SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UNIT NINE INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY PAPER WRITING
LESSON ONE FUNDAMENTALS OF PAPER WRITING (I)
Almost all research papers are expositions,The word
exposition quite literally means to set forth a subject,It appeals to
the understanding and it is the most common kind of writing,for it
is applicable to any task that challenges the understanding--the
definition of a word,the way to a street address,the structure of a
plant,the mechanism of a watch,the cause of a historical event,
the meaning of a philosophy,When we study the methods of
exposition,we are not following an arbitrary scheme,we are
following the ways in which we ordinarily observe and reason
about our world,We are doing systematically something that
ordinary living,in its hit-or-miss fashion,forces on us,quite
naturally,all the time.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A piece of exposition may be regarded as the answer to a
question,If a specific question has been asked--"Why are you
majoring in chemistry? " or "What were the causes of the
American Revolution?"--it is rather easy to frame an answer that
does not waver too badly from the point,The question controls
the answer.
In a discussion of any length we commonly find more than
one question involved,There is the main question,which
represents the main interest,but to get a satisfactory answer to
that,perhaps other questions must be asked and answered along
the way,So we encounter again the problems of unity and
coherence.
waver from偏离
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The main question must govern the whole,And we
may think of the answer to the main question as giving the
proposition,the thesis,the governing idea of the
discussion,For instance,a historian,in answering the
question "Why did it occur?" about the American
Revolution,might come up with this answer to serve as
his proposition,"The causes of the American Revolution
were primarily economic." He might proceed to do a book
offering a very elaborate analysis of the background of the
event,but this proposition would control the whole book.
An example,thermomechanical treatment and
precipitation hardening of a femnal alloy.
铁锰铝合金ferrous manganic aluminium
热机的
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Application of stainless steels,AISI 300 series,has been widely
accepted in industry owing to their excellent combination of
strength,ductility,toughness and corrosion resistance,However the
alloying elements,nickel and chromium,contained in conventional
stainless steels are strategically important and very expensive,In
order to assure adequate supply of stainless steels in the future many
studies have been done to explore the possibility of the substitution
of manganese and aluminum for nickel and chromium,Though the
FeMnAl system has attracted many intensive studies in recent years;
the data obtained are still far from complete,It is apparent that a
lack of knowledge still exists concerning the mechanical behavior
with respect to various hardening mechanisms including various
aging temperatures and times,combination of strain hardening and
aging,employment of pre-aging in the thermomechanical processes
and in particular the relationship between the microstructure and
their resulting mechanical properties,热机的
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
In this excerpt the writer points out that a lack of
knowledge still exists concerning the FeMnAl system,It is
very likely that he will attempt to discuss his research in this
field.
We shall now study the methods of exposition,
comparison and contrast,illustration,classification,
definition,and analysis,These are the ways in which we go
about answering questions that demand exposition,But as we
have pointed out above,this statement does not mean that
there is a method to correspond to each question on our list.
Some methods may be used in answering more than one
question,and the answer to a single question may sometimes
be arrived at by a combination of methods.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Almost any discourse--for example an editorial,an essay,
a chapter in a textbook--will use more than one method,We
rarely find a method in its pure state,But here,to understand
the nature of each method,we shall be concerned with
relatively pure examples.
The First Method,Comparison and Contrast
It is natural for us,in confronting an unfamiliar object,to
set it against the familiar,We instinctively want to know in
what ways it is like the familiar and in what ways different.
This is a simple,and essential,way of sorting out our
experience of the world,As a child you naturally used the
process,and as a student you have used it informally on
examinations,in writing essays or in writing up reports for
science experiments.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The informal instinctive use of comparison and contrast
is useful,but we can make the method infinitely more useful
in thinking and expressing ourselves,if we are systematic.
To be systematic means to understand the kinds of purpose
for which the first method may be made.
We may distinguish three types of purpose,First,we
may wish to present information about one item and may do
so by relating it to another item with which our readers are
familiar,For example,if we wish to explain the heat
treatment,we may do so by comparing it with cooking,
which changes the structure of food.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Second,we may wish to inform about both items,and
proceed to do so by treating them in relation to some general
principle,which would apply to both and with which our readers
are presumably familiar,For example,if we are reviewing two
novels,neither of which our audience is acquainted with,we
may compare and contrast them by reference to what we assume
our audience knows about the principles of fiction.
Third,we may compare and contrast items with which our
readers are familiar for the purpose of informing about some
general principle or idea,For instance if we want to give a notion
of what metal is,we may compare and contrast several kinds,
say iron,zinc,aluminum and manganese,to show what elements
they have in common,In fulfilling this last purpose,we are,of
course,using comparison and contrast as a way of proceeding
from our examples to a general description of the class to which
these examples belong.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
We have said that comparison,to be useful,must be
systematic,To be systematic,a comparison or contrast must
be between two or more items within a special area of
interest-members,that is,of a group or class that is defined
by a special interest brought to the
material,Contrast,like comparison,
is significant only when some
common ground is recognized
between the things contrasted-when
they belong to the same significant
class,the class depending upon the
purpose of the contrast.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
As to using comparison and contrast in extended form,we find
that there are,broadly speaking,four ways of presenting material.
By the first method,we may fully present one item and then fully
present the other,making continuous reference to the points of
comparison or contrast,This method is,in general,appropriate
when the points to set against each other are fairly broad,and
obvious,By the second method,we present a part of one item and
then a part of the second in relation to the corresponding part of the
first item,until we have touched on all relevant parts,When a
great many details are involved,this method is likely to be more
useful than the first,By the third method,we present one item fully,
and then,in presenting the second,refer,part by part,to the first
item,Finally,the fourth method generally involves a mixture of the
three types we have just described.
Now let us observe the following two excerpts.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
拉伸,延长
沉淀硬化合金
1,Thermomechanical treatment (TMT) including solution
treatment,cold working and aging has been applied to a Fe-
29Mn-9.0Al-l.0C alloy,which has been considered a potential
substitute for Fe-Ni-Cr stainless steel,The tensile property of
TMT treated alloy has been compared with that of conventional
precipitation-hardened (CPH) alloy without cold working,It
was found that at peak-aged condition the tensile strength of TMT
alloy reaches 1332 MPa,which is improved by 20% as compared
with CPH if the amount of cold work is 30% by rolling for TMT
alloy,The elongation of the peak-aged TMT is still very good
(14.5%),An important phenomenon was also observed that the
cold work applied to TMT alloy does not shorten the peak-aging
time,This contradicts with the general enhancing effect of cold
work on aging,The mechanisms of the improvement in tensile
strength and of the sluggish effect of cold work on aging was
discussed in terms of transmission of electron microscopy.
固
溶
热
处
理
拉
伸
特
性
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
认识的
2,Developing a real understanding of the engineering design process
is an urgent need,yet the problems that must be solved are immense.
These problems range from purely technological to cognitive and
sociological issues,Additionally,most people believe that
computational support for designers has the potential to significantly
increase their productivity,However,advances in computer
technology will certainly occur more rapidly than our ability to
understand systematically their (real and potential) impact on design
and designers,The situation strongly suggests that many styles of
research,aimed at different facets of design,are needed,On one hand,
it is essential to study the design process,as it actually occurs,Ullman
with his colleagues and Tang are two examples of work following this
path,On the other,it is necessary to build experimental systems,
embodying techniques and architectural principles believed to offer
value to designers,and evaluate them rather empirically,The research
reported here follows this latter approach,facet 面,方面
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The Second Method,Illustration
Our conversation is full of phrases like "for example" and
"for instance" and "for illustration" and "such as." Our use of
illustration is as instinctive as our use of comparison and
contrast,But in illustration the mind operates somewhat
differently,Both comparison and illustration,it is true,involve
thinking in terms of class and particular items,but the
characteristic relations are different.
In comparison and contrast,as we have seen,two or more
particular items in a significant class are set against each other.
In illustration,we cite the particular item (or items) to clarify the
nature of a class in which it is included,Although illustration is,
in its main intention,expository,we observe that in actual
presentation other forms of discourse may be used,as is shown
in the following example.
例证
阐明
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Analogical design/invention is a task,which arises
continually,Sometimes the task occurs in a form so simple as
to pass almost unnoticed,as when picnickers find they have
forgotten their knives,Sometimes the task requires intense
and extended effort,as when computer engineers find they
must develop a new architecture,Difficulty notwithstanding
the scenario often runs as follows,the designer finds that the
task he has been taking is not producing the desired solution:
finding he is stuck,he puts the problem aside; he then
recognizes in some later situation,that a familiar device,
instrument or plan can be used in a novel way to solve the
problem.
Here the writer uses two examples to make his point that
new uses may be made of familiar plans or devices.
模
式
设
计
情
况
一种新方法
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
档
案
系
统
The Third Method,Classification
Like comparison and contrast and illustration,classification is a
natural process,and like them,it is a process of bringing order out
of experience,Like them,too,it is concerned with the relation of a
class to a particular item (or particular items,as the case may be).
Classification,however,is concerned with systems of classes,
ranging from the least inclusive class up to the most inclusive.
When we place a particular item in any given class in the system,
we can immediately know its relation up and down the system.
Classification is a fundamental way of organizing knowledge,It is
a filing system,It is also a method for arriving at new knowledge.
Let us linger a moment to say what is at stake here,A class is
not a mere sum of the items that fall within the class,It is,rather,
the idea,the concept,of the qualities that any particular item must
have in order to fall within the class,A class,to state matters more
technically,is determined by a complex of significant
characteristics shared by all members of the class.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Classification helps us organize things,ideas,experiences,It is a
way of coming to grips with a subject,Classification places a subject
in relation to a system,It gives it a logical context,Classification,in
many instances,serves the purpose of increasing your understanding
of a subject,but such an understanding is only a preparation for
writing a piece of exposition,A chart,in short,is not a discussion.
However,a classification may serve as an outline,and often can
provide the structure of a discussion,For example,a paper for a
psychology course on the types of response to frustration and
conflict might begin with a classification of responses,which would
serve as an outline for the paper,In another use of classification in
writing,the justification for placing a particular item in the class
may become the subject matter for treatment,Classification,then,
serves three distinguishable,but related,purposes,l,It may serve as
preparation,2,It may provide the structure,3,It may contribute to
the subject matter,come to grips with 掌握,理解
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
In the following example,an excerpt from a paper dealing
with a cognitive approach to the analysis of design processes,we
can easily detect the scheme of classification underlying the
discussion and at the same time see that without the discussion
the scheme would not be very interesting.
The analysis for this protocol data carried out to extract and
classify design knowledge,There are different discussions about
what is knowledge and how it can be defined,but we provide a
simple definition in this research,We assume that knowledge has
appeared as a piece of verbal protocol,which represents a content
of the designer's long memory or outer sources used to proceed
the design,For example,the designers said,"What type of spring
can be used instead of coil spring?" and "Leaf spring,But leaf
spring is not good in accuracy.,,then we can obtain,Coil spring
is used as spring”,“Leaf spring is used as spring” and "Leaf
spring is not good in accuracy" as knowledge,We could find 134
pieces of knowledge in the two experiments.
会议记录
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Then we classify these pieces of knowledge as relation from
a concept to the other concept,Since knowledge appears when
one thing reminds the designer of something different,In order
to do this,we first classily concepts used in knowledge into
seven categories,i.e,entity (E),function (F),attribute (A),
topological relation between entities (T),connection method
between entities (C) and manufacturing method of entities (M).
First three concepts are descriptions about objects,We use them
in the same meaning as defined in General Design Theory
(Yoshikawa,1981),Next two concepts are descriptions about
relationships among objects,Topological relation is a
description how the parts are related,for example,followings
are classified in this category:,The two gears are engaged
together,” and,The spring is fixed vertically on the plate.”
Connection method between entities is a description how the
parts are connected to each other,(c)
拓
扑
的
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(c)Typical examples include,The parts are welded to each
other,” and,The part is hung on the hook of the other.”
Manufacturing method of entities is a description about how
to manufacture,This includes,automated assembly,” and
“Cutting out and setting upright.”
Thus we got eight categories,i.e.,Function--Entity (FE
Knowledge),Entity--Function (EF Knowledge),Attribute--
Entity (AE Knowledge),Entity--Attribute (EA Knowledge),
Attribute--Attribute (AA Knowledge),Topology--Connection
(TC Knowledge),Entity--Manufacturing (EM Knowledge),
and Manufacturing- Attribute (MA Knowledge).
automated assembly 自动化装配 topology 拓扑结构
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
For example,the first type of knowledge is used when a
concept about an entity is recalled from a concept about a
function,including such as "Leaf spring is not good in
accuracy",The example of EAknowledge is "The diameter of
the pulley is 10 mm at least",TC knowledge "We can hang
the spring on the steel panel by cutting out a part of it and
setting it upright.",and so on.
钢板
UNIT NINE INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY PAPER WRITING
LESSON ONE FUNDAMENTALS OF PAPER WRITING (I)
Almost all research papers are expositions,The word
exposition quite literally means to set forth a subject,It appeals to
the understanding and it is the most common kind of writing,for it
is applicable to any task that challenges the understanding--the
definition of a word,the way to a street address,the structure of a
plant,the mechanism of a watch,the cause of a historical event,
the meaning of a philosophy,When we study the methods of
exposition,we are not following an arbitrary scheme,we are
following the ways in which we ordinarily observe and reason
about our world,We are doing systematically something that
ordinary living,in its hit-or-miss fashion,forces on us,quite
naturally,all the time.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A piece of exposition may be regarded as the answer to a
question,If a specific question has been asked--"Why are you
majoring in chemistry? " or "What were the causes of the
American Revolution?"--it is rather easy to frame an answer that
does not waver too badly from the point,The question controls
the answer.
In a discussion of any length we commonly find more than
one question involved,There is the main question,which
represents the main interest,but to get a satisfactory answer to
that,perhaps other questions must be asked and answered along
the way,So we encounter again the problems of unity and
coherence.
waver from偏离
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The main question must govern the whole,And we
may think of the answer to the main question as giving the
proposition,the thesis,the governing idea of the
discussion,For instance,a historian,in answering the
question "Why did it occur?" about the American
Revolution,might come up with this answer to serve as
his proposition,"The causes of the American Revolution
were primarily economic." He might proceed to do a book
offering a very elaborate analysis of the background of the
event,but this proposition would control the whole book.
An example,thermomechanical treatment and
precipitation hardening of a femnal alloy.
铁锰铝合金ferrous manganic aluminium
热机的
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Application of stainless steels,AISI 300 series,has been widely
accepted in industry owing to their excellent combination of
strength,ductility,toughness and corrosion resistance,However the
alloying elements,nickel and chromium,contained in conventional
stainless steels are strategically important and very expensive,In
order to assure adequate supply of stainless steels in the future many
studies have been done to explore the possibility of the substitution
of manganese and aluminum for nickel and chromium,Though the
FeMnAl system has attracted many intensive studies in recent years;
the data obtained are still far from complete,It is apparent that a
lack of knowledge still exists concerning the mechanical behavior
with respect to various hardening mechanisms including various
aging temperatures and times,combination of strain hardening and
aging,employment of pre-aging in the thermomechanical processes
and in particular the relationship between the microstructure and
their resulting mechanical properties,热机的
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
In this excerpt the writer points out that a lack of
knowledge still exists concerning the FeMnAl system,It is
very likely that he will attempt to discuss his research in this
field.
We shall now study the methods of exposition,
comparison and contrast,illustration,classification,
definition,and analysis,These are the ways in which we go
about answering questions that demand exposition,But as we
have pointed out above,this statement does not mean that
there is a method to correspond to each question on our list.
Some methods may be used in answering more than one
question,and the answer to a single question may sometimes
be arrived at by a combination of methods.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Almost any discourse--for example an editorial,an essay,
a chapter in a textbook--will use more than one method,We
rarely find a method in its pure state,But here,to understand
the nature of each method,we shall be concerned with
relatively pure examples.
The First Method,Comparison and Contrast
It is natural for us,in confronting an unfamiliar object,to
set it against the familiar,We instinctively want to know in
what ways it is like the familiar and in what ways different.
This is a simple,and essential,way of sorting out our
experience of the world,As a child you naturally used the
process,and as a student you have used it informally on
examinations,in writing essays or in writing up reports for
science experiments.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The informal instinctive use of comparison and contrast
is useful,but we can make the method infinitely more useful
in thinking and expressing ourselves,if we are systematic.
To be systematic means to understand the kinds of purpose
for which the first method may be made.
We may distinguish three types of purpose,First,we
may wish to present information about one item and may do
so by relating it to another item with which our readers are
familiar,For example,if we wish to explain the heat
treatment,we may do so by comparing it with cooking,
which changes the structure of food.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Second,we may wish to inform about both items,and
proceed to do so by treating them in relation to some general
principle,which would apply to both and with which our readers
are presumably familiar,For example,if we are reviewing two
novels,neither of which our audience is acquainted with,we
may compare and contrast them by reference to what we assume
our audience knows about the principles of fiction.
Third,we may compare and contrast items with which our
readers are familiar for the purpose of informing about some
general principle or idea,For instance if we want to give a notion
of what metal is,we may compare and contrast several kinds,
say iron,zinc,aluminum and manganese,to show what elements
they have in common,In fulfilling this last purpose,we are,of
course,using comparison and contrast as a way of proceeding
from our examples to a general description of the class to which
these examples belong.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
We have said that comparison,to be useful,must be
systematic,To be systematic,a comparison or contrast must
be between two or more items within a special area of
interest-members,that is,of a group or class that is defined
by a special interest brought to the
material,Contrast,like comparison,
is significant only when some
common ground is recognized
between the things contrasted-when
they belong to the same significant
class,the class depending upon the
purpose of the contrast.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
As to using comparison and contrast in extended form,we find
that there are,broadly speaking,four ways of presenting material.
By the first method,we may fully present one item and then fully
present the other,making continuous reference to the points of
comparison or contrast,This method is,in general,appropriate
when the points to set against each other are fairly broad,and
obvious,By the second method,we present a part of one item and
then a part of the second in relation to the corresponding part of the
first item,until we have touched on all relevant parts,When a
great many details are involved,this method is likely to be more
useful than the first,By the third method,we present one item fully,
and then,in presenting the second,refer,part by part,to the first
item,Finally,the fourth method generally involves a mixture of the
three types we have just described.
Now let us observe the following two excerpts.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
拉伸,延长
沉淀硬化合金
1,Thermomechanical treatment (TMT) including solution
treatment,cold working and aging has been applied to a Fe-
29Mn-9.0Al-l.0C alloy,which has been considered a potential
substitute for Fe-Ni-Cr stainless steel,The tensile property of
TMT treated alloy has been compared with that of conventional
precipitation-hardened (CPH) alloy without cold working,It
was found that at peak-aged condition the tensile strength of TMT
alloy reaches 1332 MPa,which is improved by 20% as compared
with CPH if the amount of cold work is 30% by rolling for TMT
alloy,The elongation of the peak-aged TMT is still very good
(14.5%),An important phenomenon was also observed that the
cold work applied to TMT alloy does not shorten the peak-aging
time,This contradicts with the general enhancing effect of cold
work on aging,The mechanisms of the improvement in tensile
strength and of the sluggish effect of cold work on aging was
discussed in terms of transmission of electron microscopy.
固
溶
热
处
理
拉
伸
特
性
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
认识的
2,Developing a real understanding of the engineering design process
is an urgent need,yet the problems that must be solved are immense.
These problems range from purely technological to cognitive and
sociological issues,Additionally,most people believe that
computational support for designers has the potential to significantly
increase their productivity,However,advances in computer
technology will certainly occur more rapidly than our ability to
understand systematically their (real and potential) impact on design
and designers,The situation strongly suggests that many styles of
research,aimed at different facets of design,are needed,On one hand,
it is essential to study the design process,as it actually occurs,Ullman
with his colleagues and Tang are two examples of work following this
path,On the other,it is necessary to build experimental systems,
embodying techniques and architectural principles believed to offer
value to designers,and evaluate them rather empirically,The research
reported here follows this latter approach,facet 面,方面
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
The Second Method,Illustration
Our conversation is full of phrases like "for example" and
"for instance" and "for illustration" and "such as." Our use of
illustration is as instinctive as our use of comparison and
contrast,But in illustration the mind operates somewhat
differently,Both comparison and illustration,it is true,involve
thinking in terms of class and particular items,but the
characteristic relations are different.
In comparison and contrast,as we have seen,two or more
particular items in a significant class are set against each other.
In illustration,we cite the particular item (or items) to clarify the
nature of a class in which it is included,Although illustration is,
in its main intention,expository,we observe that in actual
presentation other forms of discourse may be used,as is shown
in the following example.
例证
阐明
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Analogical design/invention is a task,which arises
continually,Sometimes the task occurs in a form so simple as
to pass almost unnoticed,as when picnickers find they have
forgotten their knives,Sometimes the task requires intense
and extended effort,as when computer engineers find they
must develop a new architecture,Difficulty notwithstanding
the scenario often runs as follows,the designer finds that the
task he has been taking is not producing the desired solution:
finding he is stuck,he puts the problem aside; he then
recognizes in some later situation,that a familiar device,
instrument or plan can be used in a novel way to solve the
problem.
Here the writer uses two examples to make his point that
new uses may be made of familiar plans or devices.
模
式
设
计
情
况
一种新方法
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
档
案
系
统
The Third Method,Classification
Like comparison and contrast and illustration,classification is a
natural process,and like them,it is a process of bringing order out
of experience,Like them,too,it is concerned with the relation of a
class to a particular item (or particular items,as the case may be).
Classification,however,is concerned with systems of classes,
ranging from the least inclusive class up to the most inclusive.
When we place a particular item in any given class in the system,
we can immediately know its relation up and down the system.
Classification is a fundamental way of organizing knowledge,It is
a filing system,It is also a method for arriving at new knowledge.
Let us linger a moment to say what is at stake here,A class is
not a mere sum of the items that fall within the class,It is,rather,
the idea,the concept,of the qualities that any particular item must
have in order to fall within the class,A class,to state matters more
technically,is determined by a complex of significant
characteristics shared by all members of the class.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Classification helps us organize things,ideas,experiences,It is a
way of coming to grips with a subject,Classification places a subject
in relation to a system,It gives it a logical context,Classification,in
many instances,serves the purpose of increasing your understanding
of a subject,but such an understanding is only a preparation for
writing a piece of exposition,A chart,in short,is not a discussion.
However,a classification may serve as an outline,and often can
provide the structure of a discussion,For example,a paper for a
psychology course on the types of response to frustration and
conflict might begin with a classification of responses,which would
serve as an outline for the paper,In another use of classification in
writing,the justification for placing a particular item in the class
may become the subject matter for treatment,Classification,then,
serves three distinguishable,but related,purposes,l,It may serve as
preparation,2,It may provide the structure,3,It may contribute to
the subject matter,come to grips with 掌握,理解
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
In the following example,an excerpt from a paper dealing
with a cognitive approach to the analysis of design processes,we
can easily detect the scheme of classification underlying the
discussion and at the same time see that without the discussion
the scheme would not be very interesting.
The analysis for this protocol data carried out to extract and
classify design knowledge,There are different discussions about
what is knowledge and how it can be defined,but we provide a
simple definition in this research,We assume that knowledge has
appeared as a piece of verbal protocol,which represents a content
of the designer's long memory or outer sources used to proceed
the design,For example,the designers said,"What type of spring
can be used instead of coil spring?" and "Leaf spring,But leaf
spring is not good in accuracy.,,then we can obtain,Coil spring
is used as spring”,“Leaf spring is used as spring” and "Leaf
spring is not good in accuracy" as knowledge,We could find 134
pieces of knowledge in the two experiments.
会议记录
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Then we classify these pieces of knowledge as relation from
a concept to the other concept,Since knowledge appears when
one thing reminds the designer of something different,In order
to do this,we first classily concepts used in knowledge into
seven categories,i.e,entity (E),function (F),attribute (A),
topological relation between entities (T),connection method
between entities (C) and manufacturing method of entities (M).
First three concepts are descriptions about objects,We use them
in the same meaning as defined in General Design Theory
(Yoshikawa,1981),Next two concepts are descriptions about
relationships among objects,Topological relation is a
description how the parts are related,for example,followings
are classified in this category:,The two gears are engaged
together,” and,The spring is fixed vertically on the plate.”
Connection method between entities is a description how the
parts are connected to each other,(c)
拓
扑
的
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(c)Typical examples include,The parts are welded to each
other,” and,The part is hung on the hook of the other.”
Manufacturing method of entities is a description about how
to manufacture,This includes,automated assembly,” and
“Cutting out and setting upright.”
Thus we got eight categories,i.e.,Function--Entity (FE
Knowledge),Entity--Function (EF Knowledge),Attribute--
Entity (AE Knowledge),Entity--Attribute (EA Knowledge),
Attribute--Attribute (AA Knowledge),Topology--Connection
(TC Knowledge),Entity--Manufacturing (EM Knowledge),
and Manufacturing- Attribute (MA Knowledge).
automated assembly 自动化装配 topology 拓扑结构
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ENGLISH FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
For example,the first type of knowledge is used when a
concept about an entity is recalled from a concept about a
function,including such as "Leaf spring is not good in
accuracy",The example of EAknowledge is "The diameter of
the pulley is 10 mm at least",TC knowledge "We can hang
the spring on the steel panel by cutting out a part of it and
setting it upright.",and so on.
钢板
