I,Testing Theories and Hypotheses
A,Three Criteria of Causal
Explanations
B,Experimental Research
C,Field Research
Goals of Theory in Sociology
? Description,Gives us the
conceptual tools to,see” social reality
more fully,
? Explanation,Most sociological
theory attempts to identify causal
interrelationships
Independent
Variable
Dependent
Variable
Criteria of Causation
1) Time Order
independent variable must be an antecedent
variable
2) Correlation
a necessary but not sufficient condition
3) Non-spuriousness
ruling out alternative explanations
Time Order is Not Always Obvious
Web Use Tolerance
A finding from the 2000 General Social Survey
Measuring Correlations
? Correlation coefficients vary from –1.0 to
+1.0
? They must be examined for statistical
significance
? Positive and negative correlations can
both indicate causal relations
? But correlation does not always indicate
causation
Nonspuriousness,Is the
correlation,spurious”?
Variable A
Variable B
is correlated
with A Third Variable
is not
causally
related to
What is,spurious” about a spurious
correlation is not the correlation,The
correlation is real,It is the causal
interpretation which is spurious,
Some Spurious Correlations
? Storks and birth rates
Storks
High Birth Rates
Rural Areas X
Some Spurious Correlations
Large Hands
Shoplifting
Gender
? hand size and shoplifting
X
Some Spurious Correlations
Marijuana Use
Good health
Youth
? marijuana use and health
X
Do music lessons make better students?
Music Lessons
High SAT Scores
Social Class?
Parents Education?
Better schools?
Intelligence?
Self-discipline?
Is this correlation spurious?
Web Use
Tolerance
Education?
Occupation?
Social Class?
Is this correlation spurious?
Experimental Research,The Asch
Experiment
Some Key Terms
?experimental
variable
? randomization
? test of
significance
Asch’s Findings
? A substantial proportion of subjects
conformed to the group consensus
? But a significant proportion (25%) did
not conform no matter what
? It did not take a large minority to
increase resistance to group pressure to
conform
Experimental Research,
What are its strengths and limitations?
? Advantage,can manipulate the relevant
variables
? Disadvantage,can’t study most things this
way,
? Most sociological research uses
nonexperimental research design
Field Research
(Participant Observation)
What are its strengths?
? Provides a much greater range of data--a
much greater,feel” for the subject
? Only way to find out many things
? Researcher can approach subjects without
preconceptions
? Can adjust research strategy along the way
Field Research
(Participant Observation)
What are its limitations?
? Usually a sample of one
? Researcher’s perceptions may be
distorted by bias
? Hawthorne effect
the importance of replication
Lofland and Stark Study
What was the dependent variable?
Religious conversion
What did Lofland and Stark conclude was
the major independent variable?
Attachments to group members
conversion as an act of conformity
Why is Heaven’s Gate the,exception
that proves the rule?” (1997 group
suicide of 39 members)
the principle of dense origins
? they didn’t recruit through dense social
networks
? in 22 years the group hardly grew at all