incoming tide when discharging to a tidally influenced river or estuary, and release the effluent on the outgoing tide to minimize reflux and enhance flushing. (Depending on the estuarine flushing rate, this may not be effective.) ? Store effluent under low river-flow conditions and release effluent when river flow (and hence mixing) is higher. (Depending on the increase in effluent flow rate, this may not be effective.) ? Provide emergency storage in the event of outfall malfunction and for outfall maintenance. Equalization and holding basins are analyzed using routing analysis, similar to tidally influenced lagoons. E2-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E2-4 Guidance by Receiving Water Type E2-4.1 Objective This section provides receiving water specific guidance for successful siting, design, and construction of an outfall. It discusses data requirements and data gathering techniques for outfall analysis, water quality analysis, outfall siting, and outfall design. E2-4.2 Marine and Ocean Outfalls Siting and design of a marine or ocean outfall and diffuser includes the following: ? Defining engineering alternatives and criteria. ? Assessing functional performance and environmental impacts. These criteria are considered concurrently, and developed iteratively, until a balance between engineering feasibility and environmental acceptability is met. E2-4.2.1 Environmental Considerations A. Ambient Data Oceanographic field studies provide ambient data to assess the functional performance and environmental impacts of wastewater discharges. These data are often found in literature from previous oceanographic studies. Principal data sources include the University of Washington Oceanographic Library, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA), Ecology, and previous outfall studies. Table E2-3 lists the types of oceanographic data that are required, and the typical field methods. If not found in the literature, then it becomes the responsibility of the discharger to generate these data. Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-15 Table E2-3. Required Oceanographic Data for Siting and Designing Marine and Ocean Outfalls Types of Oceanographic Data Typical Field Methods Currents Currents are measured with drogues and/or current meters. 1. Drogues. Drogues measure current speed and trajectory of water parcels at selected depths. They are used to simulate the rate of transport and the locations that would be contacted by effluent. They can determine the presence of eddies in the effluent flow field. Drogues are typically released at the trapping depth from potential outfall locations, at various tide stages (e.g., flood, high slack, ebb, and low slack). Drogue trajectories are tracked for several hours or up to several tide cycles. 2. Current meters. Current meters measure speed and direction at a fixed location over time. Minimum requirement is a profile of several depths over at least one tide cycle. Commonly, a fixed array of current meters will be deployed for one tidal month (29 days). The data produced include current speed and direction frequency tables at a series of depths. NOAA is the principal source of existing current meter data. Density profiles Density profiles are measured from salinity and temperature profiles. These are determined from conductivity, temperature, and depth (CTD) profiles. Continuously logging profilers with an accuracy of ±0.01° C are required for modeling dilution. Profiles should be taken at regular intervals (such as hourly) over a tide cycle. In shallow areas and near significant fresh water sources, seasonal profiles may be required. The critical period is maximum density stratification. Ecology’s Ambient Monitoring Program and University of Washington Oceanography are the principal sources of existing density profile measurements. Ambient water quality parameters Ambient water quality parameters typically include fecal coliform, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, and trace metals. These data are used to assess the need for effluent treatment requirements. Ecology, NOAA, and the discharger are the principal data sources. Sediment chemistry testing Sediment chemistry testing should be conducted at a proposed diffuser site and along the outfall alignment. This data is used for baseline assessment for future impacts, assessment of existing impacts, or for handling dredged material during construction. Biological studies Biological studies are commonly required near new or modified wastewater outfalls, including shellfish abundance and fishery habitat studies. These studies are determined on a case-by-case basis after scoping with federal, state, and tribal agencies. B. Effluent Mixing Models are generally used to determine dilution factors at acute and chronic mixing zone boundaries around outfalls and diffusers under critical conditions. Dye studies using Rhodamine WT as a tracer are also used occasionally on major projects. Guidance for conducting effluent mixing studies is provided in Appendix 6.1 of the “Permit Writer’s Manual.” C. Siting As much as possible, wastewater outfalls and diffusers should minimize the potential for effluent to contact or build up in sensitive locations. Effluent contact and plume concentration must be carefully evaluated, particularly in the following areas: ? Recreational and commercial shellfish harvesting areas. ? Eelgrass, kelp, and other rearing and spawning habitats. ? Eddies that may trap the effluent plume. E2-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ? Public beaches or other areas primarily used for recreation with direct contact. E2-4.2.2 Design Considerations A. System Hydraulics The system’s hydraulics and diffuser hydraulics must be properly designed for the system to perform as planned, including analysis for dilution characteristics. An excellent reference for system hydraulic analysis is “Diffusers for Disposal of Sewage in Sea Water,” Journal of Sanitary Engineering, Div. ASCE, March 1960. In considering total head requirements for an outfall, two important factors must not be overlooked: ? Extreme high and low tide. ? The difference in density between the receiving water and the effluent. To be assured of sufficient head, extreme high-tidal elevation must be used with the head loss at peak flow. Discharging to marine waters also means that the difference in density between the receiving water and the effluent must be multiplied by the depth of the diffuser ports to determine the head required to overcome the difference in density. Care should be taken in the selection of pipe diameter to keep the velocity in a reasonable range, usually not more than 8 fps. B. Diffuser Hydraulics The minimum port size in a diffuser should not be less than 3 inches in diameter to minimize fouling. The total port area should not exceed 75 percent of the area of the pipe barrel, otherwise unbalanced flows will occur. The diffuser section must be evaluated hydraulically as a manifold (as demonstrated in the publication referenced in E2-4.2.2A). The main purpose of the manifold approach is to determine the variation of port discharges along the diffuser at the full range of flows, from peak to minimum. A well-designed diffuser will maintain balanced port flows along the diffuser at all flows. All ports should continuously discharge at all flows to prevent intruding of sediments in the pipe as well as biofouling of the port or pipe. For intermittent discharges, it may be necessary to provide check valves on the ports to prevent salt water intrusion. C. Geomorphology Studies In most cases it is appropriate to conduct field and literature studies to provide a basis for evaluating the geomorphology and environmental characteristics of the site. These studies may include some or all of the following: ? Bathymetric survey. ? Sub-bottom profiling. ? Side scan sonar. ? Drill test holes. Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-17 ? Jet test holes. ? Sediment sampling. ? Cone penetrometer. ? Torvane shear tests. ? Construction diver survey (bottom floor, full length of alignment). Determining which of these tasks needs to be done, and to what extent, will depend on the location and also the size of the outfall. From a geotechnical standpoint, the critical concerns are the bearing capacity of the sea floor to determine the need for a pile foundation, seismic stability, areas of sea floor irregularity including bedrocks, outcroppings and depressions, and buried debris such as logs. The nature of the sediments must also be evaluated for the presence of hazardous wastes. The presence of littoral drift in the sea floor surface must also be evaluated to avoid interruption if pipe burial is needed. D. Geomorphology Design Whether to put pipe in a trench is determined by examining the issues discussed above, but also by considering wave forces and potential uplift of the pipe. These activities will determine the need for armor rock. The cross section of the pipeline will then be determined and the required width of the construction corridor established. E. Siting Hazards An outfall and diffuser must be sited with hazards taken into consideration, as follows: ? Channels maintained by dredging. ? Designated navigation channels in shallow waterways. ? Anchoring areas. In all of these cases, the pipe is subject to serious damage or difficulties during construction. F. Pipe Design The following types of pipe material have been used in outfall construction: ? Steel. ? Mortar coated steel. ? Ductile iron. ? Concrete cylinder. ? Reinforced concrete. ? High density polyethylene. ? Polyvinyl chloride. Corrugate steel pipe has been used in the past on numerous marine outfalls in Puget Sound. Many of these lines have failed through leaky joint couplings and galvanic corrosion, and should be avoided in new construction. E2-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design A variety of pipe joints have been used successfully, including welded, flanged, o-ring bell and spigot with thrust ties, o-ring bell and spigot, vanstone flange, restrained joint, and ball joint. Regardless of the joint type it is preferable to incorporate provision for axial restraint to provide for better closure of the joint during construction and maintain integrity of the pipeline when it is subjected to unusual forces. Corrosion can be a serious problem, and all outfalls should be provided with appropriate corrosion protection. This may include protective coatings on the interior and exterior of the pipe, sacrificial anodes, and/or an impressed current system. Many construction methods have been used successfully, including the following: (1) One piece at a time with joints made by divers. (2) Multiple sections assembled on a barge and placed with a strong back using a crane or derrick. (3) Assemble offsite, float to site, then sink into place. (4) Assemble on shore and bottom-pull into place. (5) Slipline HDPE (high-density polyethylene pipe) through existing lines. (6) Directional drilling. Alternatives (1) and (2) are the most commonly used methods. The construction methods should be determined before the design is advanced as the construction method will usually dictate the type of pipe, joint, and laying lengths used. Development of a detailed outfall alignment plan and profile drawings is best done at a natural scale, not an expanded scale. The natural scale will best show how to place the pipe to follow the bottom. E2-4.3 Salt-Wedge Estuary and Tidally Reversing River Outfalls Evaluation and design of an outfall in a tidally reversing river and the lower salt-wedge estuary of a river system differ significantly from a marine outfall in several ways. Principally, the freshwater flow (and its seasonality) plays a much larger role in the environmental design criteria, while navigation concerns and stability of the channel critically influence engineering design criteria. E2-4.3.1 Environmental Considerations A. Ambient Data ? Current velocity is normally measured from a moored vessel with a current meter. Current speed and direction must be measured at several depths over at least one complete tide cycle during the period of annual low river flow. Both large and small tides should be considered. ? Density profiles are required at the same time as current velocity measurements to establish the formation and movement of a salt wedge in the estuary and its relation to the tide. Because stratification is normally much higher in estuaries, the Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-19 conductivity/temperature/depth (CTD) instrument does not need to be as precise as for marine and ocean outfalls. ? Tracer studies consist of releasing fluorescent dye or another tracer into effluent, or at a potential outfall location, and tracking its trajectory and concentration over several hours or tide cycles. This provides a direct measurement of plume dilution, contact with sensitive areas, and reflux. Guidance for tracer studies is provided in Appendix 6.1 of the “Permit Writer’s Manual.” ? Water quality data are required to assess compliance with water quality standards. The parameters are the same as described for marine outfalls (see E2-4.2). Ecology, USGS, and the discharger are the principal sources of existing data. B. Effluent Mixing ? Reflux, the steady-state buildup of effluent in an estuary after several tide cycles, is commonly the principal concern in assessing effluent concentrations and effects in estuaries and tidal rivers. Reflux may be determined from tracer studies conducted during critical low river flows in late summer. ? Dilution factors at mixing zone boundaries in estuaries may be directly measured through tracer studies, or modeled. High, low, and intermediate tidal conditions should be evaluated. The critical acute condition is the average time of tidal variations. Effluent reflux must be included in the calculated dilution factors. C. Siting Guidance for conducting effluent mixing studies is provided in Appendix 6.1 of the “Permit Writer’s Manual.” ? Contact with sensitive areas. To the maximum extent practicable, wastewater outfalls and diffusers should minimize the potential for effluent to contact or build up in sensitive locations. Effluent contact and plume concentrations must be carefully evaluated, particularly in the following areas: ? Recreational and commercial shellfish harvesting areas. ? Eelgrass, kelp, and other rearing or spawning habitats. ? Eddies that may trap the effluent plume. ? Public beaches or other areas primarily used for recreation with direct public contact. ? Flushing time. There are no set criteria for minimum flushing time, but an outfall should be sited to minimize residence time in the estuary. “Mixing in Inland and Coastal Waters” (Fischer, et al., 1979) should be consulted for methods of assessing flushing time in estuaries. E2-20 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E2-4.3.2 Design Considerations A. System Hydraulics The hydraulic considerations for diffuser design and system head losses in marine and ocean outfall systems also apply in estuaries. System capacity at the peak 100-year flood elevation must also be considered in conjunction with peak tides. Diffusers are subject to plugging by mobile sediments and damage from river debris, and should be avoided except where needed to meet dilution criteria. Check valves on the ports are often needed to avoid plugging during low effluent flows. Many outfalls have floated to the surface due to air trapped in the line. The profile of the pipe must consider the potential to trap air in the line, particularly where crossing tide flats. Air entrapment must be avoided, or adequate head and anchors included to offset the trapped air. B. Geomorphology It is usually necessary to conduct field and literature studies to provide necessary information on the geomorpology along the proposed outfall route and diffuser site. Cross-sections should be obtained before and after floods to assess the stability of the bottom. Geotechnical borings or test pits are necessary to establish pipeline foundation requirements (i.e., bedding or pilings). Maximum velocities occurring during flood conditions are needed to assess hydrodynamic forces acting on the pipe. The bottom in salt-wedge estuaries and tidally-reversing rivers is often soft and mobile. Soils shift and move downstream during flood conditions, which can cause cyclic scour and deposition around outfall pipes and diffusers. The mobility of the bedload should be investigated. In areas of high bedload movement, it has been common to excavate sediment traps upstream of diffusers, and conduct maintenance dredging around the diffuser. The quantity of ambient bedload, rate of siltation around the diffuser, required dredging schedule, and disposal sites must be considered during the design of outfalls in high siltation areas. Existing data on historic cross-sections and bottom elevations should be obtained from USGS and local governments. Useful information on bed and channel stability is often provided from historical aerial photos. Contact the Corps if a site is in or near a navigable waterway. If a proposed outfall site is near a bridge or other structure, WSDOT or the local county may have useful morphology data. Outside bends in rivers are often good locations for outfalls because the deepest part of the river channel is usually near the shoreline. C. Siting Hazards An outfall and diffuser must be sited with hazards taken into consideration as follows: ? Channels maintained by dredging. ? Designated navigation and anchorage areas. ? Commercial uses and traffic in the vicinity. Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-21 ? Debris load in the river and forces acting on the pipe or pilings. D. Pipe Design The following types of pipe material have been used in outfall construction: ? Steel. ? Mortar coated steel. ? Ductile iron. ? Concrete cylinder. ? Reinforced concrete. ? High density polyethylene. If pipes are to be exposed to scour, debris, and high currents during floods, they must be properly anchored or armored. Armoring consists of encasing the pipe/diffusers in a blanket of crushed stone sized to resist displacement or undermining at peak flood conditions. Anchoring may consist of attachment to wood, steel, or concrete pilings, concrete anchor blocks, or attachment to the shoreline. High density polyethylene may be designed to shift with the bottom if proper anchorage is provided at the shoreline, and negative buoyancy is provided through additional weighting. In areas with eroding shorelines, riprapped or bulkheaded shorelines and bridge piers provide desirable stability. Corrosion control should be provided through coatings, pipe bonding, sacrificial anodes, or an impressed current system. Sea water and soil electrolytic conditions should be tested for each application wherever metallic pipe materials are used. Many construction methods have been used successfully, including the following: (1) One piece at a time with joints made by divers. (2) Multiple sections assembled on a barge and placed with a strong back or horse using a crane or derrick. (3) Assemble offsite, float to site, then sink into place. (4) Assemble on shore and bottom pull into place. In areas with significant bedload movement or very soft soils, sheet piling may be necessary to maintain the trench during construction. Excavation and vibration can also cause slope failures during construction. Development of detailed outfall alignment and profile drawings is best done at a natural scale, not an expanded scale. The natural scale will best show how to place the pipe and joints to follow the bottom. Permit conditions, particularly with an HPA permit, may impose significant restrictions on the methods of construction and mitigation requirements. Outfall designers should consult with permitting agencies in the early stages of design development. E2-22 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E2-4.4 River and Run-of-the-Reach Reservoir Outfalls This category includes rivers upstream of significant tidal influence, and reservoirs with a mean detention time of less than 15 days. E2-4.4.1 Environmental Considerations A. Ambient Data ? River Discharge. The critical river flow rate for water quality evaluations is typically the seven-day low flow, with a 10-year recurrence interval (7Q10). These statistics are published by USGS for most Washington rivers. ? Velocity must be measured directly during 7Q10 low-flow conditions, or estimated based on the river cross-section and profile. Cross-section data may be surveyed, or obtained from the county, USGS, or other sources. Profile data are typically available from counties and FEMA flood insurance studies. 7Q10 velocity can be determined from the cross-section and profile data from hydraulic manuals or the Corps’ HEC-2 model. ? Water quality data for rivers are frequently available from Ecology and USGS. Water quality parameters required to assess treatment limitations include, but are not limited to, fecal coliform, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, and trace metals. ? Temperature profiles are necessary in run-of-the-reach reservoirs where stratification can be significant. Profiles should also be measured in deep, slow-moving rivers (such as the Columbia River) where there is potential stratification. The critical period for maximum stratification is in the late afternoon on sunny days during 7Q10 low flows. B. Effluent Mixing Dilution at mixing zone boundaries in rivers may be directly measured through tracer studies, or modeled. 7Q10 current speed and water depth and other reasonable worst-case parameters must be used. Guidance for conducting effluent mixing studies is provided in Appendix 6.1 of the “Permit Writer’s Manual.” C. Siting Cross-sectional data may either be surveyed or obtained from the county, USGS, or other sources. Profile data are typically available from counties and FEMA flood insurance studies. Flood velocities and peak water surface elevations can be determined from the cross-section and profile data from the FEMA studies or the Corps HEC-2 model. As much as possible, wastewater outfalls and diffusers should minimize the potential for effluent to contact or build up in sensitive locations. Effluent contact and plume concentration must be carefully evaluated, particularly in the following areas: ? Eddies that may trap the effluent plume. ? Important biological habitat. Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-23 ? Public beaches or other areas used for recreation with direct public contact. E2-4.4.2 Design Considerations A. System Hydraulics The hydraulic considerations for diffuser design and system head losses in marine and ocean outfall systems (see E2-4.2.2A and E2-4.2.2B) also apply in rivers and run-of-the-reach reservoirs. System capacity at the peak 100-year flood elevation must also be considered instead of peak tides. Diffusers are subject to plugging by mobile sediments and damage from river debris, and should be avoided except where needed to meet dilution criteria. Check valves on the ports are often needed to avoid plugging during low effluent flows. Many outfalls have floated to the surface due to air trapped in the line. The profile of the pipe must consider the potential to trap air in the line, particularly where crossing flat grades. Air entrapment must be avoided, or adequate head and anchors included to offset the trapped air. B. Geomorphology It is usually necessary to conduct field and literature studies to provide necessary information on the geomorpology along the proposed outfall route and diffuser site. Cross sections should be obtained before and after floods to assess the stability of the bottom. Geotechnical borings or test pits are necessary to establish pipeline foundation requirements (i.e., bedding or pilings). Maximum velocities occurring during flood conditions are needed to assess hydrodynamic forces acting on the pipe. River and reservoir bottoms are often soft and mobile. Silts, gravels, cobbles, and even boulders shift and move downstream during flood conditions, which can cause cyclic scour and deposition around and/or damage to outfall pipes and diffusers. The mobility and size of the bedload should be investigated. In areas of high bedload movement, it has been common to excavate sediment traps upstream of diffusers, and conduct maintenance dredging around the diffuser. The quantity of ambient bedload, rate of siltation around the diffuser, required dredging schedule, and disposal sites must be considered during the design of outfalls with high bedload movement. Existing data on historic cross sections and bottom elevations should be obtained from USGS and local governments. Useful information on bed and channel stability is often provided from historical aerial photos. Contact the Corps if a site is in or near a navigable waterway. If a proposed outfall site is near a bridge or other structure, WSDOT or the local county may have useful morphology data. Outside bends in rivers are often good locations for outfalls because the deepest part of the river channel is usually near the shoreline. C. Siting Hazards An outfall and diffuser must be sited with hazards taken into consideration as follows: E2-24 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ? Channels maintained by dredging. ? Designated navigation and anchorage areas. ? Commercial uses and traffic in the vicinity. ? Debris load in the river and forces acting on the pipe or pilings. D. Pipe Design The following types of pipe material have been used in outfall construction: ? Steel. ? Mortar coated steel. ? Ductile iron. ? Concrete cylinder. ? Reinforced concrete. ? High density polyethylene. If pipes are to be exposed to scour, debris and high currents during floods, they must be properly anchored or armored. Armoring consists of encasing the pipe/diffusers in a blanket of crushed stone sized to resist displacement or undermining at peak flood conditions. Anchoring may consist of attachment to wood, steel, or concrete pilings, concrete anchor blocks, or attachment to the shoreline. High density polyethylene may be designed to shift with the bottom if proper anchorage is provided at the shoreline, and negative buoyancy is provided through additional weighting. In areas with eroding shorelines, riprapped or bulkheaded shorelines or bridge piers provide desirable stability. Corrosion control should be provided through coatings, pipe bonding, sacrificial anodes, or an impressed current system. Sea water and soil electrolytic conditions should be tested for each application wherever metallic pipe materials are used. Many construction methods have been used successfully, including the following: (1) One piece at a time with joints made by divers. (2) Multiple sections assembled on a barge and placed with a strong back or horse using a crane or derrick. (3) Assemble offsite, float to site, then sink into place. (4) Assemble on shore and bottom pull into place. (5) Slipline polyethylene pipe through existing lines (replacement). (6) Directional drilling. In areas with significant bedload movement or very soft soils, sheet piling may be necessary to maintain the trench during construction. Excavation and vibration can also cause slope failures during construction. Development of detailed outfall alignment and profile drawings is best done at a natural scale, not an expanded scale. The natural scale will best show how to place the pipe and joints to follow the bottom. Effluent Disposal to Surface Water December 1998 E2-25 Permit conditions, particularly with an HPA permit, may impose significant restrictions on the methods of construction and mitigation requirements. Outfall designers should consult with permitting agencies in the early stages of design development. E2-4.5 Lake and Reservoir Outfalls Discharges of wastewater to lakes and reservoirs are discouraged in the State of Washington. E2-4.6 Intermittent Stream Outfalls E2-4.6.1 Environmental Considerations Cross-sectional data may either be surveyed or obtained from the counties, USGS, or other sources. Profile data are typically available from counties and FEMA flood insurance studies. Flood velocities and peak water surface elevations can be determined from the cross-section and profile data from the FEMA studies or the Corps HEC-2 model. E2-4.6.2 Design Considerations If outfalls discharge to dry or very low-flow streambeds, the design must consider channel erosion protection from the outfall. Other design considerations are similar to those described for rivers in E2-4.4.2, except that construction may be conducted in dry conditions, thus negating the need for any floating equipment or underwater work. E2-4.7 Natural and Constructed Wetlands Outfalls See G3-3.7 for information related to constructed wetlands. E2-5 References Fischer, et al. Mixing in Inland and Coastal Waters. Chapter 7. New York, NY: Academic Press, Inc., 1979. Grace, Robert A. Marine Outfall Systems: Planning, Design, and Construction. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1978. Rawn, A.M., et al. “Diffusers for Disposal of Sewage in Sea Water.” Journal of Sanitary Engineering, Division of ASCE. March 1960. Washington State Department of Ecology, et al. Inter-Agency Permit Streamlining Document/Shellfish and Domestic Wastewater Discharge Outfall Projects. October 1995. Washington State Department of Ecology. Guidance for Conducting Mixing Zone Analyses. Publication No. 92-109, Appendix 6.1. July 1998. Washington State Department of Ecology. Permit Writer’s Manual. Publication No. 92-109. 1998 update. December 1998 E3-1 E3 Effluent Disposal to Ground Water This chapter describes the regulations, standards, policies, and guidance related to discharge of treated municipal wastewater to ground water. References are made to the “Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards” (guidance document) which was developed to explain and interpret the means to implement the state Water Quality Standards for Ground Water. E3-1 Regulatory Framework ......... 2 E3-1.1 Chapter 173-216 WAC, State Waste Discharge Permit Program.........................................2 E3-1.2 Chapter 173-200 WAC, Water Quality Standards for Ground Waters of the State of Washington...................................2 E3-1.3 Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards......................................2 E3-2 Regulated Ground Water Discharge Activities ............ 3 E3-2.1 Land Treatment of Wastewater ....3 E3-2.2 Drainfield Disposal .......................4 E3-2.3 Water Reuse Through Ground Water Recharge ............................4 E3-2.4 Impoundments ..............................4 E3-3 Antidegradation Policy......... 4 E3-4 Ground Water Quality Standards Checklist ............ 5 E3-5 References............................. 6 E3-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E3-1 Regulatory Framework The two following state regulations and Ecology’s publication, “Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards,” are the primary sources of information related to discharge of municipal wastewater effluent to ground waters. Additional information on applicable laws and regulations relating to approval and permitting requirements is contained in Chapter G1. E3-1.1 Chapter 173-216 WAC, State Waste Discharge Permit Program This regulation outlines the process for obtaining a permit for wastewater effluent discharges to ground water. A permit is required for discharges from industrial and commercial facilities, as well as from municipal facilities. Water reclamation projects that discharge to ground water for the purpose of recharge are described in Chapter E1. E3-1.2 Chapter 173-200 WAC, Water Quality Standards for Ground Waters of the State of Washington This regulation establishes the numerical criteria and other requirements for the protection of ground waters in the state. The regulation is intended to be preventive in nature. The goal is to maintain a high quality of ground water and to protect existing and future beneficial uses of the water. This is achieved through three mechanisms, as follows: (1) AKART. AKART is the requirement for “all known, available and reasonable methods of prevention, control and treatment.” That means a wastewater must be provided with the best known methods of prevention, control, and treatment that are reasonably practical. All wastes must be provided with AKART prior to entry into the state’s waters, regardless of the quality of the receiving water. (2) Antidegradation policy. This policy mandates the protection of background water quality and prevents the degradation of ground water quality that would harm a beneficial use or violate the Ground Water Quality Standards. (3) Human health and welfare based standards. These include numeric and narrative standards. The standards protect all ground water in the saturated zone, statewide. Water in the vadose zone (unsaturated zone) is not specifically protected by the standards. It is not necessary for ground water to be defined as an aquifer (ground water that produces a significant yield) in order to be protected. The standards cover ground water that is perched, seasonal, or artificial. Since ground water in the state has not been fully characterized, particularly interconnections between aquifers, the regulation protects all ground water equally. All ground water is classified as a potential source of drinking water for the purposes of the standards. E3-1.3 Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards This guidance document develops the framework for implementation of Chapter 173-200 WAC and provides clarification of the intent of certain policies set forth in the regulation. The document outlines specific requirements necessary for a waste discharge to achieve compliance with the standards. Ecology uses the guidance document as the primary mechanism to apply the standards to ground water discharges regulated by the agency and to evaluate the issuance of State Waste Discharge Permits. Requirements for specific Effluent Disposal to Ground Water December 1998 E3-3 projects will depend upon the nature of the discharge and the characteristics of the discharge site. “Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards” discusses: ? Activities regulated by Chapter 173-200 WAC. ? The antidegradation policy. ? Mechanisms for protecting ground water quality. ? Requirements for the hydrogeologic study and the monitoring plan. ? Implementation of the antidegradation policy through the establishment of enforcement limits and early warning values. ? Response to violations of the standards. ? Process and implications for designating a special protection area. E3-2 Regulated Ground Water Discharge Activities The Ground Water Quality Standards apply to any activity that has potential to impact ground water quality, including both point source and nonpoint source activities. See the guidance document for activities for which these standards apply. Wastewater management activities that are considered discharges to ground water include: ? Land treatment of wastewater. ? Drainfield disposal. ? Water reuse through ground water recharge. ? Impoundments. An engineering report based on Chapter 173-240 WAC is required in support of a State Waste Discharge Permit application for a new system or the modification of an existing system discharging to ground water. See Chapter G1 for engineering report requirements. E3-2.1 Land Treatment of Wastewater Land treatment systems apply wastewater either below the land surface or by surface spreading to provide effluent treatment prior to its contact with the saturated ground water zone. The wastewater generally receives some level of preliminary treatment prior to application to the soil. The systems then utilize surface soils, cover crops, and/or soils in the vadose zone to provide additional treatment. See Chapter G3 for discussions of wastewater treatment technologies, including land treatment, which are particularly applicable to small communities. Land treatment is different from land application of reclaimed water described below in E3-2.3 and in Chapter E1. “Guidelines for Preparation of Engineering Reports for Industrial Wastewater Land Application Systems” are used to identify critical elements in the design of land treatment systems for soil treatment and protection of ground water quality. The guidelines were prepared to implement engineering report requirements of Chapter 173-240 WAC. Although the guidelines were prepared for treatment of industrial wastewater, the E3-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design fundamental design concepts are applicable to land application of municipal wastewater treatment as well. This guidance document should be used with DOH’s “Design Criteria for Municipal Wastewater Land Treatment Systems for Public Health Protection,” for preparing the engineering report prepared in support of the State Waste Discharge Permit application for new facilities or the modification of existing facilities. Land treatment systems are required to follow these guidelines or may use the “Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards.” E3-2.2 Drainfield Disposal Ecology's “Permit Writer's Manual” contains a model for assessing the impacts of on-site sewage systems on ground water quality. This model should be applied to projects proposing drainfield disposal as a wastewater management technique. The following criteria must be achieved to utilize a drainfield as the disposal option. ? Proposals for large community on-site sewage systems (greater than 14,500 gpd) must demonstrate that it is not possible to connect to an existing sewage treatment facility. ? Proposals must also demonstrate consistency with the Growth Management Act, local service area requirements, and compliance with SEPA. ? Impacts to ground water quality should be assessed using the methodology outlined in Ecology's “Permit Writer's Manual.” If the assessment indicates that an increase of 2 mg/l nitrate nitrogen above background water quality is likely to occur, or if the ground water quality criteria will be exceeded, then treatment and disposal options must be evaluated using the methodology described in the “Permit Writer's Manual.” This model will be used to derive effluent limitations and density requirements. E3-2.3 Water Reuse Through Ground Water Recharge Ground water recharge with reclaimed water can be managed in two ways: by land application, either on the land surface or just below the surface, and by direct injection of the reclaimed water into the subsurface or aquifer. Systems designed for the recharge of water are not dependent on soil treatment in order to meet ground water standards, therefore the water is highly treated prior to application or injection. These systems are required to meet the Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards and must also receive a State Waste Discharge Permit. The requirements for water reclamation and reuse are addressed in Chapter E1. E3-2.4 Impoundments Requirements for municipal wastewater discharge to impoundments are discussed in the “Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards.” E3-3 Antidegradation Policy The antidegradation policy, along with AKART, forms the primary mechanism for protecting ground water quality. The policy is intended to preserve existing and future beneficial uses by minimizing pollutant increases over background water quality. Antidegradation is differentiated from “nondegradation,” which prohibits any increase in contaminant concentrations in ground Effluent Disposal to Ground Water December 1998 E3-5 water. Antidegradation allows some increase in pollutant levels but not to the extent that beneficial uses are impacted. The intent is not to allow degradation of ground water up to or beyond the ground water criteria, but rather to protect background water quality to the extent practical. Overriding public interest is applied when existing high-quality ground water cannot be maintained. Existing high-quality ground water is defined as background water quality that does not exceed the criterion. The antidegradation policy, nondegradation, and overriding public interest are described in the Ground Water Quality Standards and the guidance document. E3-4 Ground Water Quality Standards Checklist “Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards” contains a checklist of elements that should be considered in order to implement the Ground Water Quality Standards through a State Waste Discharge Permit. The hydrogeologic study and the monitoring plan are tools used to assess the current and future conditions of the ground water environment. A ground water discharge that is determined to represent a “potential to contaminate” requires a hydrogeological study, unless the discharge is covered by a general permit, a policy, guideline, regulation, or best management practice (BMP) that has Ecology-approved ground water protection provisions. Potential to contaminate is determined to be present if both of the following conditions exist: (1) There is a discharge of a regulated substance to the subsurface or the land surface, and (2) The discharge rates are either greater than agronomic rates or the wastewater is stored in an impoundment (whether lined or unlined). If a discharge is covered by a general permit or by ground water protection provisions, but is considered to have potential to contaminate, Ecology is not prohibited from requesting a ground water evaluation or additional hydrogeologic characterization. If the discharge is considered to have limited potential to contaminate, the hydrogeologic study can be waived. The level of effort required to complete each element is dependent upon the nature of the discharge and discharge site characteristics. Factors that influence the level of effort include the wastewater quantity and quality and site characteristics such as depth to ground water, geology, treatment capacity of the soils, etc. For example, a discharge that has a limited potential to contaminate is not required to undergo the hydrogeologic study but must undergo a monitoring plan. However, the plan may propose only effluent monitoring, and then monitoring of ground water as a contingency if a problem is observed. The monitoring plan should address where the effluent will be sampled, constituents to be monitored, frequency, and how the data will be analyzed. E3-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design E3-5 References Washington State Department of Ecology. Guidelines for Preparation of Engineering Reports for Industrial Wastewater Land Application Systems. Water Quality Program, Publication No. 93-36. 1993. Washington State Department of Ecology. Implementation Guidance for the Ground Water Quality Standards. Publication No. 96-02. 1996. Washington State Department of Ecology. Permit Writer’s Manual. Publication No. 92-109. 1998 update. Washington State Department of Health. Design Criteria for Municipal Wastewater Land Treatment Systems for Public Health Protection. 1994. Washington State Departments of Ecology and Health. Water Reclamation and Reuse Standards. Publication No. 97-23. September 1997 or latest edition. December 1998 S-1 S. Residual Solids Management This chapter deals with the treatment of residual solids (biosolids and sludge) from wastewater treatment plants, including information on solids concentration, stabilization, composting, and storage. Limited information is also included on the potential options for recycling and disposal of residual solids. The terms “biosolids,” “sludge,” and “residual solids” are clarified in S-1.1 and used throughout this chapter. S-1 General..................................... 4 S-1.1 Biosolids, Sludge, and Residual Solids Definitions .........................4 S-1.1.1 Biosolids ................................................... 4 S-1.1.2 Sludge ....................................................... 4 S-1.1.3 Residual Solids ......................................... 4 S-1.2 Regulations .....................................4 S-1.2.1 Federal ...................................................... 4 S-1.2.2 State .......................................................... 5 S-2 Solids Treatment..................... 5 S-2.1 Solids Concentration......................5 S-2.1.1 Gravity Thickening/Settling...................... 6 A. Purpose........................................................ 6 B. Design Considerations................................. 6 1. Hydraulic Loading ................................... 7 2. Total Tank Depth..................................... 8 a. Free Board ........................................... 8 b. Settling Zone ....................................... 8 c. Compression and Storage Zone ........... 8 3. Circular Tanks—Drive Torque ................ 8 4. Compression and Storage Zone ............... 8 5. Circular Thickener—Floor Slope............. 8 6. Skimmers ................................................. 8 7. Polymer Addition..................................... 9 8. Thickener Underflow Pump and Piping.................................................... 9 9. Rectangular Tanks ................................... 9 S-2.1.2 Dissolved Air Floatation........................... 9 A. Purpose........................................................ 9 B. General Description..................................... 9 C. Requirements..............................................10 D. Design Considerations................................10 1. Pressure System ......................................10 2. Costs and System Selection ....................10 3. Odor Control...........................................10 4. Pumps .....................................................11 5. Polymer...................................................11 6. Thickening ..............................................11 7. Shape—Rectangular or Circular .............12 8. Concrete or Steel Tanks ..........................12 9. Feed Characteristics................................12 10. Solids Loading Rate..............................12 11. Hydraulic Loading Rate........................13 12. Air to Solids Ratio ................................13 13. Polymer Usage......................................13 S-2.1.3 Gravity Belt Filtration (Thickeners) ........13 A. Purpose.......................................................13 B. Requirements..............................................14 C. Issues ..........................................................14 1. Advantages..............................................14 2. Disadvantages .........................................14 3. Design Considerations ............................14 a. General................................................14 b. Mixing and Chemical Feeding............15 c. Air Handling and Odor Control ..........15 d. Operation and Maintenance................15 S-2.1.4 Belt Filter Press........................................16 A. Purpose.......................................................16 B. Requirements..............................................16 C. Issues ..........................................................16 1. Advantages..............................................16 2. Disadvantages .........................................16 3. Design Considerations ............................17 a. Upstream of Belt Filter Presses...........17 b. Belt Filter Presses ...............................17 S-2.1.5 Centrifuges...............................................18 A. Purpose.......................................................18 B. Requirements..............................................18 C. Issues ..........................................................19 1. General....................................................19 2. Chemical Feeding ...................................19 3. Air Handling and Odor Control ..............19 4. Operation and Maintenance ....................19 S-2.1.6 Drying Beds .............................................19 A. Purpose.......................................................19 B. General Description....................................20 C. Requirements..............................................20 1. Percolation Type .....................................20 S-2 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design a. Gravel .................................................20 b. Sand....................................................20 c. Underdrains.........................................20 2. Impervious Types....................................20 3. Walls.......................................................20 4. Sludge Removal......................................21 5. Sludge Influent........................................21 D. Issues..........................................................21 1. Advantages..............................................21 2. Disadvantages .........................................21 3. Design Considerations ............................22 E. Operation ....................................................22 1. Preparation for Filling.............................22 2. Filling......................................................22 3. Sampling and Testing .............................22 4. Return Flows...........................................22 5. Cleaning (After Dewatering) ..................22 F. Control Considerations ...............................23 1. Weather Effects.......................................23 2. Biosolids/Sludge .....................................23 3. Chemicals................................................23 4. Efficiency................................................23 5. Odors.......................................................23 6. Drying Time............................................24 S-2.1.7 Thermal Drying........................................24 A. Purpose.......................................................24 B. Requirements..............................................24 C. Issues ..........................................................24 S-2.1.8 Bag Dewatering/Air Drying.....................25 S-2.2 Solids Stabilization.......................25 S-2.2.1 Digestion..................................................25 A. General Description and Classification of Sludge Digestion..................................25 B. Anaerobic Digestion—Mesophilic .............26 1. Process Variables....................................26 2. Design Considerations ............................26 3. Operational Considerations.....................26 C. Anaerobic Digestion—Thermophilic .........27 1. Process Variables....................................27 2. Design Considerations ............................27 3. Operational Considerations.....................27 D. Aerobic Digestion ......................................28 1. Process Variables....................................28 2. Design Considerations ............................28 3. Operational Considerations.....................28 S-2.2.2 Composting..............................................29 A. General Description....................................29 B. Requirements..............................................29 C. Process Variables........................................29 1. Moisture Content ....................................29 2. Temperature............................................29 3. Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio .......................30 4. Oxygen....................................................30 5. pH .........................................................30 6. Detention Time .......................................30 D. Types of Composting Systems ...................30 1. Windrow System.....................................30 2. Aerated Static Pile...................................30 3. Invessel System.......................................31 E. Design Considerations ................................31 1. Selection of Bulking Agent/Amendment...............................31 2. Aeration System......................................32 F. Operational Considerations.........................33 1. Odor Control...........................................33 2. Screening, Curing, Materials Handling, and Storage .........................33 3. Drainage Management............................33 4. Monitoring and Sampling .......................34 S-2.3 Ash Production ............................ 34 S-2.3.1 Purpose ....................................................34 S-2.3.2 General Description .................................34 A. Multihearth.................................................34 B. Fluidized Bed..............................................34 S-2.3.3 Requirements ...........................................35 S-2.3.4 Issues........................................................35 A. Advantages.................................................35 B. Disadvantages.............................................35 S-2.4 Storage ......................................... 36 S-2.4.1 Lagoons....................................................36 S-2.4.2 Tanks and Basins .....................................36 A. Purpose.......................................................36 B. Design Considerations................................36 C. Issues ..........................................................36 1. Storage Time...........................................36 2. Inspection and Maintenance Access .......37 3. Odor Control...........................................37 S-2.4.3 Bulk Storage ............................................37 S-3 Residual Solids Management: End-Use Options..................... 38 S-4 References............................. 38 Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-3 Tables S-1. Rough Design Guidelines to Determine Solids Mass Loading................................................... 7 S-2. Typical Dissolved Air Floatation Solids Loading Rates for Thickened Solids of 4 Percent or Higher ............................................13 S-3. Drying Bed Design Criteria..............................21 S-4. Summary of Wastewater Sludge Digestion Systems Design Criteria..................................26 S-4 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design S-1 General S-1.1 Biosolids, Sludge, and Residual Solids Definitions “Biosolids” and “sludge” are terms defined differently in statutes, rules, and guidelines. The Water Environment Federation (WEF) was first to adopt a formal definition of biosolids, and Washington State was arguably the first state to use it in a statute (Chapter 70.95J RCW). The definitions found in various sources may appear similar, but there are often differences reflecting the needs of the particular application. “Residual solids” describes a broad range of materials that might be encountered in the management of a sewage treatment plant, including biosolids and sludges in general. Definitions used in the regulatory context of Washington State law and wastewater discharge permits are provided in the following subsections. S-1.1.1 Biosolids Biosolids is defined in RCW 70.95J.010(1) as municipal sewage sludge that is a primarily organic, semisolid product resulting from the wastewater treatment process that can be beneficially recycled and meets all applicable requirements of Chapter 70.95J RCW. The term biosolids includes materials derived from biosolids (such as compost) and septic tank sludge (also known as septage) that can be beneficially recycled and meets all applicable requirements of Chapter 70.95J RCW. S-1.1.2 Sludge Sewage sludge is defined in RCW 70.95J.010(4) as a semisolid substance consisting of settled sewage solids combined with varying amounts of water and dissolved materials, generated from a wastewater treatment system, that does not meet the requirements of Chapter 70.95J RCW. Chapter 70.95J RCW is the enabling statute for Washington State’s biosolids rule, Chapter 173-308 WAC. The significance of the reference is that sewage sludge that meets the standards of the biosolids rule is not considered solid waste. Sewage sludge not meeting standards in Chapter 173-308 WAC is solid waste and cannot be applied to land. S-1.1.3 Residual Solids Residual solids includes screenings, grit, scum, primary sludge, waste activated sludge, and other solid waste. S-1.2 Regulations This subsection provides a brief explanation of federal and state requirements, which primarily consist of 40 CFR Part 503 and Chapter 173-308 WAC. S-1.2.1 Federal 40 CFR Part 503 contains the requirements for land application of biosolids. Biosolids are designated as either Class A or Class B with regard to pathogen density and vector-attraction reduction. For Class A biosolids, the pathogen reduction requirements must be met before or at the same time as most of the vector-attraction reduction requirements. To produce Class A biosolids, one of six alternative processes must be used. Enhanced digestion processes such as Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-5 thermophilic anaerobic digestion, dual digestion, and autothermal aerobic digestion can produce Class A biosolids by qualifying under one of the 40 CFR Part 503 alternatives for meeting Class A pathogen requirements. Compliance with 40 CFR Part 503 is required. The US EPA is presently responsible for enforcing the provisions of 40 CFR Part 503. Treatment works treating domestic sewage that have NPDES permits are required to submit complete permit applications to EPA for the final use or disposal of sewage sludge produced. Other treatment works treating domestic sewage (such as sewage treatment plants with state waste discharge permits) are required to submit Part 1 of the federal permit application to EPA. S-1.2.2 State A state rule on biosolids management (Chapter 173-308 WAC) was adopted by Ecology and became effective on March 21, 1998. The rule establishes standards, management practices, permitting requirements, and permit fee schedules for facilities that store, treat, and recycle municipal or domestic sewage sludge or biosolids, as well as any sites where the biosolids are land- applied. In this rule, standards that pertain to pathogen reduction and vector- attraction reduction correspond to those set forth in the 40 CFR Part 503 regulations. Sewage sludge which is disposed in a municipal solid waste landfill must not be a hazardous waste and must pass the paint filter liquids test (free liquids ban). The dewatering requirement is often difficult for operators to meet. WAC 173-351-220(10) identifies additional restrictions and requirements for disposing of sewage sludge in a municipal solid waste landfill. Ecology’s preference is recycling (Chapter 70.95 RCW and Chapter 70.95J RCW). Those facilities wishing to dispose of biosolids in a municipal solid waste landfill on an emergency or short-term basis are required to obtain determinations of need and permission from local health departments. Those wishing to do so on a long-term basis may need to demonstrate the economic unfeasibility of other options to Ecology. Ecology has used draft guidelines, “Biosolids Management Guidelines for Washington State, 93-80,” as a working document since 1993. These guidelines attempt to bridge the gap between the state’s past program and the newer requirements in 40 CFR Part 503 and Chapter 173-308 WAC. Ecology has been encouraging local health departments and operators to use the draft guidelines (with some caution for errors contained therein), until a final version is released. These draft guidelines are being revised in 1998 and final guidelines are expected to be released early in 1999 (as of this printing). S-2 Solids Treatment Treatment of solids generally involves reduction in water content and stabilization of the sludge. S-2.1 Solids Concentration The purpose of solids concentration is to increase the solids content of the sludge by reducing the water in the sludge. S-6 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Methods of solids concentration include: ? Gravity thickening/settling. ? Dissolved air floatation. ? Gravity belt filtration. ? Belt filter press. ? Centrifuges. ? Drying beds. ? Thermal drying. ? Bag dewatering/air drying. S-2.1.1 Gravity Thickening/Settling Gravity thickening is one of the lower-cost operation and maintenance methods of thickening primary or secondary solids. It is also the simplest of the thickening options available. A. Purpose The purpose of thickening is to lower the liquid content of the residual solids, thus reducing equipment capacity needs. An example would be thickening settled solids from a secondary clarifier from 1-percent to 3-percent solids using a gravity thickener. Reducing the liquid content of the solids from 1-percent to 3-percent solids effectively reduces the volume of the product to one-third of its original volume. Therefore, storage and blending tanks, as well as pumping and piping capacity, could be sized one-third smaller as compared to similar equipment for solids with a 1-percent concentration. B. Design Considerations Gravity thickeners are typically circular in shape and function identically to clarifiers (refer to Chapter T2). The use of rectangular tanks is not as common as circular tanks; however, rectangular tanks are far more space- efficient as compared to circular tanks of the same capacity rating. A rough design guideline is presented in Table S-1 when test data are not available and pilot plant tests are not practical. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-7 Table S-1. Rough Design Guidelines to Determine Solids Mass Loading Solids Source Incoming Solids Concentration (percent solids) Expected Product Concentration (percent solids) Mass Loading (lbs/sq-ft/hr) Primary (PRI) 2 - 7 5 - 10 0.8 - 1.2 Trickling Filter (TRI) 1 - 4 3 - 6 0.3 - 0.4 Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC) 1 - 3.5 2 - 5 0.3 - 0.4 Waste Activated Sludge (WAS) Air Oxygen Extended aeration 0.5 - 1.5 0.5 - 1.5 0.2 - 1.0 2 - 3 2 - 3 2 - 3 0.1 - 0.3 0.1 - 0.3 0.2 - 0.3 Aerobically Digested Solids from Primary Digester 8 12 1.0 Thermally Conditioned Solids PRI only PRI + WAS WAS only 3 - 6 3 - 6 0.5 - 1.5 12 - 15 8 - 15 6 - 10 0.6 - 2.1 1.2 - 1.8 0.9 - 1.2 Tertiary Solids High Lime Low Lime Iron 3 - 4.5 3 - 4.5 0.5 - 1.5 12 - 15 10 - 12 3 - 4 1.0 - 2.5 0.4 - 1.25 0.1 - 0.4 Other Solids PRI + WAS PRI + TF PRI + RBC PRI + iron PRI + low lime PRI + high lime PRI + (WAS + iron) PRI + (WAS + alum) (PRI + iron) + TF (PRI + iron) + WAS WAS + TF Aerobically digested (PRI + WAS) Aerobically digested PRI + (WAS + iron) 0.5 - 4.0 2 - 6 2 - 6 2 5 7.5 1.5 0.2 - 0.4 0.4 - 0.6 1.8 0.5 - 2.5 4 4 4 - 7 5 - 9 5 - 8 4 7 12 3 4.5 - 6.5 6.5 - 8.5 3.6 2 - 4 8 6 0.2 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.8 0.4 - 0.7 0.25 0.8 1.0 0.25 0.5 - 0.7 0.6 - 0.8 0.25 0.1 - 0.3 0.6 0.6 1. Hydraulic Loading Hydraulic loading is related to mass loading and controls the amount of solids carryover into the supernate. The quantity of solids entering the thickener is equal to the product of the flow rate and solids concentration. Since there are definite upper limits for mass loading, there will therefore be some upper limit for hydraulic loading. Typical maximum hydraulic loading rates of 25 to 33 gsfh have been used successfully with primary solids. For solids from activated sludge and similar processes, much lower hydraulic loading rates, 4 to 8 gsfh, are more applicable. Using the typical maximum hydraulic loading rates mentioned produces maximum upward tank velocities of 3.3 to 4.4 fph for primary solids, and 0.5 to 1.0 fph for activated sludge solids. S-8 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 2. Total Tank Depth The total vertical depth of a gravity thickener is based on three considerations: tank free board, settling zone (zone of clear liquid and sedimentation zone), and compression and storage zone (thickening zone). a. Free Board Tank free board is the vertical distance between the tank liquid surface and the top of the vertical tank wall. It is usually set at a minimum of 2 to 3 feet. b. Settling Zone This zone encompasses the theoretical zone of clear liquid and sedimentation zone (just above the thickening zone). Typically 4 to 6 feet is necessary, with the larger measurement used for more difficult solids from activated sludge processes or nitrification processes. c. Compression and Storage Zone Sufficient tank volume must be provided so that the solids will be retained for the period of time required to thicken the slurry to the desired concentration. Additionally, sufficient storage is necessary to account for fluctuations in the solids loading rate. 3. Circular Tanks—Drive Torque Thickened solids on the floor of a circular tank resist the movement of the solids rake and thus produce torque. The torque for different types of solids varies from 20 to up to 80 lb/ft. 4. Compression and Storage Zone Gas may be produced from anaerobic conditions or denitrification. These conditions are dependent on the type of solids, liquid temperature, and length of time the solids are kept in the thickener. A general guideline based on operational data recommends that the total volume in this zone not exceed 24 hours of maximum solids wasting. 5. Circular Thickener—Floor Slope The floor slopes of circular thickeners are normally more than 2 inches of vertical distance per foot of tank radius. This is steeper than the floor slope for standard clarifiers. The steeper slope maximizes the depth of solids over the solids hopper, allowing the thickest solids to be moved. The steeper slope also reduces solids raking problems by allowing gravity to do a greater part of the work in moving the settled solids to the center of the thickener. 6. Skimmers Skimmers are recommended for thickeners that process solids from secondary biological wastewater treatment processes. The skimmers remove the floating scum layer associated with solids from such treatment processes. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-9 7. Polymer Addition The addition of polymers for gravity thickening improves solids capture but has little or no effect on increasing the solids concentration of the thickened product. 8. Thickener Underflow Pump and Piping For variable head conditions and abrasiveness typical of many types of solids, a positive displacement pump with variable speed drive should be used. Its operation could be set manually, or controlled by some type of solids sensor. A positive or pressure head should be provided on the suction side of the pump. A minimum head of 10 feet should be provided for primary solids, and a minimum head of 6 feet for all other solids. It is critical to provide adequate cleanout and flushing connections on both the pressure and suction sides of the pump. Cleanouts should be brought to an elevation greater than that of the liquid surface of the thickener to allow cleaning without emptying the thickener. 9. Rectangular Tanks Flow distribution in rectangular tanks is critical. Possible approaches to inlet design are as follows: ? Full width inlet channels with inlet weirs. ? Inlet channels with submerged ports or orifices. ? Inlet channels with wide gates and slotted baffles. Inlet weirs, although effective in spreading flows across the tank width, introduce a vertical velocity component into the solids hopper that may resuspend the solids. Inlet ports can provide good distribution across the tank width if the velocities are maintained in the 10- to 30-foot minimum range. Inlet baffles are effective in reducing the high initial velocities and distribute flow over the widest possible cross- sectional area. Where full-width baffles are used, they should extend from 6 inches below the surface to 12 inches below the entrance opening. S-2.1.2 Dissolved Air Floatation A. Purpose Dissolved air floatation (DAF) thickeners can be utilized either to thicken wastewater solids prior to dewatering or stabilization or to thicken aerobically digested or other solids prior to disposal or dewatering. B. General Description In the DAF thickening process, air is added at pressures in excess of atmospheric pressure, usually to a liquid stream separate from the residual solids stream. The two streams are then mixed at atmospheric pressure, and the resultant pressure change for the liquid stream causes the release of very fine bubbles in the mixed stream. The bubbles adhere to the suspended particles or become enmeshed in the residual solids matrix. Since the average density of the solids-air aggregate is less than that of S-10 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design water, the product floats to the surface. The floating solids build to a depth of several inches at the water surface. Water drains from the float, and affects solids concentration. Float is continuously removed by skimmers. With the use of polymers, most DAFs operate at a design capacity of 2 pounds of solids per square foot of skimming area per hour. The expected thickened solids concentration from typical systems using polymers is normally 5 to 6 percent solids. However, there is no substitute for obtaining empirical data from bench-scale or pilot-scale tests. C. Requirements At a minimum, bench-scale tests performed to evaluate the system are recommended. Leasing a unit that is representative of the recommended system for pilot testing would be ideal, and should give a more realistic evaluation of design considerations and operating parameters. D. Design Considerations 1. Pressure System ? DAF for solids thickening applications should always use tank effluent pressurization. Feed solids pressurization could result in excessive wear in feed solids pumping systems. ? Float will contain numerous air bubbles that can cause air binding in thickened solids pumping systems downstream of a DAF. A solids equalization tank with 6 to 12 hours of thickened solids capacity should be provided downstream of the float beach to permit offgassing of the bubbles. This equalization tank should be completely enclosed and ventilated to an appropriate odor control system. ? Sufficient effluent recirculation and pressure tank pressure should be provided to produce a minimum air-to-solids ratio of 3 percent under all operating conditions. ? The basic mechanism that makes floatation possible is the increase in the amount of gas dissolved when pressure is increased. Depending on the design of the pressure equipment, efficiencies can range from 50 to 90 percent. It is desirable to maintain the efficiency of the pressure system in a range of 80 to 90 percent. 2. Costs and System Selection A cost comparison between DAF and gravity belt thickening should be performed. Gravity belt thickeners are usually lower in cost, have a smaller footprint, and achieve a higher thickened solids concentration than DAF. 3. Odor Control Odor control by complete enclosure directly over the float removal equipment and ventilation of the air space under the cover to an appropriate odor control system is required for all but the most remote installations. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-11 4. Pumps ? Feed pumps should deliver a relatively continuous flow. Centrifugal feed pumps should be used, rather than reciprocating or pulsed pumping systems. ? DAF float solids concentration can vary from 2 to 6 percent. Appropriate pumps for thickened solids are progressive cavity, rotary lobe, and piston or diaphragm reciprocating positive displacement pumps. Where pressure and grit concentrations in the thickened solids are high, progressive cavity and rotary lobe pumps may not be appropriate because of excessive wear. In these cases consideration should be given to piston or diaphragm pumps for thickened product pumping. 5. Polymer ? Relatively light molecular-weight polymers have been effectively used in DAF solids thickening. Consideration should be given to providing capability for mixing and feeding of polymers in either dry, liquid, or emulsion form in every installation. ? Solids capture rates of 90 to 95 percent can be achieved by using polymers as a floatation aid. Capture rates of 75 to 85 percent are more typical without polymer. Liquid processes should be designed to accommodate this inefficiency in capture. The size of an activated sludge aeration tank, for example, which is designed on the basis of solids retention time, must be proportionately increased to accommodate the inefficiency. This effect further enhances the cost- effectiveness of a higher-pressure, higher-loading DAF system designed for use with polymer as compared to a lower- pressure, lower-loading rate system without polymer. 6. Thickening ? Operation with a combined solids feed (primary and secondary solids) has resulted in higher cake solids at higher loading rates than with a feed of secondary waste solids only. Given this experience, every DAF installation should have the capability to mix and feed combined solids if such design is feasible. ? A key design decision is selection of the solids loading rate. Manufacturers’ recommended loading rates differ widely, from 12 to 48 pounds per day per square foot. The lower loading rates are typically provided with lower-pressure recirculation systems (40 psi), while higher-pressure systems are used in higher-loaded systems (65 psi). Since a modest amount of polymer is usually required to get adequate capture, the higher-loaded systems with higher pressure recirculation are usually more cost effective. S-12 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 7. Shape—Rectangular or Circular There are several advantages of rectangular units over circular units, as follows: ? Rectangular skimmers can fit more closely together and use the space most efficiently. ? These units can be designed to use the entire water surface for skimming. ? The physical shape of the rectangular units permits solids flights that settle on the bottom to be driven independently of the skimmer flights. ? The water level in the rectangular tank can be easily changed by adjusting the end weir. This allows changing the depth of water and skimmer flight submergence to accommodate changes in float weight and displacement, which affect the skimming function. The main advantage of circular units is their lower structural and mechanical equipment costs. Equivalent rectangular units require more structural material, drives, and controls, which also increase maintenance needs. 8. Concrete or Steel Tanks Steel tanks generally arrive completely assembled and need only a concrete foundation pad, piping, and wiring hookups. Generally, equipment costs are higher for steel tanks, but field labor and expensive equipment installation costs are eliminated. Practical structural and shipping limits dictate the maximum size of steel tanks: maximum size is approximately 450 square feet for rectangular units and 100 square feet for circular units. Concrete tanks become more economical than steel for larger installations that require multiple or larger tanks. 9. Feed Characteristics The characteristics of the residual solids to be thickened should be evaluated under various treatment plant loadings and modes of operation. For waste residual solids from a secondary treatment process, the solids age range should be established, because the age of the solids can significantly affect DAF performance. Combined waste solids from primary and secondary treatment processes for DAF thickening should be evaluated on the typical range of primary-to- secondary waste solids ratios. Parameters such as dissolved salts and range of liquid temperature affecting the air solubility of the process should also be considered. 10. Solids Loading Rate The typical range of solids loading rates for common solids sources is presented in Table S-2. These loading rates will typically produce thickened solids of 4 percent or higher. In general, increasing the solids loading rate will decrease the float concentration. The use of coagulant will increase the solids loading rate. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-13 Table S-2. Typical Dissolved Air Floatation Solids Loading Rates for Thickened Solids of 4 Percent or Higher Solids Loading Rate (lb/sq-ft/hr) Type of Solids No Coagulant Use Optimal Coagulant Use Primary Only 0.83-1.25 up to 2.5 Waste Activated Sludge (WAS) Air System 0.42 up to 2.5 Oxygen 0.6-0.8 up to 2.2 Trickling Filter 0.6-0.8 up to 2.0 Primary + WAS 0.6-1.25 up to 2.0 Primary + Trickling Filter 0.83-1.25 up to 2.5 11. Hydraulic Loading Rate The hydraulic loading rate is generally expressed as gallons per square foot of skimmer water surface per minute. This translates to the velocity equivalent of the average downward velocity of water as it flows through the thickening tank. The maximum hydraulic rate must always be less than the minimum rise of the solids-air particle to ensure that all of the particles will float to the water surface before the particle reaches the effluent end of the tank. Since the total flow through the thickener affects the thickening process, the hydraulic loading rate should be based on the total flow, which includes the recycle flow. Typical peak hydraulic loading rates should not exceed 2.5 gallons per minute per square foot. This value is based on the use of polymers for coagulant purposes. 12. Air to Solids Ratio The air to solids ratio is the quantity of air required to achieve satisfactory floatation. This design parameter is directly related to the proportion of solids entering the thickener. Parameters that affect the air to solids ratio are sludge volume index, the pressurization system’s air dissolving efficiency, and the distribution of the gas-liquid mixture into the thickening tank. Typical ratios range from 0.01 to 0.4 pounds of air per pounds of solids. 13. Polymer Usage The use of polymer as a flocculant increases the performance of the DAF thickener. Rarely can the thickened solids reach a concentration of 5 to 6 percent solids under normal operating conditions without the aid of polymers. Cost is the major disadvantage of using polymers when calculated over the useful lifetime of the facility. S-2.1.3 Gravity Belt Filtration (Thickeners) A. Purpose The purpose of gravity belt filtration is to reduce the volume of liquid on downstream systems; to thicken solids for further treatment; thicken S-14 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design waste-activated solids (to 5 to 8 percent solids) with the use of coagulants; and to potentially thicken primary raw sludge (to 6 to 12 percent and more). B. Requirements ? Equipment should be sized to meet the needs of the wastewater facility. ? Operators must have training and understand the operation and maintenance of the equipment. ? There must be a clear line of communication between the manufacturer and operator. ? Critical spare parts need to be identified. C. Issues 1. Advantages ? The gravity belt filtration process requires a smaller footprint than other processes. ? The process can be less expensive than other mechanical thickening processes. ? The process uses less energy than other mechanical processes. 2. Disadvantages ? The gravity belt thickener filtration process requires the use of chemicals to aid in thickening. ? It is a mechanical process that is somewhat complex. ? The process is sensitive to the quality of the sludge being thickened. ? The gravity belt filtration process can thicken the solids too much, which may lead to handling problems in the downstream facilities. 3. Design Considerations a. General ? The success of the equipment is subject to upstream conditions of the plant. The better the settling of solids in the plant, the better the gravity belt thickeners will function. ? After thickening has occurred, the means of transporting the solids is as critical as any pumping equipment and downstream piping. Consideration should be given by the engineer for piping and valves to be glass lined. Pumps should be capable of pumping the maximum solids content expected, without excessive maintenance and operations downtime. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-15 ? If digesters are the downstream facilities, it is important to ensure the mixing equipment in the digester will be able to mix the thickened solids properly. ? Care should be taken in calculating the friction loss in the glass-lined pipe. ? With all high solids pumping and piping facilities, it is recommended that a minimum of direction changes are made to reduce head loss in the piping. Wide sweeping turns should also be considered if room allows. ? Care should be taken in selecting the proper pressure equipment downstream of the pumps. b. Mixing and Chemical Feeding ? Plows on the gravity belt must turn the thickened solids to allow water to drain through the belt fabric. The number and location should be adjustable for each solid. ? Chemical addition and mixing equipment are important, as are multiple injection points. ? Sizing of chemical feeding equipment is important, as is the chemical storage mixing and makeup needs for the chemicals used. c. Air Handling and Odor Control ? Gravity belt filters must have an air handling system to maintain a safe working environment in the gravity belt filter room. ? Air-handling equipment directing the exhaust from the equipment and out of the room should have appropriate odor-control facilities. d. Operation and Maintenance ? Gravity belt filters must have a curb around them and floors sloped to drains so that operators can properly clean the equipment quickly and safely. ? Metering of solids into and out of the equipment is important. ? Metering thickened solids must have bypass pipes and valves to allow the proper cleaning of the metering equipment. This will allow the gravity belt thickener equipment to be kept online. ? Care must be taken in the immediate downstream facilities (that is, the screw conveyor or conveyor belt) because the thickened sludge can tend to build up in piles and then fall onto the conveyor (sometimes right over it) in slug loads. ? Construction material for the equipment should be stainless steel because of the high potential for rust. S-16 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design ? Because of the height of the equipment, an elevated walkway will probably be needed to properly operate and maintain the equipment. ? The size of the drainage system is very important. Plan for easy cleanouts, as high solids are likely to be discharged to them during washdown by the operators. ? Ensure pumps and equipment that handle thickened solids can be properly accessed for operations and maintenance. ? Close proximity of laboratory drying equipment and jar testing equipment with proper laboratory facilities is important to ensure quick turnarounds on testing when making operational changes. ? Scum (grease) should not be placed on the gravity belt thickener because the blinding of the fabric and the cleanup normally needed after the thickening can create problems. S-2.1.4 Belt Filter Press A. Purpose The belt filter press reduces the volume of solids that must be handled. In addition, it dewaters waste solids to 15 to 25 percent solids content (depending on the pretreatment of the solids before being fed to the belt filter press). B. Requirements ? Equipment should be sized to meet the needs of the wastewater facility. ? Operators must be trained and understand the operation and maintenance of the equipment. ? There must be a clear line of communication between the manufacturer and operators. ? Critical spare parts need to be identified. C. Issues 1. Advantages ? The belt filter process can be less expensive than other mechanical thickening processes. ? It uses less energy than other mechanical processes. 2. Disadvantages ? The belt filter process requires the use of chemicals to aid in thickening. ? It is a mechanical process that is somewhat complex. ? The process is sensitive to the quality of the sludge being dewatered. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-17 3. Design Considerations a. Upstream of Belt Filter Presses Generally, there are two types of solids thickening before the solids are fed into the pressure section of the belt filter press. They include gravity belt thickeners and circular drum screens (RSTs). Design considerations include: Gravity belt thickeners See S-2.1.3. Circular drum screens (RSTs) with filter cloth on the exterior of the drum ? Chemical addition and mixing equipment are important, as are multiple injection points. ? The sizing of chemical feeding equipment is important, as is the chemical storage mixing and makeup needs for the chemical used. ? The success of the equipment is subject to upstream conditions of the plant. The better the settling of solids in the plant, the better the RSTs generally function. ? Scum should not be placed into the RST because the blinding of the fabric and the cleanup normally needed after thickening can create problems. b. Belt Filter Presses Design considerations include: General ? All piping to the belt filter press should be glass lined, with pumps capable of pumping the maximum solids content expected without excessive maintenance and operations downtime. ? Care should be taken in calculating the friction loss in the glass-lined pipe. ? With all high solids pumping and piping facilities, it is recommended that a minimum of direction changes are made to reduce the head loss in the piping. Wide sweeping turns should also be considered if room allows. ? Care should be taken in selecting the proper pressure measuring equipment downstream of the pumps. Mixing and chemical feeding ? Sizing of chemical feeding equipment is important, as is the chemical storage mixing and makeup needs for the chemical used. ? Chemical addition and mixing equipment are important, as are multiple injection points upstream of the belt filter press. ? Inline mixing equipment will likely be needed along with chemical injection equipment. Allow for multiple points of chemical injection and for inline mixing equipment to allow operators to minimize chemical use. S-18 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Air handling and odor control ? An air handling system is needed to maintain a safe working environment in the belt filter press room. ? Air handling equipment for directing the exhaust from the equipment and out of the belt press room should have appropriate odor-control facilities. Operation and maintenance ? Equipment must have a curb around it, with floors sloped toward drains so that operators can properly clean the equipment quickly and safely. ? Flow measurement of solids to the equipment is important. ? Construction material for the belt press should be corrosion resistant (that is, stainless steel) because of the high potential for rust. ? Because of the height of the equipment, an elevated walkway will probably be needed to properly operate and maintain the equipment. ? The size of the drainage system is very important. Plan for easy cleanouts, as high solids are likely to be discharged to them during washdown by operators. ? Ensure all the pumps and equipment that will handle solids can be properly accessed for easy operations and maintenance. ? Close proximity of laboratory drying equipment and jar testing equipment to laboratory facilities is useful, ensuring quick turnarounds on testing when making operational changes. S-2.1.5 Centrifuges A. Purpose Centrifuges remove water from solids to reduce the mass of solids which must be transported from the treatment facility. B. Requirements ? Centrifuges and ancillary equipment, such as feed pumps and polymer feed pumps, must be sized to meet peak design loading. ? Centrifuges and ancillary equipment, such as feed pumps and polymer feed pumps, must be sized to meet anticipated minimum loading at startup. Where appropriate, multiple units should be sized to ensure adequate redundancy, adequate turndown, and peak loading capacity. ? Since centrifuges have a high wear rate, all such components need to be identified and adequate spare parts provided. ? Adequate bench space should be provided to allow onsite testing for solids content and bench testing of polymers. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-19 C. Issues 1. General ? Pretreatment that the sludge has received will affect the performance of the units. ? The nature of the collection system is important. Combined systems tend to contain more abrasive materials, which will affect unit life. ? Flow metering should be provided for both feed and polymer. Flow rate for both should be controllable. 2. Chemical Feeding ? The polymer system should provide enough flexibility to allow trials of multiple products. ? Polymer conditioning is required. The ability to utilize dry, emulsion, and mannic/solution products should be provided on all but the smallest systems. 3. Air Handling and Odor Control ? Containment and treatment of odors is important, especially if nonstabilized solids are being processed. ? HVAC design must ensure adequate air exchanges meet worker safety requirements and discharge through appropriate odor-control equipment. 4. Operation and Maintenance ? Adequate access must be provided to allow easy equipment maintenance and operation. ? Centrate lines should be designed to allow easy disassembly and cleaning because of the potential for struvite formation. ? Cake conveyance from the centrifuge to the haul vehicle requires careful design to avoid spillage or other problems. ? Facilities for hosedown of the area must be provided. Controls and other water-sensitive equipment must be either protected or located to avoid exposure to cleanup spray. ? Floors should be sloped to a drain to facilitate cleanup. ? Drains should be sized to accommodate thick sludge and debris. ? A system should be provided to weigh dewatered solids. ? Facilities and piping bypasses must be provided to allow units to be cleaned without compromising cake quality. S-2.1.6 Drying Beds A. Purpose Drying beds are confined, underdrained, and shallow layers of sand over gravel on which wet sludge is distributed for draining and air drying. S-20 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design B. General Description Drying beds have proved satisfactory at most small and medium-size sewage treatment plants located in warm, dry climates. Digested and conditioned biosolids are discharged onto a drying bed and allowed to dewater and dry under natural conditions. Dewatering using a drying bed is primarily a two-step process. Moisture separation and gravity drainage of free water is followed by evaporation. After the digested sludge is applied to the sand bed, moisture separation occurs when dissolved gases in the sludge are released and rise to the surface, floating the solids and leaving a layer of liquid at the bottom. The liquid drains through the sand, is collected in the underdrain system, and is usually returned to a plant unit for further treatment. After maximum drainage is reached, the dewatering rate slows down and evaporation continues until the moisture content is low enough to permit sludge removal. Dry sludge may be removed from the beds manually, by special conveyors, or with other loading equipment. C. Requirements 1. Percolation Type a. Gravel The lower course of gravel around the underdrains should be properly graded and 12 inches deep, extending at least 6 inches above the top of the underdrains. It is desirable to place this in two or more layers. The top layer, at least 3 inches, should consist of one-eighth-inch to one-quarter-inch gravel. b. Sand The top course should consist of at least 12 inches of sand with a uniformity coefficient of less than 4.0 and an effective grain size between 0.3 and 0.75 millimeter. c. Underdrains Underdrains should be clay pipe, concrete drain tile, or other underdrain material acceptable to Ecology. Underdrains should be at least 4 inches in diameter and sloped not less than 1 percent to drain. Underdrains should be spaced not more than 20 feet apart. In addition to underdrains, supernatant withdrawal pipes should be considered for aerobically digested sludges and for drying beds in western Washington. 2. Impervious Types Paved surface beds may be used if supporting data to justify such usage are acceptable to Ecology. The use of paved beds for aerobically digested sludge is generally not recommended. 3. Walls Walls should be watertight and extend 15 to 18 inches above, and at least 6 inches below, the surface. Outer walls should be curbed to prevent soil from washing onto the beds. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-21 4. Sludge Removal At least two beds should be provided, arranged to facilitate sludge removal. Concrete truck tracks should be provided for all percolation- type sludge beds. Pairs of tracks for percolation-type beds should be on 20-foot centers. 5. Sludge Influent The sludge pipe to the beds should terminate at least 12 inches above the surface and be designed to drain. Concrete splash plates should be provided at sludge discharge points. D. Issues Drying beds are less complex and easier to operate, offer some flexibility, and require less operational energy than mechanical systems. They also require a larger site and more labor, primarily for biosolids removal. Poorly digested solids can cause odor problems. Winter weather and rainfall heavily influence the drying efficiency of drying beds. In general, it is desirable to construct multiple small beds rather than a few large beds because smaller beds offer greater operating flexibility. Consideration should be given to climatic conditions and the character and volume of the biosolids to be dewatered. Drying bed design should be based on square feet per capita or pounds of solids per square foot per year (see Table S-3). Additional space is required for wetter biosolids, such as those resulting from aerobic digestion; for low net evaporation areas, particularly in western Washington; and for using impermeable drying beds. Use of covered beds should be considered for western Washington locations. Table S-3. Drying Bed Design Criteria Open Beds Covered Beds Type of Sludge Per Capita (sq ft/capita) Solids (lb/sq ft/yr) Per Capita (sq ft/capita) Primary 1.0 to 1.5 27.5 0.75 to 1.0 Primary and trickling filter 1.25 to 1.75 22.0 1.0 to 1.25 Primary and activated sludge 1.75 to 2.50 15.0 1.25 to 1.5 1. Advantages ? Drying beds offer ease and flexibility. Highly skilled operators are not needed. ? Drying beds generally have low maintenance costs. 2. Disadvantages ? Drying beds have large land requirements. ? Using drying beds can result in possible odor and vector problems from poorly digested solids. S-22 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 3. Design Considerations ? Climate. ? Sludge characteristics. ? System design (including depth of fill). ? Chemical conditioning. ? Drying time. E. Operation 1. Preparation for Filling Before filling the drying bed with digested or conditioned biosolids, the sand layer should be scarified to break up any crust that may have formed. Sand is then added to replenish any that may have been removed when the bed was cleaned. The drain valve is then closed before adding water to the drying bed to cover the sand. The water over the sand keeps the biosolids from matting over the sand and preventing drainage. 2. Filling Initially, fill the drying bed to a depth of about 8 inches. Measure the depth of solids after three days. The amount of decrease in the bed is the drawdown of the bed. Normal filling depth should be equal to twice the three-day drawdown. 3. Sampling and Testing While filling the drying bed with well digested biosolids, an operator grabs a 2,000 ml or greater sample to test for percent solids and to do a separation test. After removing the solids sample amount, the operator puts the remainder of the sample in a wide container to allow the sample to separate. When the sample separates, or after 24 hours, the operator opens the drying bed drain valve to allow the separated water to return to the plant for further treatment. 4. Return Flows Drainage from drying beds should be returned to the treatment process at appropriate points preceding the secondary process. The return flows should be returned downstream of the influent sample point and a means should be provided to sample return flows. These organic loads should be considered in plant design. 5. Cleaning (After Dewatering) Dried sludge may be removed from the beds by hand scraping, being careful not to remove sand with the sludge. A small tractor with a front-loading bucket can be used to remove the solids. The front-end loader cannot completely remove all of the solids. Solids left on the bed require manual removal with a shovel or scoop. Avoid operating vehicles and equipment directly on the sand; instead lay planks or plywood on top of the bed if permanent vehicle treadways are not provided. After the solids are removed, inspect the bed, rake the Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-23 surface of the sand to level it and remove any debris, and add makeup sand if necessary. F. Control Considerations Drying bed performance is affected by weather, biosolids characteristics (stabilization by digestion, inorganic content), system design and condition, depth of fill, chemical conditioning, and drying time. Another consideration is odors. 1. Weather Effects Freezing and occasional moistening by rain may not be detrimental to drying sludge on uncovered beds. Thawed sludge releases its moisture more rapidly than sludge that has not been frozen, and the sludge is left in a light, fluffy condition. Sludge that is slightly moistened during the drying process will dry as rapidly as unmoistened sludge; that is, some rain may not delay drying of sludge on the bed, although too much rain will. 2. Biosolids/Sludge Sludges containing grit dry rapidly, while sludges containing grease dry more slowly. Primary sludge dries faster than secondary sludge, but not as fast as digested biosolids. In well digested biosolids, gases tend to float the solids and leave a clear liquid layer, which drains through the sand when the drain valve is opened. 3. Chemicals Chemicals are used to condition sludges that are hard to dewater or when drying beds are overloaded. The chemicals most commonly used are alum, ferric chloride, chlorinated coppers, and organic polyelectrolytes. Lime or alum may be added to the sludge as it is placed on the beds. Alum is added at the rate of about 1 pound of alum per 100 gallons of sludge. Lime is also good for keeping down odors and insects. 4. Efficiency Before adding biosolids/sludge to drying beds, remove trash, weeds and other vegetation that might be present in the beds. The sand should be raked and leveled to make sure that the biosolids/sludge can drain properly, with additional sand added as necessary to maintain at least 4 inches of sand over the gravel. Biosolids/sludge should not be added to a drying bed that contains partially dried solids. The useful capacity of the drying beds can be maximized by removing the biosolids as soon as the biosolids have reached the desired dryness. 5. Odors Odors indicate poor sludge digestion. The first step to control odors is to correct the efficiency of the digestion process. As a temporary solution, add lime to the sludge. Lime may help control odors; however, it may also tend to clog the sand and interfere with dewatering. S-24 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design 6. Drying Time Drying time can be reduced by disturbing the solids in the drying bed after they begin to dry. As the solids dry, a crust forms on top of the solids. If the solids are mixed, turned, or otherwise disturbed, the crust is broken up, allowing for more rapid evaporation. S-2.1.7 Thermal Drying A. Purpose Thermal drying involves the removal of water by evaporation. In addition to significantly reducing the mass of solids that must be transported from the treatment facility, thermal drying may be used to achieve the “vector attraction reduction” requirement of the 40 CFR Part 503 regulations and potentially can be used to produce Class A biosolids. B. Requirements ? Adequate fire suppression equipment must be provided. ? All drying facilities’ HVAC systems must be designed to ensure worker safety while addressing odor control issues. ? On-site storage must be adequate to address weather-related haul limitations. ? Redundancy must be provided for equipment maintenance. Poor housekeeping and equipment maintenance is a common cause of product fires and explosions. ? Recycle loads on the liquid stream must be considered. C. Issues ? Because this process utilizes heat energy, operational costs can normally be minimized by delivering the driest possible solids to the drier. Thus, thermal drying processes are normally proceeded by a physical dewatering technology, such as centrifuges or belt filter presses. ? Odors associated with thermal decomposition and volatilization of organics is a major issue. Significant attention must be paid to odor control. ? Depending on the specific process equipment utilized, dust control may be an issue along with worker safety. ? Appropriate steps must be taken to address spontaneous combustion of the dried product. ? Product storage and conveyance to haul vehicles is a concern. ? Special licensing of plant personnel may be required, such as boiler licenses. ? Solids handling and dried product recycling requires careful review. ? Developing a “sticky phase” is a common problem with thermal dryers. Startup may require an external source of dried material to Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-25 raise feed solids content above concentrations at which a “sticky phase” occurs. S-2.1.8 Bag Dewatering/Air Drying This process utilizes bags made of fabric that allows water to leave the sludge and seep out while keeping the solids inside the bags. Generally, the bags are filled and then piled on pallets placed on pads with drains that return the drainage water to the plant. The process can be used in wet or dry climates, and can dewater and air-dry the solids to 50 percent. Some emerging technologies may increase the dryness to 75 to 90 percent. This process is generally cost-effective for small facilities with flows under 0.5 mgd or solids production between 10 and 300 pounds per day. S-2.2 Solids Stabilization The purpose of solids stabilization is to “reduce the odors and bacteria levels in the sludge feed, leaving the stabilized sludge relatively inert” (“Operation of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants,” WEF Manual of Practice No. 11, 1996). Methods of stabilization of sludge include: ? Digestion—anaerobic and aerobic. ? Chemical addition (not covered in this manual). ? Composting. S-2.2.1 Digestion A. General Description and Classification of Sludge Digestion Digestion is the most commonly used method of wastewater sludge stabilization in the US. The two main categories of sludge digestion are as follows: ? Anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestion occurs in the absence of oxygen and generates methane gas. Anaerobic digestion is widely used for plants with average wastewater flows of more than 5 mgd. ? Aerobic digestion. Aerobic digestion requires oxygen. Aerobic digestion is more commonly found in smaller plants with flows of less than 5 mgd. See Table S-4 for a summary of the general features and design criteria of different sludge digestion systems. S-26 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design Table S-4. Summary of Wastewater Sludge Digestion Systems Design Criteria Design Feature Psychrophilic Anaerobic Mesophilic Anaerobic Thermophilic Anaerobic Aerobic (Mesophilic or Thermophilic) Aeration None None None Yes (Additional O 2 demand for nitrification in mesophilic systems) Temperature (degrees F) 41-68 85-104 122-140 50-104 (meso.) 122-140 (thermo.) Solids Loading Rate (lb VS/cu ft-d) Variable 0.03-0.30 0.08-0.20 0.10-0.30 Solids retention time (day) >180 30-60 (low-rate) 10-20 (high-rate) potentially less than 10 10-15 pH 6.5-7.2 6.8-7.2 6.8-7.2 around 7 Class A/B biosolids Typically Class B Class B Class A Class A (thermophilic) B. Anaerobic Digestion—Mesophilic Anaerobic mesophilic digestion is the most commonly used sludge stabilization process for treatment plants with average wastewater flows greater than approximately 5 mgd. Digestion by mesophilic bacteria occurs at temperatures in the range between 85 and 104° F. 1. Process Variables The following are the four main process variables to be considered in the design and operation of mesophilic anaerobic digestion. ? Solids loading rate. ? Solids retention time (SRT). ? Temperature. ? pH. 2. Design Considerations The following aspects are integral to the design of an anaerobic mesophilic digestion system. ? Digester shape. ? Digester cover and bottom. ? Mixing system. ? Heating system. ? Gas collection, storage, and use. 3. Operational Considerations The following aspects should be considered to optimize the operation of the anaerobic digestion system. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-27 ? Feeding and withdrawal. ? Scum and grit management. ? Foam control. ? Scale control. ? Odor control. C. Anaerobic Digestion—Thermophilic Thermophilic anaerobic digestion is in principle similar to anaerobic mesophilic digestion, except that thermophilic digestion occurs at temperatures between 122 and 140° F. Because biochemical reaction rates increase as the temperature increases, thermophilic digestion is faster than mesophilic digestion for the same volatile solids reduction. The higher temperature at which thermophilic digestion takes place also allows for increased pathogen destruction. As a result, thermophilic anaerobic digestion is applied to achieve Class A biosolids. 1. Process Variables Similar to mesophilic digestion, the following are the four main process variables to be considered in the design and operation of thermophilic anaerobic digestion. ? Solids loading rate. ? Solids retention time (SRT). ? Temperature. ? pH. 2. Design Considerations Thermophilic anaerobic digestion generally has the same design considerations as anaerobic mesophilic digestion. ? Digester shape. ? Digester cover and bottom. ? Mixing system. ? Heating system. ? Gas collection, storage, and use. 3. Operational Considerations The same operational considerations for mesophilic digestion generally apply to thermophilic digestion. Because of the higher sensitivity of thermophilic bacteria to temperature changes, temperature control is especially important. The higher operating temperature in thermophilic digesters tends to suppress scum and foam formation, so that scum and foam control is often less problematic than in mesophilic digesters. ? Feeding and withdrawal. ? Temperature control. ? Odor control. S-28 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design D. Aerobic Digestion Aerobic digestion is primarily used in plants with design flows of less than 5 mgd. It has been successfully used in extended aeration activated sludge facilities and in many package-type treatment facilities. The biologically degradable organic component of the sludge is stabilized via oxidation (in the presence of oxygen). Aerobic digestion is thus, in principle, similar to the activated sludge process. Some of the advantages of aerobic digestion over anaerobic digestion include lower odor potential, production of nonexplosive gases, a relatively clean recycle stream (lower BOD concentration in digester supernatant), low capital cost, and simple operation. Disadvantages of aerobic digestion over anaerobic digestion include higher power costs associated with aeration, reduced cold weather efficiency, nonproduction of methane gas from which energy can be recovered, and possibly poor mechanical dewatering characteristics of the digested sludge. 1. Process Variables The following are the five main process variables in the design and operation of aerobic digesters. ? Solids loading rate. ? Solids retention time. ? Temperature. ? pH and alkalinity. ? Oxygen consumption. 2. Design Considerations The main design difference between an aerobic digester and an anaerobic digester is the aeration system required for aerobic digestion. The types of tank shapes (cylindrical or rectangular) and digester bottoms are generally similar to those used for anaerobic digesters. Because no methane is produced in aerobic digestion, there is no digester gas collection and storage system and the digesters are normally constructed as uncovered, unheated aeration basins. In colder climates, the tanks may be covered to prevent icing. In dual-digestion systems, digester gas is produced in the anaerobic reactor, so that a gas collection and handling system is required. 3. Operational Considerations The following are the main operational considerations for aerobic digestion. ? Feeding and withdrawal. ? Aeration control. ? Foam control. ? Odor control. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-29 S-2.2.2 Composting A. General Description Composting is “the biological decomposition and stabilization of organic substrates, under conditions that allow development of thermophilic temperatures as a result of biologically produced heat, to produce a final product that is stable, free of pathogens and plants seeds, and can be beneficially applied to land” (Haug, 1993). The objective of composting is to biologically covert putrescible organics into a stabilized form, to destroy pathogens, and to produce a dry product for beneficial reuse. Composting can be applied to stabilize a variety of feedstocks, including solid wastes, manure, yard waste, agricultural crop residues, and wastewater sludges. Most composting processes are operated under aerobic conditions. Composting can be applied as a stand-alone sludge stabilization process for treatment of raw sludge, or as a post-stabilization process for treatment of digested sludge. It is normally performed after dewatering. B. Requirements Regulations and guidelines which apply to the composting of biosolids include the 40 CFR Part 503 regulations, and State of Washington law and regulations described in S-1.2. Additional information is also in the “Compost Facility Resource Handbook.” C. Process Variables Factors which influence the operation and product quality of biosolids composting include pile porosity, moisture content, temperature, carbon- to-nitrogen ratio, oxygen, pH, and detention time. Pile porosity or pore space refers to the area around individual compost particles. For optimum growth of microorganisms, both oxygen and moisture are needed in the pore space. Too much water in the pore space creates anaerobic conditions, which lead to odor problems and slower decomposition. It is very important to establish good porosity at the beginning of the composting process by adding a bulking agent or grinding feedstocks to a specific particle size. 1. Moisture Content The optimal moisture content for composting is in the range of 50 to 60 percent (Brown and Caldwell, 1994). Bulking agents and amendments absorb excess moisture from dewatered biosolids, which are usually too wet for optimal composting. 2. Temperature The most efficient temperature range for composting is between 104 and 140° F (WEF Manual of Practice No. 8, 1991). Biosolids compost must reach 122° F for a specific length of time, depending on the technology, in order to have completed a “Process to Further Reduce Pathogens” (PFRP). For windrows, compost must remain at 131° F for at least 15 days with five turnings during the 15-day period. For aerated static piles or invessel technologies, the compost must remain S-30 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design at 131° F for at least three days. In addition, for each of the technologies listed above, the compost must meet vector attraction reduction requirements by continuing the time/temperature treatment for an additional 14 days. (The compost must be maintained at 104° F or higher with an average temperature of at least 113° F during the 14-day period.) 3. Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio The optimum carbon-to-nitrogen ratio ranges from 25 to 35 (by weight) (Brown and Caldwell, 1994). 4. Oxygen The optimum oxygen concentration in a composting process is between 5 and 15 percent. 5. pH The pH is generally self-regulating and varies within the compost process. The optimum pH for bacteria is 6.0 to 7.5, and 5.5 to 8.0 for fungi. 6. Detention Time The total detention time provided for the composting process varies, depending on the type of system employed, available storage area, and characteristics of the sludge to be composted. Maintaining temperatures for the specified length of time (as described above) is a fundamental requirement of federal and state biosolids regulations regarding composting. Once regulatory requirements are met, curing should continue until the compost is stable enough for the intended market. D. Types of Composting Systems Composting processes are generally classified according to the three main types of systems: windrow, aerated static pile, and invessel systems. A system is classified by determining whether it is a reactor- or nonreactor- based system, and whether or not the composting materials are turned. 1. Windrow System A windrow system, the oldest of the three systems for sewage sludge composting, consists of mixtures of biosolids and bulking agents placed in long rows (called windrows) that are turned periodically using mobile equipment. A windrow is sometimes referred to as an agitated solids bed. A conventional windrow system relies on natural ventilation for the supply of oxygen. An aerated windrow system uses forced aeration to supplement the aeration provided by turning the windrows. 2. Aerated Static Pile The aerated static pile method is the most commonly used composting process in North America. This type of system consists of a grid of aeration or exhaust piping placed beneath the compost pile. The aerated static pile method differs from the windrow process in that Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-31 composting material is not turned. Also, the composted material is usually not recycled to adjust for moisture content, although it is often used as an insulative pile cover. The dewatered sludge is mixed with a bulking agent-to-sludge ratio of about 2:1 to 3:1 by volume (Haug, 1993). 3. Invessel System Invessel systems, sometimes also called reactor or enclosed mechanical systems, offer the potential of producing more stable and consistent compost products than windrow and aerated static pile processes, with smaller space requirements and better containment and control of odor. The disadvantages include greater operational complexity and labor requirements. Invessel processes are classified as either vertical flow or horizontal flow. E. Design Considerations The two main design considerations for composting include the selection of the bulking agent/amendment and the design of the aeration system. 1. Selection of Bulking Agent/Amendment A bulking agent is a material, organic or inorganic, of sufficient volume to provide structural support and maintain air spaces within the composting matrix. If the bulking agent is organic, an increase in the energy content of the mixture is a secondary benefit. Materials used as bulking agents include wood chips, shredded tires, peanut shells, and tree trimmings. Bulking agents may be screened before or after the curing process and reused in the compost mixture. An amendment is a material added in order to condition the feed sludge mixture. It can serve as either a structural or drying element to reduce bulk weight and increase porosity or an energy or fuel amendment to increase the quantity of biodegradable organics (thus the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio) in the mixture and, thereby, increase the energy content. Organic materials are used to provide supplemental carbon and include sawdust, yard waste, manure, and a variety of other waste materials. Because part of the organic substance supplied as an amendment is degraded in the composting process and materials such as sawdust are too fine to be screened, amendments are usually not recovered and recycled. The two terms “bulking agent” and “amendment” are often used interchangeably. Regardless of the term used, the specific type of material selected to mix with the feed sludge should have a low moisture content, supply carbon to the process (if the carbon-to- nitrogen ratio is low using just the feed sludge), be easy to handle, and be reasonably inexpensive. Both sawdust and wood chips have been widely used as an amendment or bulking agent. Sawdust has value as a boiler fuel and as a raw material for particle board production, and may therefore be expensive. Wood chips, while large enough to be mostly recovered and recycled, also have a commercial value and may be expensive. Yard and green wastes are inexpensive compared to other materials, and the woody material present in this product has proven to be an effective bulking agent. However, lawn clippings have S-32 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design proved to be detrimental to the composting process. Inert materials such as shredded tires help increase porosity but do not provide a carbon source. In many composting facilities, a combination of materials, such as woods chips and shredded tires, is added to the feed sludge. The addition of a bulking agent/amendment will affect the characteristics of the resulting compost product. Typically, about two to five parts by volume of bulking agent/amendment is added to one part biosolids, depending on the initial porosity and carbon content of the biosolids (Brown and Caldwell, 1996; Haug, 1993; Williams et al., 1996). 2. Aeration System In composting processes, air is required for the following reasons: ? To satisfy the oxygen demand from organic decomposition. ? To reduce the moisture content by removing the water vapor. ? To remove the heat generated by organic decomposition to control the process temperature. The aeration rate for biological oxidation typically amounts to 0.6 cu m/min/dry metric ton (20 cu ft/min/dry ton), while the aeration rate for drying ranges between 0.6 and 2.8 cu m/min/dry metric ton (20 and 100 cu ft/min/dry ton) (WEF, 1995). The air demand for wastewater sludge is usually similar for moisture removal and heat removal, and the air demand for biological oxidation is less than for either. Lower air volumes would be needed for digested biosolids, which have less biodegradable solids available, while higher volumes are needed for raw sludge. Aeration can be forced, natural, or provided through periodic mechanical mixing. Excessive aeration will lead to cooling of the composting materials and premature drying. Inadequate aeration may cause the composting materials to become anaerobic and result in excessive temperature, which will inhibit microbial activity and generate odors. In forced aeration systems, the air supply rate can be uncontrolled or manual, or it can be based on a combination of time operation, oxygen or carbon dioxide content, air flow rate, and/or temperature. Temperature control, being the predominant method of aeration control for compost systems, can also be combined with oxygen control to achieve heat and moisture balance. Centrifugal blowers are most commonly used in forced aeration systems. Blowers are usually installed with timer controls for intermittent operation. Blowers, fans, and appurtenances such as aeration ducts should be constructed of materials that will withstand corrosive, moisture- and dust-laden air. It is recommended that the aeration system be designed for interchangeable negative (induced draft) and positive (forced draft) modes. Usually a negative mode (that is, downflow through the pile) is maintained during the first half of the compost sequence, when the potential for odors is greatest. The air drawn through the piles can then Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-33 be blown to an odor control system. The mode is then changed to positive (that is, upflow through the pile) to accelerate drying during the final stages of composting. F. Operational Considerations In order to properly operate a composting facility, the following items should be considered. 1. Odor Control Composting often generates significant odors, particularly when raw sludge is composted. The four main groups of odor-generating chemical compounds found in the composting process include ammonia, hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds, and fatty acids (WEF, 1995). Frequently, odors are released during turning operations. To minimize odors, processes involving turning of compost are usually not recommended. Alternatively, turning operations could be scheduled for periods when the potential for odor complaints is minimal, such as when wind direction is away from populated areas. Also, aerobic conditions should be maintained within the pile. Windrows or static piles can be placed within enclosures or buildings with proper ventilation and collection and treatment of off-gases. Typical treatment systems include biofilters, packed bed scrubbers, and activated carbon adsorbers. Use of such amendments as lime and wood ash in the compost mixture may also help control odor emissions. 2. Screening, Curing, Materials Handling, and Storage Screening is often performed following composting. Screening removes bulking agents (as much as possible) for recycling to minimize operational costs, reduces the overall volume of compost, improves product quality, and allows variation in product texture. Fine materials such as sawdust are not screened. The moisture content of the compost is a key factor in the success of screening operations. If the compost is too wet, the material will be sticky and the screen may bind. If the compost is too dry, dusty nuisance conditions may prevail. A solids content of the compost between 55 and 60 percent is recommended (WEF, 1995). Vibrating deck screens and rotating screens (trommel screens) with cleaning brushes are often used. The trommel screen operates at a slightly higher moisture content. 3. Drainage Management Runoff from surfaces covered with biosolids may contain fecal coliform and other contaminants. To protect the environment, an effective drainage management system is needed. Potentially contaminated runoff from the building and immediate paved surfaces should be routed to a sewer system for further treatment. The Compost Facility Resource Handbook has sections that describe the regulatory requirements as well as outlining design criteria (with references to other documents) for managing leachate and stormwater. Compost facilities located at publicly owned treatment plants have S-34 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design obvious advantages for leachate and stormwater management. Other facilities will need to address these issues differently. 4. Monitoring and Sampling Monitoring and sampling are performed in order to monitor for process efficiency and quality control and provide data for regulatory compliance. Aeration rates are often adjusted according to a feedback control of the temperature and/or oxygen level in the compost pile. In static piles, several monitoring points can be used within the piles. Typically, at least one point is located in the front, one in the middle, and one at the back toe of each pile. Other important monitoring parameters include moisture content, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, pathogen density, and odor levels. Monitoring parameters and frequencies required for a Type 2 facility (biosolids composting) are listed in Ecology’s “Interim Guidelines For Compost Quality” (1994). S-2.3 Ash Production Ash production is achieved by incineration. S-2.3.1 Purpose The purpose of incineration is to reduce and stabilize residual solids. S-2.3.2 General Description There are two types of incinerators: multihearth and fluidized bed. A. Multihearth Multihearth incinerators are cylindrical refractory line vessels containing a number of hearths, with rabble arms for moving the solids through the unit. Sludge enters through the top of the incinerator and is rabbled downward to the ash removal equipment at the bottom. The top hearths are used for drying, the middle hearths are for burning, and the bottom hearths are for cooling the ash. ? Biosolids should be fed at an even flow rate and shredded as it enters the incinerator. ? Design loading ranges from 6 to 12 lbs/hr/sf of hearth depending on the type and moisture content of the biosolids applied. ? Multihearth incinerators operate at 1,400 to 1,700° F. ? Feed-air ports should present an even air supply below the burning hearth. ? Power generation equipment must be powerful enough to at least support shaft cooling fans. B. Fluidized Bed Fluidized bed incinerators are cylindrical refractory line vessels with a grid in the lower section to support a sand bed. Preheated combustion air is supplied under the sand to float the bed. Ash is carried out the top of the Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-35 incinerator and removed from the off-gas stream. Supplemental heat is added to the fluidized bed to bring internal temperatures to between 1,400 and 1,800° F. Biosolids enters through nozzles into the sand bed for drying and combustion. ? Design loading ranges from 6 to 14 lbs/hr/sf depending on the type and biosolids moisture content of the biosolids applied. ? Fluidized bed incinerators operate at 1,400 to 1,800° F. ? The sand bed acts as a heat sink and can be operated on partial days without substantial heat loss. S-2.3.3 Requirements ? The incinerator must be large enough to meet the residual solids needs of the wastewater facility. This sizing should include the needs of short-term storage for maintenance as well as future plant growth needs. ? An incinerator requires dewatering equipment with the ability to increase solids concentration above 20 percent for feeding into the incineration process. The process therefore must have transfer equipment with the ability to increase solids concentration above 20 percent for feed into the incineration process. The higher the solids or volatile content of the cake feed, the higher the feed rate to the incinerator. ? State of Washington incinerator operator certification is required to operate incinerators. ? System monitoring as specified in the 40 CFR Part 503 regulations for discharge air and process testing must be in place for daily, monthly, semiannual, and annual records. ? The ash handling and storage capacity should be adequate for transferring and holding ash, depending on the ultimate disposal method. ? Ash must be disposed of at the permitted disposal site. S-2.3.4 Issues A. Advantages ? Incineration substantially reduces the quantity of biosolids to an inert end product. ? Processing and disposal of the residual biosolids is independent of outside conditions. This can be an advantage where there is opposition to reuse, changes in urbanization are anticipated, or where reuse is impacted by winter weather. B. Disadvantages ? Current regulation trends are moving away from simple disposal of biosolids toward beneficial reuse. Ash disposal now requires a permitted landfill. Permitted landfills are regional facilities that greatly increase the transport and disposal price of ash. Air S-36 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design monitoring requirements as prescribed in 40 CFR Part 503 have imposed increasingly stringent regulations. ? Incineration demands constant monitoring by certified incineration-only operators. This cost, along with fuel, power, and ash transportation, adds to the overall high expense of incineration. ? Sludge incineration is a balanced process dependent on the functioning of other treatment processes. It is therefore susceptible to downtime because of power interruption or equipment malfunction. ? Maintenance inside an incinerator requires a cool-down period to an ambient temperature and a gradual heat-up period to complete operations. Extended incineration downtime requires substantial storage capacity or sludge hauling to a separate facility. S-2.4 Storage Solids can be stored in lagoons, tanks and basins, silos, bags, and bulk storage. S-2.4.1 Lagoons Raw, partially, or fully treated solids may be stored in lagoons pending further processing or disposition, but “storage” may be considered “treatment” with any significant residence time in the storage unit or in the absence of characterization or plans for monitoring and ultimate end-use. Sheer storage volume can lead lagoons to “out-of-sight, out-of-mind” status. But good planning and design will not only address design elements such as appropriate dike engineering and liners, but also consider other factors including long-term planning issues. S-2.4.2 Tanks and Basins A. Purpose Holding tanks and basins are commonly provided as an integral part of most conditioning processes and many stabilization processes. Tanks and basins may be used for blending materials, such as wastewater solids from primary and secondary clarifiers. B. Design Considerations Large storage tanks are generally constructed of concrete. Smaller tanks are often constructed of carbon steel with a suitable coating system. Tank and basin equipment often includes an aeration system, mechanical mixers, or a recycling system for mixing. All equipment within the tank should be constructed of a corrosion-resistant material such as PVC, PE, or stainless steel. C. Issues 1. Storage Time Tanks and basins may be sized to retain wastewater solids for a period of several hours to a few days. If wastewater solids are stored longer Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-37 than two or three days, the product will deteriorate and can be difficult to dewater. 2. Inspection and Maintenance Access If the tank or basin is a closed vessel, ensure that there are access portholes for inspection and maintenance. All access portholes need to meet current OSHA requirements. 3. Odor Control Even short storage periods of unstabilized primary and secondary wastewater solids in a holding tank or basin can produce nuisance odor. Decanting tanks following thermal conditioning often creates major odor problems. S-2.4.3 Bulk Storage Dewatered biosolids can be stored (stockpiled) for up to two years or longer if specifically approved. Without approval, facilities that hold material in excess of two years may be considered disposal facilities, which can result in significant changes in the approach to facility design, operation, and regulation. Design considerations for bulk storage are as follows: ? The size of the biosolids storage area depends on the quantity of biosolids produced, when it can be utilized, and its moisture content. Drier solids can be stacked higher with less tendency to slump. Additional space should be provided for scheduled process cleaning (lagoon dewatering or digester cleaning) and emergency situations (permit violations or second-party treatment). ? Storage must be in accordance with the biosolids application permit (if one is issued). ? Storage must be in accordance with requirements of the local health district. ? Materials must not be stored in a manner that results in (or would be likely to result in) contamination of ground or surface waters, air, or land in case of flood or fire. ? The storage area should be constructed and sited to prevent run-on and runoff of liquids. ? A solids storage area needs a water collection system and way to treat the leachate produced from the pile. Bulk storage should be managed to prevent the pollution of ground or surface waters. Odors can be a problem depending on the population density of the area, quality of the solids (stability), and prevailing winds. The storage area should be constructed to prevent run-on and runoff of water. Care must be taken not to contaminate the solids with oil, grease, gas, rocks, litter, etc. The area must be secure to prevent access by the public, domestic animals, or wildlife. S-38 December 1998 Criteria for Sewage Works Design S-3 Residual Solids Management: End-Use Options This section intends to only mention various biosolids recycling and disposal options. Possibilities include land application options (including both direct application to the land and as a component of compost or topsoil products), disposal in landfills, and incineration. Chapter 70.95 RCW favors recycling options over other disposal options, such as disposal in landfills and incineration. Chapter 70.95J RCW further directs Ecology to pursue the maximum beneficial use of biosolids. Ecology has adopted Chapter 173-308 WAC to implement a statewide biosolids management program that encourages the maximum beneficial use of biosolids. Ecology discourages incineration and long-term reliance on landfill disposal as end uses. No other information related to end-use options is included in this manual. Refer to Ecology’s Solid Waste Program requirements, Washington State rules on biosolids management (Chapter 173-308 WAC), Chapter 70.95J RCW, and 40 CFR Part 503 for guidance. S-4 References Brown and Caldwell. Draft Report for the Pierce County Utilities Chambers Creek Wastewater Treatment Plant Master Site Plan. Task 3.1, Biosolids Compost Facility Conceptual Plan. 1994. Brown and Caldwell. Pierce County Department of Public Works and Utilities Soil Manufacturing Facilities. Plan of Operations Report. 1996. Burke, D.A., R. Butler, R. Finger, and S. Hummel. Improved Biosolids Digestion Utilizing Anoxic Gas Flotation. In Proceedings of the 70th Annual Conference and Exposition of the Water Environment Federation. 1997. Ghosh, S. and K. Buoy. Two-Phase Fermentation: An Innovative Approach to Gasification of Biosolids Resources. In Proceedings of the 10th Annual Residuals and Biosolids Management Conference, Water Environment Federation, 1996. Haug, R.T. The Practical Handbook of Compost Engineering. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers, 1993. Hay. J.C., et al. “Windrow Composting in Los Angeles County.” Biocycle Magazine, Part 1 & 2, 26(7), 24, 1985. Kerri, Kenneth D., et al. Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants. Volumes I and II. California State University. 1988. Mavinic, D.S. and D.S. Koers. “Performance and Kinetics of Low Temperature, Aerobic Sludge Digestion.” Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, 51, 2088, 1979. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering—Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. Third Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991. Peddie. C.C., J. Tailford, and D. Hoffman. Thermophilic Anaerobic Sludge Digestion—Taking a New Look at an Old Process. In Proceedings of the 10th Annual Residuals and Biosolids Management Conference, Water Environment Federation, 1996. Stukenberg. J.R., J.H. Clark, J. Sandino, and W.R. Naydo. “Egg-Shaped Digesters: From Germany to the US.” Water Environment and Technology, 4(4), 42-51, 1992. Residual Solids Management December 1998 S-39 US Environmental Protection Agency. Process Design Manual for Sludge Treatment and Disposal. EPA 625/1-79-011, 1979. US Environmental Protection Agency. Standards for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge. US EPA 40 CFR Part 503, 1993. Viessman, W. and M.J. Hammer. Water Supply and Pollution Control. Fourth Edition. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 1985. Walker. J., et al. US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Wastewater Management. A Plain English Guide to the EPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule. EPA/832/R-93/003, 1994. Washington State Department of Ecology. Biosolids Management Guidelines for Washington State, Publication No. 93-80. (Being revised as of this printing; expected publication date, 1999.) Washington State Department of Ecology. Interim Guidelines for Compost Quality. Publication No. 94-38. 1994. Water Environment Federation. Biosolids Composting. 1995. Water Environment Federation. Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants. WEF and ASCE. Manual of Practice No. 8. 1992. Water Environment Federation. Operation of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants. Manual of Practice No. 11. Fifth Edition. 1996. Water Pollution Control Federation. Sludge Stabilization. Manual of Practice FD-9. 1995. Williams, T., R.A. Boyette, E. Epstein, and S. Plett. Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation 69th Annual Conference & Exposition. Volume 2, Residuals and Biosolids Management. From the Biosolids Composting Conference in Davensport, Iowa, 1996. Zickefoose. C. and J. Hayes (for the US EPA Office of Water Programs). Operations Manual for Stabilization Ponds. Environmental Protection Agency. 1977. Zinder. S.H. “Thermophiles: General Molecular and Applied Microbiology.” In Thermophilic Waste Treatment Systems, T.D. Brock, editor. New York: Wiley-Interscience. 257-277, 1986.