Preparing your results for
publication
Hans Lambers
School of Plant Biology
The University of Western Australia
Perth,Australia
Maximising your chances to get your
manuscript rapidly accepted
Editor-in-Chief of Plant and Soil
Senior Author of Plant Physiological Ecology
Member of (Advisory) Editorial Boards
What to publish?
? Full-length articles are about 5,000 words,a
series of experiments making a coherent story
? Short notes are about 200 words
? General rule,it is better to publish one solid
paper than to split it into two or three short
notes
? Articles in books and reports are less
prestigious,publish your primary data in
international journals
Where to publish?
? Carefully select the right journal
– From which journals do you cite papers in your
reference list?
– Which journals publish on a similar topic?
? Final decision
– Prestige (“impact factor”)
– Time to publish (check time between submission
of the manuscript and publication)
– Your experience with a specific journal (attitude of
reviewers and editors)
What exactly is the,impact factor” (IF)?
? Put simply,IF is a rough indicator for the quality
of a journal in a narrowly defined discipline,e.g.,
– Agriculture
– Plant sciences
– Molecular biology
? It is silly to compare impact factors between
disciplines,e.g.,Ecology and Molecular Biology
? More accurately,IF is the number of citations of
all papers published in a journal over two years
divided by number of papers published in the
preceding two years,e.g.,
– IF for 2001,(number of citations in
2001+2000)/(number of papers published in
2000+1999)
Plan your experiments in such a way that
the data can be published
? Make sure you have a sound question
(hypothesis) before you begin your research
? That hypothesis may not be the same you
wish to use when publishing the data
? Research without a sound hypothesis is hard
to write up,but …
? sometimes there are good reasons to make
an,inventory” (no sound hypothesis required)
? Think three times before you start your
experiments
Data that have not been
published do not exist!
If you do not publish your
data,you might as well not
do the experiments
Published data can make a
lasting impression,like the
Great Wall
Photo Dr Jianbo Shen,CAU,
Beijing,PR China
The structure of a scientific paper
? Authors + addresses
? Title,running title
? Abstract
? Keywords,abbreviations
? Introduction
? Materials and methods
? Results
? Discussion
? Acknowledgments
? References
? Tables and Figures
Where do I start?
Begin with the Results section
? Arrange your data in figures and tables
– Are the data best presented as figures or as tables?
? Decide which figure/table comes first
? Decide the order of all other figures/tables
? Make a structure for your Results
– Decide what you wish to describe
– Design the sections in the Results (“dot points”)
? Then make a structure for each section (dot
point)
– Decide what you wish to describe in each section
? Then start writing
? Write your results in the past tense
The choice between a Figure or a TableA g e m a l i c m a l o n i c l a c t i c a c e t i c m a l e i c c i t r i c c i s - a c o n i t i cs u c i n i c f u m a r i c t r a n s - a c o n i t i cT o t a l0 161 0 371 0 0 119 109 0 7 484 1252
1, 5 0 0 66 0 0 0 4 0 2 14 86
2, 5 17 0 41 0 0 0 1 0 4 5 68
5, 5 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 27
8, 5 929 0 0 57 0 824 6 209 22 19 2066
1 3, 5 3217 0 0 0 0 3020 14 160 7 54 6471
25 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11
0, 0 0 0
0, 0 5 0
0, 1 0 0
0, 1 5 0
0, 2 0 0
0, 2 5 0
0, 3 0 0
0, 3 5 0
0, 4 0 0
0 10 20 30
T i m e ( d a y s )
O
A
(
n
m
o
l
g
-1
F
W
s
-1
)
m a l i c
m a l o n i c
l a c t i c
a c e t i c
m a l e i c
c i t r i c
c i s - a c o n i t i c
s u c c i n i c
f u m a r i c
t r a n s -
a c o n i t i c
The choice between a few lines in the text
or a Table
The yield of rice was 1.232,2.798,3.193,1.009
and 4.272 ton ha-1 for the farms of Dong,
Zhang,Cheng,Hu and Shen,respectively
Dong Zhang Cheng Hu Shen
1.232 2.798 3.193 1.009 4.272
These results are easier to take in when
presented in a Table
Can we make the table clearer by
altering the axes?
Dong Zhang Cheng Hu Shen
1.232 2.798 3.193 1.009 4.272
Dong 1.232
Zhang 2.798
Cheng 3.193
Hu 1.009
Shen 4.272
Should we order the data in a
different manner?
Cheng 3.193
Dong 1.232
Shen 4.272
Hu 1.009
Zhang 2.798
Arrange the farmers alphabetically?
No improvement!
Should we order the data in a
different manner?
Hu 1.009
Dong 1.232
Zhang 2.798
Cheng 3.193
Shen 4.272
Arrange in order of increasing yield?
Shen did much better than any of the other farmers!
Do we need this level
of precision?Hu 1.009
Dong 1.232
Zhang 2.798
Cheng 3.193
Shen 4.272
Hu 1.1
Dong 1.2
Zhang 2.8
Cheng 3.2
Shen 4.3
Include as many decimal
points as justified by the
accuracy of your data
The columns of a table must be labelled
appropriately,and the units must be
included too
Hu 1.1
Dong 1.2
Zhang 2.8
Cheng 3.2
Shen 4.3
Farmer Yield
(ton ha-1)
We can quickly see why the yield on Hu’s
and Dong’s farms was so low,low pH!
Farmer Yield
(ton ha-1)
Average soil
pH
Hu 1.1 4.1
Dong 1.2 4.2
Zhang 2.8 5.1
Cheng 3.2 5.5
Shen 4.3 6.2
Make sure you use acceptable units,not
ones that are,out-of-date”
? Recommended/preferred SI units and non-SI
units that are either discouraged or not
acceptable for Plant and Soil are included in
Instructions for Authors (a Table is sent to
authors after an editorial decision)
? In addition,double prefixes should be
avoided,e.g.,use mg g-1,rather than mg kg-1
? For further information on SI conventions,the
following Web site may be helpful,
http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/index.html
SI or recommended/preferred units Non-SI or discouraged /
unacceptable units
Length nm,mm,mm,m,km (i.e,m,and up and down
by factors of thousand)
cm,dm,dam,hm; inch,foot,yard,
mile
Area nm2,mm2,mm2,m2,km2 (i.e,m,and up and
down like for length)
cm2,ha / acre
Volume m3 (and up and down like for length); also
acceptable L (and up and down by factors of
thousand)
cm3,gallon,cubic feet
Mass g (and up and down by factors of thousand) bushel,tonne
Time s; also acceptable,h,day,year min
Concentrations mol m-3 (and up and down by factors of
thousand); also acceptable,M (and up and
down by factors of thousand); molc kg-1
cmol kg-1
g kg-1 %
mg g-1,mmol mol-1 ppm,ppb
Temperature Kelvin,K; Celcius,oC Fahrenheit
Transpiration,
photosynthesis,
respiration
mol m-2 s-1,nmol g-1 s-1 (and up and down by
factors of thousand)
mol cm-2 h-1,mol dm-2 min-1
Electrical conductivity,
electricity and magnetism
Siemens per meter,S m-1 (and up and down by
factors of thousand)
millimho per centimeter,mmho cm-1
Irradiance mmol m-2 s-1; W m-2,MJ m-2 day-1 lux
Pressure,water potential Pa,kPa,MPa hPa,atmosphere
The Results
? Figure 1
– Describe what it shows
– Number figures in order of
appearance in the text
? Table 1
– Describe what it shows
? Lead the reader through
your data
– From one Figure (Table) to
the next
? Arrange a logical flow
from section to section
That makes it easy!
Then continue with writing the Discussion
? Make a structure for your Discussion
– Decide what you wish to discuss
– Design the sections in the Discussion (dot points)
? Then make a structure for each section (dot
points)
– Decide what you wish to describe in each section
? Place your results in a wider context
? Compare your results with those in the literature
? Then start writing
? Finish with a paragraph in which you tell the
reader what are the main points (“take-home-
message”)
The Discussion
? Figure 1
– Explain what it shows
? Table 1
– Explain what it shows
? Place your results in a
wider context
? How do your data
compare with those in
the literature?
? Finish with the,take-
home-message”
Sounds exciting!
A bit more about the Discussion
? A good researcher is
excited about the
results
? Make sure the
reader also gets
excited
? Explain why your
work is important
and exciting
‘Selling’ my data!
Now the Materials and Methods
? Once you know which data you will include,
you write up all the Materials and Methods
used to acquire the data
? Methods
– Reference,details of all modifications
? Equipment,chemicals
– Manufacturer,city,country
? Growing conditions,treatments
? Species
– Latin name
– Authority,e.g.,Linnaeus (L.)
– Cultivar
Materials and Methods
? Include all relevant details
? Check your chosen journal
for,how it is done”
? Do not use,modified after”,
but describe the
modifications
? Describe so that someone
else can repeat your
experiments
? Be precise
–,Room temperature” is not an
accurate description
A meticulous job!
The Introduction is next
? Briefly review the literature that is
relevant for your manuscript (use your
Discussion as a guideline)
? Do not just write this Introduction for half
a dozen colleagues working in exactly
the same field,but…
? write for a range of interested scientists
? Finish with the aims of your work and
present a clear hypothesis
The Introduction
? Briefly review the literature
? Address a wider audience
than those working in
exactly the same field
? Give the aims of your
research and a good
hypothesis
? A good hypothesis is one
that can be tested,but it
does not need to be
“correct”
Fascinating topic!
A bit more about the Introduction
? Explain why you did your
research
? The fact that nobody has
done it before is not a
good reason
? Your study may follow
logically from previous
work
? Your project may have
been inspired by a
practical problem
Why did I do this?
References
? Cite in a,balanced” manner and do not
ignore specific groups
? Avoid too many references of the work of
yourself or your group
? Cite the primary literature,if referring to a key
finding
? Cite a review,if you wish to refer to a fact that
has been found by numerous authors
? Cite textbooks only when referring to
generally accepted knowledge
References
? Check the required format
for the chosen journal
– Order (in text and list)
– Correct abbreviations of
journals
– Add name of publisher and
city (not country)
? Are all the cited references
in the list?
? Have all the references in
the list been cited?
I must be precise!
Acknowledgements
? Acknowledge the input of people and
agencies who allowed you to write this
manuscript
? Your supervisor (if not a co-author)
? Your technician (if not a co-author)
? Your colleague,who gave you some bright
ideas or critically read your manuscript
? Someone who helped you with the language
? Granting agencies
? Others
The title
? It should cover the main aims and/or
message
? It should appeal to your audience
? It should not be too long
? Avoid titles with a numbered subtitle
– Subtitles may get lost,and hence your paper
may not be found in searches
The running title
? Some journal also require a subtitle
? It cannot exceed a certain number of
characters
– check instructions for authors of the journal
? should cover the main aims and/or message
? It is an abbreviated version of your title
? It is only printed above some pages of your
paper
? It is not used for literature searches
? It is therefore less important than a good title
? Use your actual title as a guideline
The Abstract
? It should contain the aim of your research
? Do not use references in this part
? If you must use them,then all details must be
there (as in the references list,but without the
title) because an abstract must stand on its
own
? Make sure the main results and take-home-
message are there
Keywords
? Choose a limited number of
keywords that adequately
cover your research
? Do not use words that
already appear in the title
? Think of words that you
would look for when doing a
literature search
? Arrange alphabetically
Let me think
Abbreviations
? All abbreviations must be explained
? This is commonly done in a section with a
separate heading,Abbreviations
? Sometimes it is better to (also) have a
separate Table with all the abbreviations
? Avoid using abbreviations in the Abstract
? If you must,these abbreviations must be
explained when used the first time
Who are the authors and their addresses?
? Make sure that all authors have a
chance to read your manuscript before
you submit it
? Never add an author,if this person
has not had a chance to read the
manuscript
? Include the name of the
institute/laboratory where the work
was done as the first address
? If you have moved,also add,present
address”
What is the order of the authors of your
paper?
? The person who did the work and wrote the
manuscript should be first (=senior) author
? Corresponding author is the one that will be
the contact for the journal and
correspondence that may follow after
publication
? That may be the group leader
? Senior author and corresponding author can
be the same
? The research-team leader appears as the last
author
Frequently made mistakes
? Invalid statistics
– e.g.,presenting linear regressions when one axis is not
scaled (e.g.,sites,species)
? Units lacking in tables or figures
? Incorrect units,
– s (= seconds) instead of S (= Siemens)
? there should be a unit length in conductivity as well
– Kg instead of kg
– Units of time must appear at the end
? mmol s-1 m-2 should be mmol m-2 s-1
– ug,umol and uM,instead of mg,mmol and mM
– mM m-2 s-1 should be mmol m-2 s-1
? mM is short for mmol l-1
? No numbers or legends for tables or figures
Frequently made mistakes (cont’d)
? High,rather than low (very negative),water
potential
? Cited references not given in reference list
? Incorrect/sloppy style of referencing
? The data shows … (instead of the data show ….)
? Anthropomorphic reasoning
–,plants attempt…,
? Too many decimal places
– 0.239876 (SE = 0.052501) should be 0.23 (SE = 0.05)
? No space between values and units,or between
different units
– 20m; should be 20 m (but 20% should,indeed,be 20%)
– 10mmolm-2s-1; should be10 mmol m-2 s-1
Something you must never do
? Never copy whole sentences or paragraphs
without referring to the original text
? This is called plagiarism
? It is one of the worsts,crimes” in science
? It will make you look bad,when discovered
(which will probably happen)
? It may ruin your scientific career
? Just don’t do it!
Fraud in science
? Publication of results that you have not really
acquired is considered fraud
? There are examples where,scientists” have
published results that were copied from other
journals
? Other,scientists” have published results that
were not really based on actual experiments
? It is one of the worsts,crimes” in science
? You are bound to get caught,Just don’t do it!
Finally,a few comments on language
and the structure of sentences and
paragraphs
A few hints
? Avoid complicated sentences
? Do not use words that you think you
understand,but have not really checked
carefully
– Too easy to do when using your computer
program,without checking in a dictionary
? Do not make sentences that are too long
? Use a spell checker,and use either UK
English,or US English,but not a mixture of
both
Spelling checkers
pick up some
mistakes,but not all
? Sauna
? Barber
? Ball
? Guest
“The information that begins a sentence
establishes for the reader a perspective
for viewing the sentence as a unit.”
Gopen,G.D,& Swan,J.A,1990,American Scientist 78,550-558.
An example of how (not) to begin a
sentence
2,The P concentrations in root halves supplied with
1 μM P were invariably low,regardless of the P
concentration supplied to the other root half,
1,Regardless of the P concentration supplied to the
other root half,the P concentrations in root halves
supplied with 1 μM P were invariably low,
In 2.,the important part is placed at the beginning,
Therefore,that is the sentence order that you should
use!
“Beginning with the exciting material and
ending with a lack of luster often leaves
us disappointed and destroys our sense
of momentum.”
Gopen,G.D,& Swan,J.A,1990,American Scientist 78,550-558.
Therefore,the structure of the Discussion
should be both logical and exciting
? Begin with what needs to be addressed first
and continue to explain the rest
? Hide what must be included,but is not really
exciting
– This can be done by presenting it in a Table in
Results,without further discussing in Discussion
? Finish with the most important and exciting
aspects
The structure of a paragraph
? Text is organised in paragraphs
? Paragraphs have a distinct structure
? They are not arranged so as to have a certain
number of sentences or lines
? Paragraphs begin with a sentence that,sets
the scene”
– An introduction to what the paragraph is about
? Paragraphs finish with a conclusion
– A sentence that refers back to the first sentence
A final check
? Check the instructions for
authors again
? Did you follow all
instructions properly?
? Remember,it is not the
task of the reviewers or the
editor to take care of
details you should have
checked yourself
? Your manuscript may be
sent back without review,if
you have not addressed
these items
? ?
Check carefully
Send it off,and wait for the editorial
decision
What next?
? You should receive a note from the journal
that your manuscript has been received
– If this does not happen,check with the journal
? After several weeks you will receive the
editorial decision
– If this does not happen in a reasonable time,
check with the journal
? This decision can be:
– Accepted without revision (extremely rare)
– Accepted with minor/major revision
– Rejected with(out) an invitation to resubmit your
manuscript
How do you respond when minor/major
revision is required?
? Carefully consider all the points raised by the
reviewers and the editor
– They have spent time on your manuscript,and
you must give all their points careful attention
? Make the requested changes if you consider
that these changes are appropriate
? Explain in a letter to the editor why you did
not make the changes
– You will need good reasons!
? Return the revised manuscript as soon as
possible
How to respond when a manuscript has been
rejected,with(out) an invitation to resubmit?
? Carefully consider the critical points
– Use the critical points to improve your manuscript
– You may need to read more literature
– More experiments may be required
? Revise your manuscript
– Resubmit your manuscript to the same journal (if
invited to do so)
– Choose an alternative journal (if not invited to
resubmit to the same journal)
? Never submit your manuscript to an alternative
journal without appropriate revision
– Your revised manuscript may end up in the hands of
the same reviewer
Send it off again,and wait for the final
editorial decision
publication
Hans Lambers
School of Plant Biology
The University of Western Australia
Perth,Australia
Maximising your chances to get your
manuscript rapidly accepted
Editor-in-Chief of Plant and Soil
Senior Author of Plant Physiological Ecology
Member of (Advisory) Editorial Boards
What to publish?
? Full-length articles are about 5,000 words,a
series of experiments making a coherent story
? Short notes are about 200 words
? General rule,it is better to publish one solid
paper than to split it into two or three short
notes
? Articles in books and reports are less
prestigious,publish your primary data in
international journals
Where to publish?
? Carefully select the right journal
– From which journals do you cite papers in your
reference list?
– Which journals publish on a similar topic?
? Final decision
– Prestige (“impact factor”)
– Time to publish (check time between submission
of the manuscript and publication)
– Your experience with a specific journal (attitude of
reviewers and editors)
What exactly is the,impact factor” (IF)?
? Put simply,IF is a rough indicator for the quality
of a journal in a narrowly defined discipline,e.g.,
– Agriculture
– Plant sciences
– Molecular biology
? It is silly to compare impact factors between
disciplines,e.g.,Ecology and Molecular Biology
? More accurately,IF is the number of citations of
all papers published in a journal over two years
divided by number of papers published in the
preceding two years,e.g.,
– IF for 2001,(number of citations in
2001+2000)/(number of papers published in
2000+1999)
Plan your experiments in such a way that
the data can be published
? Make sure you have a sound question
(hypothesis) before you begin your research
? That hypothesis may not be the same you
wish to use when publishing the data
? Research without a sound hypothesis is hard
to write up,but …
? sometimes there are good reasons to make
an,inventory” (no sound hypothesis required)
? Think three times before you start your
experiments
Data that have not been
published do not exist!
If you do not publish your
data,you might as well not
do the experiments
Published data can make a
lasting impression,like the
Great Wall
Photo Dr Jianbo Shen,CAU,
Beijing,PR China
The structure of a scientific paper
? Authors + addresses
? Title,running title
? Abstract
? Keywords,abbreviations
? Introduction
? Materials and methods
? Results
? Discussion
? Acknowledgments
? References
? Tables and Figures
Where do I start?
Begin with the Results section
? Arrange your data in figures and tables
– Are the data best presented as figures or as tables?
? Decide which figure/table comes first
? Decide the order of all other figures/tables
? Make a structure for your Results
– Decide what you wish to describe
– Design the sections in the Results (“dot points”)
? Then make a structure for each section (dot
point)
– Decide what you wish to describe in each section
? Then start writing
? Write your results in the past tense
The choice between a Figure or a TableA g e m a l i c m a l o n i c l a c t i c a c e t i c m a l e i c c i t r i c c i s - a c o n i t i cs u c i n i c f u m a r i c t r a n s - a c o n i t i cT o t a l0 161 0 371 0 0 119 109 0 7 484 1252
1, 5 0 0 66 0 0 0 4 0 2 14 86
2, 5 17 0 41 0 0 0 1 0 4 5 68
5, 5 21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 27
8, 5 929 0 0 57 0 824 6 209 22 19 2066
1 3, 5 3217 0 0 0 0 3020 14 160 7 54 6471
25 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11
0, 0 0 0
0, 0 5 0
0, 1 0 0
0, 1 5 0
0, 2 0 0
0, 2 5 0
0, 3 0 0
0, 3 5 0
0, 4 0 0
0 10 20 30
T i m e ( d a y s )
O
A
(
n
m
o
l
g
-1
F
W
s
-1
)
m a l i c
m a l o n i c
l a c t i c
a c e t i c
m a l e i c
c i t r i c
c i s - a c o n i t i c
s u c c i n i c
f u m a r i c
t r a n s -
a c o n i t i c
The choice between a few lines in the text
or a Table
The yield of rice was 1.232,2.798,3.193,1.009
and 4.272 ton ha-1 for the farms of Dong,
Zhang,Cheng,Hu and Shen,respectively
Dong Zhang Cheng Hu Shen
1.232 2.798 3.193 1.009 4.272
These results are easier to take in when
presented in a Table
Can we make the table clearer by
altering the axes?
Dong Zhang Cheng Hu Shen
1.232 2.798 3.193 1.009 4.272
Dong 1.232
Zhang 2.798
Cheng 3.193
Hu 1.009
Shen 4.272
Should we order the data in a
different manner?
Cheng 3.193
Dong 1.232
Shen 4.272
Hu 1.009
Zhang 2.798
Arrange the farmers alphabetically?
No improvement!
Should we order the data in a
different manner?
Hu 1.009
Dong 1.232
Zhang 2.798
Cheng 3.193
Shen 4.272
Arrange in order of increasing yield?
Shen did much better than any of the other farmers!
Do we need this level
of precision?Hu 1.009
Dong 1.232
Zhang 2.798
Cheng 3.193
Shen 4.272
Hu 1.1
Dong 1.2
Zhang 2.8
Cheng 3.2
Shen 4.3
Include as many decimal
points as justified by the
accuracy of your data
The columns of a table must be labelled
appropriately,and the units must be
included too
Hu 1.1
Dong 1.2
Zhang 2.8
Cheng 3.2
Shen 4.3
Farmer Yield
(ton ha-1)
We can quickly see why the yield on Hu’s
and Dong’s farms was so low,low pH!
Farmer Yield
(ton ha-1)
Average soil
pH
Hu 1.1 4.1
Dong 1.2 4.2
Zhang 2.8 5.1
Cheng 3.2 5.5
Shen 4.3 6.2
Make sure you use acceptable units,not
ones that are,out-of-date”
? Recommended/preferred SI units and non-SI
units that are either discouraged or not
acceptable for Plant and Soil are included in
Instructions for Authors (a Table is sent to
authors after an editorial decision)
? In addition,double prefixes should be
avoided,e.g.,use mg g-1,rather than mg kg-1
? For further information on SI conventions,the
following Web site may be helpful,
http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/index.html
SI or recommended/preferred units Non-SI or discouraged /
unacceptable units
Length nm,mm,mm,m,km (i.e,m,and up and down
by factors of thousand)
cm,dm,dam,hm; inch,foot,yard,
mile
Area nm2,mm2,mm2,m2,km2 (i.e,m,and up and
down like for length)
cm2,ha / acre
Volume m3 (and up and down like for length); also
acceptable L (and up and down by factors of
thousand)
cm3,gallon,cubic feet
Mass g (and up and down by factors of thousand) bushel,tonne
Time s; also acceptable,h,day,year min
Concentrations mol m-3 (and up and down by factors of
thousand); also acceptable,M (and up and
down by factors of thousand); molc kg-1
cmol kg-1
g kg-1 %
mg g-1,mmol mol-1 ppm,ppb
Temperature Kelvin,K; Celcius,oC Fahrenheit
Transpiration,
photosynthesis,
respiration
mol m-2 s-1,nmol g-1 s-1 (and up and down by
factors of thousand)
mol cm-2 h-1,mol dm-2 min-1
Electrical conductivity,
electricity and magnetism
Siemens per meter,S m-1 (and up and down by
factors of thousand)
millimho per centimeter,mmho cm-1
Irradiance mmol m-2 s-1; W m-2,MJ m-2 day-1 lux
Pressure,water potential Pa,kPa,MPa hPa,atmosphere
The Results
? Figure 1
– Describe what it shows
– Number figures in order of
appearance in the text
? Table 1
– Describe what it shows
? Lead the reader through
your data
– From one Figure (Table) to
the next
? Arrange a logical flow
from section to section
That makes it easy!
Then continue with writing the Discussion
? Make a structure for your Discussion
– Decide what you wish to discuss
– Design the sections in the Discussion (dot points)
? Then make a structure for each section (dot
points)
– Decide what you wish to describe in each section
? Place your results in a wider context
? Compare your results with those in the literature
? Then start writing
? Finish with a paragraph in which you tell the
reader what are the main points (“take-home-
message”)
The Discussion
? Figure 1
– Explain what it shows
? Table 1
– Explain what it shows
? Place your results in a
wider context
? How do your data
compare with those in
the literature?
? Finish with the,take-
home-message”
Sounds exciting!
A bit more about the Discussion
? A good researcher is
excited about the
results
? Make sure the
reader also gets
excited
? Explain why your
work is important
and exciting
‘Selling’ my data!
Now the Materials and Methods
? Once you know which data you will include,
you write up all the Materials and Methods
used to acquire the data
? Methods
– Reference,details of all modifications
? Equipment,chemicals
– Manufacturer,city,country
? Growing conditions,treatments
? Species
– Latin name
– Authority,e.g.,Linnaeus (L.)
– Cultivar
Materials and Methods
? Include all relevant details
? Check your chosen journal
for,how it is done”
? Do not use,modified after”,
but describe the
modifications
? Describe so that someone
else can repeat your
experiments
? Be precise
–,Room temperature” is not an
accurate description
A meticulous job!
The Introduction is next
? Briefly review the literature that is
relevant for your manuscript (use your
Discussion as a guideline)
? Do not just write this Introduction for half
a dozen colleagues working in exactly
the same field,but…
? write for a range of interested scientists
? Finish with the aims of your work and
present a clear hypothesis
The Introduction
? Briefly review the literature
? Address a wider audience
than those working in
exactly the same field
? Give the aims of your
research and a good
hypothesis
? A good hypothesis is one
that can be tested,but it
does not need to be
“correct”
Fascinating topic!
A bit more about the Introduction
? Explain why you did your
research
? The fact that nobody has
done it before is not a
good reason
? Your study may follow
logically from previous
work
? Your project may have
been inspired by a
practical problem
Why did I do this?
References
? Cite in a,balanced” manner and do not
ignore specific groups
? Avoid too many references of the work of
yourself or your group
? Cite the primary literature,if referring to a key
finding
? Cite a review,if you wish to refer to a fact that
has been found by numerous authors
? Cite textbooks only when referring to
generally accepted knowledge
References
? Check the required format
for the chosen journal
– Order (in text and list)
– Correct abbreviations of
journals
– Add name of publisher and
city (not country)
? Are all the cited references
in the list?
? Have all the references in
the list been cited?
I must be precise!
Acknowledgements
? Acknowledge the input of people and
agencies who allowed you to write this
manuscript
? Your supervisor (if not a co-author)
? Your technician (if not a co-author)
? Your colleague,who gave you some bright
ideas or critically read your manuscript
? Someone who helped you with the language
? Granting agencies
? Others
The title
? It should cover the main aims and/or
message
? It should appeal to your audience
? It should not be too long
? Avoid titles with a numbered subtitle
– Subtitles may get lost,and hence your paper
may not be found in searches
The running title
? Some journal also require a subtitle
? It cannot exceed a certain number of
characters
– check instructions for authors of the journal
? should cover the main aims and/or message
? It is an abbreviated version of your title
? It is only printed above some pages of your
paper
? It is not used for literature searches
? It is therefore less important than a good title
? Use your actual title as a guideline
The Abstract
? It should contain the aim of your research
? Do not use references in this part
? If you must use them,then all details must be
there (as in the references list,but without the
title) because an abstract must stand on its
own
? Make sure the main results and take-home-
message are there
Keywords
? Choose a limited number of
keywords that adequately
cover your research
? Do not use words that
already appear in the title
? Think of words that you
would look for when doing a
literature search
? Arrange alphabetically
Let me think
Abbreviations
? All abbreviations must be explained
? This is commonly done in a section with a
separate heading,Abbreviations
? Sometimes it is better to (also) have a
separate Table with all the abbreviations
? Avoid using abbreviations in the Abstract
? If you must,these abbreviations must be
explained when used the first time
Who are the authors and their addresses?
? Make sure that all authors have a
chance to read your manuscript before
you submit it
? Never add an author,if this person
has not had a chance to read the
manuscript
? Include the name of the
institute/laboratory where the work
was done as the first address
? If you have moved,also add,present
address”
What is the order of the authors of your
paper?
? The person who did the work and wrote the
manuscript should be first (=senior) author
? Corresponding author is the one that will be
the contact for the journal and
correspondence that may follow after
publication
? That may be the group leader
? Senior author and corresponding author can
be the same
? The research-team leader appears as the last
author
Frequently made mistakes
? Invalid statistics
– e.g.,presenting linear regressions when one axis is not
scaled (e.g.,sites,species)
? Units lacking in tables or figures
? Incorrect units,
– s (= seconds) instead of S (= Siemens)
? there should be a unit length in conductivity as well
– Kg instead of kg
– Units of time must appear at the end
? mmol s-1 m-2 should be mmol m-2 s-1
– ug,umol and uM,instead of mg,mmol and mM
– mM m-2 s-1 should be mmol m-2 s-1
? mM is short for mmol l-1
? No numbers or legends for tables or figures
Frequently made mistakes (cont’d)
? High,rather than low (very negative),water
potential
? Cited references not given in reference list
? Incorrect/sloppy style of referencing
? The data shows … (instead of the data show ….)
? Anthropomorphic reasoning
–,plants attempt…,
? Too many decimal places
– 0.239876 (SE = 0.052501) should be 0.23 (SE = 0.05)
? No space between values and units,or between
different units
– 20m; should be 20 m (but 20% should,indeed,be 20%)
– 10mmolm-2s-1; should be10 mmol m-2 s-1
Something you must never do
? Never copy whole sentences or paragraphs
without referring to the original text
? This is called plagiarism
? It is one of the worsts,crimes” in science
? It will make you look bad,when discovered
(which will probably happen)
? It may ruin your scientific career
? Just don’t do it!
Fraud in science
? Publication of results that you have not really
acquired is considered fraud
? There are examples where,scientists” have
published results that were copied from other
journals
? Other,scientists” have published results that
were not really based on actual experiments
? It is one of the worsts,crimes” in science
? You are bound to get caught,Just don’t do it!
Finally,a few comments on language
and the structure of sentences and
paragraphs
A few hints
? Avoid complicated sentences
? Do not use words that you think you
understand,but have not really checked
carefully
– Too easy to do when using your computer
program,without checking in a dictionary
? Do not make sentences that are too long
? Use a spell checker,and use either UK
English,or US English,but not a mixture of
both
Spelling checkers
pick up some
mistakes,but not all
? Sauna
? Barber
? Ball
? Guest
“The information that begins a sentence
establishes for the reader a perspective
for viewing the sentence as a unit.”
Gopen,G.D,& Swan,J.A,1990,American Scientist 78,550-558.
An example of how (not) to begin a
sentence
2,The P concentrations in root halves supplied with
1 μM P were invariably low,regardless of the P
concentration supplied to the other root half,
1,Regardless of the P concentration supplied to the
other root half,the P concentrations in root halves
supplied with 1 μM P were invariably low,
In 2.,the important part is placed at the beginning,
Therefore,that is the sentence order that you should
use!
“Beginning with the exciting material and
ending with a lack of luster often leaves
us disappointed and destroys our sense
of momentum.”
Gopen,G.D,& Swan,J.A,1990,American Scientist 78,550-558.
Therefore,the structure of the Discussion
should be both logical and exciting
? Begin with what needs to be addressed first
and continue to explain the rest
? Hide what must be included,but is not really
exciting
– This can be done by presenting it in a Table in
Results,without further discussing in Discussion
? Finish with the most important and exciting
aspects
The structure of a paragraph
? Text is organised in paragraphs
? Paragraphs have a distinct structure
? They are not arranged so as to have a certain
number of sentences or lines
? Paragraphs begin with a sentence that,sets
the scene”
– An introduction to what the paragraph is about
? Paragraphs finish with a conclusion
– A sentence that refers back to the first sentence
A final check
? Check the instructions for
authors again
? Did you follow all
instructions properly?
? Remember,it is not the
task of the reviewers or the
editor to take care of
details you should have
checked yourself
? Your manuscript may be
sent back without review,if
you have not addressed
these items
? ?
Check carefully
Send it off,and wait for the editorial
decision
What next?
? You should receive a note from the journal
that your manuscript has been received
– If this does not happen,check with the journal
? After several weeks you will receive the
editorial decision
– If this does not happen in a reasonable time,
check with the journal
? This decision can be:
– Accepted without revision (extremely rare)
– Accepted with minor/major revision
– Rejected with(out) an invitation to resubmit your
manuscript
How do you respond when minor/major
revision is required?
? Carefully consider all the points raised by the
reviewers and the editor
– They have spent time on your manuscript,and
you must give all their points careful attention
? Make the requested changes if you consider
that these changes are appropriate
? Explain in a letter to the editor why you did
not make the changes
– You will need good reasons!
? Return the revised manuscript as soon as
possible
How to respond when a manuscript has been
rejected,with(out) an invitation to resubmit?
? Carefully consider the critical points
– Use the critical points to improve your manuscript
– You may need to read more literature
– More experiments may be required
? Revise your manuscript
– Resubmit your manuscript to the same journal (if
invited to do so)
– Choose an alternative journal (if not invited to
resubmit to the same journal)
? Never submit your manuscript to an alternative
journal without appropriate revision
– Your revised manuscript may end up in the hands of
the same reviewer
Send it off again,and wait for the final
editorial decision
