----------the Great South Land Course Description:  This course, which is mainly directed at tertiary students of English majors. I t assumes a kind of willingness among the students to spend some time exploring the the social, cultural aspects of Englsh-speaking countries. In this section, we’ll examine in some detail these and other key aspects in Australia and the incredible localization of English language in this great country. Australia is so far away from the rest of the world that there seems to be very little firsthand knowledge available to those seeking information. Australia is still often seen as “the worker’s paradise”, a laid back culture dominated by sporty Crocodile Dundee-type makes who, when they are not chasing sheep in the paddock, spend the time in the bar or on the beach, so we also will examine some popular misconceptions and cultural stereotypes toward the Aussies. Upon completion of this course, students should develop a comprehensive understanding of the society and culture of Australia and can do some further research on issues with regard to this country. Requirements: The course requirements include weekly reading assignments, weekly essays, oral presentations, and a final project. 1. Presentations Randomly selected students are required to give some presentations upon selected topics or issues relevant to the weekly readings. The presentation should last 5 minutes minimum with a type written hand-out for the class. reading). 2. Final project: The final project will be taken from the WWW. A list of URL's will be provided by the lecturer for the final project. Suggested areas of research will be provided or other topics approved by the instructor can be chosen. The final research essay should have a minimum of 1,000 words. Evaluation: Attendance and class participation 5% Compliance with instructions & punctuality in assignments 5% Weekly assignments 30% Final project 60% Session One Land, People and History When one remembers that less than two hundred years have elapsed since that first handful of convicts landed at Botany Bay, one cannot help admiring the sheer tenacity that in such a short time has given Australia the place she occupies in the world today and the great future she is bound to have. (Laacour-Gayet,1976,p.xii) This session is to inform the students of the general geographical, historical features of Australia and trigger more interests among students in these areas. More notes: The Sydney Opera House  The Sydney Opera House is the busiest performing arts centre in the world. Since its opening in 1973, it has brought countless hours of entertainment to millions of people and has continued to attract the best in world class talent year after year. Even today, many visitors are surprised to find that the Sydney Opera House is really a complex of theatres and halls all linked together beneath its famous shells. In an average year, the Sydney Opera House presents theatre, musicals, opera, contemporary dance, ballet, every form of music from symphony concerts to jazz as well as exhibitions and films. It averages around 3,000 events each year with audiences totaling up to two million. In addition, approximately 200,000 people take a guided tour of the complex each year. The Opera House operates 24 hours a day, every day of the year except Christmas Day and Good Friday. Prior to the Sydney Opera House, Sydney had no adequate dedicated music venue.? Orchestral concerts were given in its Town Hall, and staging opera was almost impossible due to the lack of suitable stages.? The appointment of Sir Eugene Goosens to the posts of Chief Conductor of the Sydney Symphony Orchestra and Director of the NSW Conservatorium of Music in 1947 brought into Sydney's musical life a focal point for the need to create a better venue for the performing arts.? Upon accepting his position, Goosens told reporters that his plans included the creation of a concert hall suitable for opera as well as orchestral performances. The idea was hardly revolutionary; indeed the post-war Labour government had given lip service to the concept as part of its reconstruction and redevelopment programs.? However, apart from occasional public announcements and exhortation from Goosens, nothing happened for seven more years. Finally, late in 1954, the State Government of New South Wales, finding itself increasingly embarrassed by its own inaction, became involved in a moderately supportive manner.? The Premier of the day, Joseph Cahill, was enthusiastic about the idea and it was he who set up the committee which got the project under way. He also set up an appeal fund to raise money for the building. When it became obvious that the fund would not even raise the $7 million the Opera House was first estimated to cost, Mr Cahill introduced the Opera House Lotteries. The original appeal fund raised about $900,000 and the rest of the $102 million that the Opera House ended up costing came from the profits of the lottery. The building was completely paid for by July 1975. The NSW Government today contributes about 30% of the annual cost of maintaining and operating the complex. The committee set up by the Government selected the site for the building. Known as Bennelong Point, it was named after the first Aborigine to speak English, who was born on the site.? Until this time, it was used as wharfing area and had a rather unsightly tram storage barn prominently occupying much of the site. An international competition was organised for the design of a performing arts complex, and although this was well known, the misnomer "Opera House" caught on.? The competition called for a structure that contained two theatres within it - a large hall for opera, ballet, and large scale symphony concerts capable of seating 3,000-3,500 people, and a smaller hall for drama, chamber music and recitals, capable of seating approx 1,200 people.? Design entrants were told that they were free to choose any approach that they wished, and that there were no limits to what the potential cost of the structure could be.? 233 different design entries were submitted from all over the world. The winner of the competition, announced in January 1957, was the Danish architect Jorn Utzon (born in 1918).? It was originally envisaged that it would take four years to build the Opera House; in actual fact, it wasn't completed until mid 1973. Construction of the building commenced in March 1959 and proceeded in slow stages over the next fourteen years.? At the time that construction was started, Utzon protested that he hadn't yet completed the designs for the structure, but the government insisted that construction get underway, and so it did! At least as much a problem as starting the construction prior to completing the revolutionary design, was the fact that the government itself changed the requirements for the building after construction had started.? The original design called for two theatres.? The government changed its mind and required the building to be altered and that four theatres now be incorporated into the design.? Recently, some internal changes to the structure have enabled a fifth theatre to be created. The original design was so boldly conceived that it proved structurally impossible to build. After four years of research Utzon altered his design and gave the roof vaults a defined spherical geometry. This enabled the roofs to be constructed in a pre-cast fashion, greatly reducing both time and cost. The project was subject to many delays and cost over-runs, and (probably unfairly) Utzon was often blamed for these.? A new government was elected in NSW in 1965, partly on the campaign promise to "do something" about the cost overruns with the design.? The government withheld fee payments to Utzon and refused to agree to his design ideas and proposed construction methods.? This pretty much forced Utzon to resign, which he did in February 1966 as Stage II was nearing completion. A team of Australian architects took over and after an extensive review of the proposed functions of the building, proceeded with its completion. The first performance in the complex, in the Opera Theatre on 28 September 1973, was The Australian Opera's production of War and Peace by Prokofiev. The Sydney Opera House was officially opened by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on 20 October 1973. There are nearly 1000 rooms in the Opera House including the five main auditoria. There is also a Reception Hall, five rehearsal studios, four restaurants, six theatre bars, extensive foyer and lounge areas, sixty dressing rooms and suites, library, an artists' lounge and canteen known as the "Green Room", administrative offices and extensive plant and machinery areas. The building covers about 1.8 hectares (4.5 acres) of its 2.2 hectare (5.5 acre) site. It has about 4.5 hectares (11 acres) of usable floor space. It is approximately 185 m (611 ft) long and 120m (380 ft) wide at its widest point. The highest roof vault (above the Concert Hall) is 67m (221 ft) above sea level. The “Coat Hanger”—Harbour Bridge  The Sydney Harbour Bridge is one of Sydney's most famous landmarks. Completed in 1932, the construction of the bridge was an economic feat as well as an engineering triumph. Prior to the bridge being built, the only links between the city centre in the south and the residential north were by ferry or by a 20 kilometre (12? mile) road route that involved five bridge crossings. The Sydney Harbour Bridge, which is known locally as the "Coat Hanger", took eight years to build, including the railroad line. The bridge was manufactured in sections on a site that is now occupied by Luna Park funfair. Construction on the bridge began in December, 1926. The foundations, which are 12 metres (39 feet) deep, are set in sandstone. Anchoring tunnels are 36 metres (118 feet) long and dug into rock at each end. Construction on the arch began in November, 1929. It was built in halves with steel cable restraints initially supporting each side. The arch spans 503 metres (1650 feet) and supports the weight of the bridge deck, with hinges at either end bearing the bridge's full weight and spreading the load to the foundations. The hinges allow the structure to move as the steel expands and contracts in response to wind and changes in temperatures. By October, 1930, the two arch halves had met and work then began on the deck. The deck is 59 metres (194 feet) above sea level and was built from the center out. The Harbour Bridge was officially opened on 19 March 1932. The total cost of the Bridge was approximately 6.25 million Australian pounds ($A13.5 million), and was eventually paid off in 1988. The initial toll for a car was 6 pence (5 cents) and a horse and rider was 3 pence (2 cents). Today the toll costs $3.00. The toll is now used for bridge maintenance and to pay for the Sydney Harbour Tunnel. The annual maintenance costs are approximately $5 million. More than 150,000 vehicles cross the bridge each day. The bridge was built by 1400 workers, 16 of whom were killed in accidents during construction. Painting the bridge has become an endless task. Approximately 80,000 liters (21,000 gallons) of paint are required for each coat, enough to cover an area equivalent to 60 soccer fields. Great Barrier Reef (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/earthpulse/reef/reef1_flash.html) The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) is 347 800 square kilometres in area (an area bigger than the United Kingdom, Holland and Switzerland combined). It extends from the top of Cape York to just north of Fraser Island, and from the low water mark on the Queensland coast seaward to the outer boundary of the Marine Park beyond the edge of the continental shelf. It is the largest World Heritage Area and marine protected area in the world. Ayers Rock It is the world's largest monolith rising 318m above the desert floor with a circumference of 8km. It is consideredonce of the great wonders of the world. It is located in the Kata Tjuta National Park which is owned and run by the local Aboriginals. The Australian government handed ownership of the land back to the Aboriginals some years ago. The Rock is arkose, a course-grained sandstone rich in feldspar at least 2.5 km thick. Uplifting and folding between 400-300 mya turned the sedimentary layers nearly 90 degrees to their present position. The surface has then been eroded. Depending on the time of day and the atmospheric conditions the rock can dramatically change colour, anything from blue to glowing red ! Many avid photographers set up for days and record the many changing colors of Uluru. Ayers Rock was named for the Premier of South Australia, Sir Henry Ayers. It extends down over 3 and a half miles beneath the surface. Australian Flora and Fauna: Golden Wattle The Golden Wattle is the Floral Emblem of Australia and is a shrub or small tree about 4 to 8 metres tall. After the seedling stage, true leaves are absent, their function being performed by phyllodes which are modified flattened leaf stalks lacking leaf blades. The leathery phyllodes are 6 to 20 cm long, broadly lance or sickle-shaped and bright green in colour. In spring large fluffy golden-yellow flower-heads with up to eighty minute sweetly scented flowers provide a vivid contrast with the foliage. The dark brown mature fruit, 7 to 12 cm long, splits along one side to release the seeds. Emu The largest bird in Australia, and second only to the Ostrich of Africa for the world title, the Emu is found across most of mainland Australia. They are huge flightless birds, which can stand up to 1.9 metres tall and weigh up to 50 kilograms. Populations of emus have disappeared from the eastern seaboard of Australia and from Tasmania. Two closely related species from King Island and Kangaroo Island have also disappeared. The reduction in numbers being due to the result of overhunting by early European colonists. Emus occur in a wide variety of habitats. These include arid deserts, tropical woodlands, temperate grasslands, even to snowline in the Southern Highlands. Distribution is controlled by the availability of water which emus need daily access to. Emus eat mostly plant fibre material such as seeds, fruits, newly emerged shoots and tips from grasses and shrubs, and insects when locally available. The stomach is developed to ferment plant fibre to extract the most energy from the tough, woody material. Emus are typically solitary or gather in small family units. Female emus remain with the male until she has completed laying the clutch of nine dark green eggs. Up to 24 eggs have been found in one nest. Incubation is by the male only who will commence when the last egg is laid. This means that all the chicks develop and hatch at the same time, usually 56 days from when the male starts to sit. The downy chicks are distinctive in their brown and buff stripes, which gradually fade as they grow and the feathers are replaced. Emus communicate with deep grunts, booms and drumming sounds aided by a large air sac in the throat, which inflates and resonates the sound. Kangaroos, Wallaroos, Euros, Wallabies, Potoroos, Bettongs, Pademelons, Quokkas, Rat Kangaroos The numerous names given to kangaroo-like animals depends to a large extent on their size and where they are found. The biggest Kangaroos are the red and the grey kangaroo. Wallabies and their relatives come next in size, while the smallest is the rat-kangaroo. There are about sixty different species of kangaroos. While in general kangaroos are ground-living herbivores, there is considerable variety and some species are specialised. The burrowing Bettong, for example, constructs and lives in the company of others, in a series of burrows forming a warren. Much larger, but also with a restricted range, are the tree kangaroos, which are found in Northern Queensland. These nocturnal kangaroos live high in the tree canopy. Their tail is very long and acts as a balancing organ. It is not prehensile, but the tip is bushy, and long haired. On small branches, their hind limbs move independently, one after the other; but on broad branches these kangaroos hop in a characteristic kangaroo fashion. The pouch is the distinguishing feature and an important characteristic of marsupials. The young is born in an immature state and crawls or rather pulls itself with its arms into the pouch, where it becomes attached to one of the mother's teats. The teat becomes swollen inside the baby's mouth so it cannot be accidentally dislodged. There the baby remains until it matures sufficiently to move around by itself, although it may not be weaned until some time after this event. The larger Kangaroos are in no danger of extinction whilst smaller Kangaroos, which rely heavily on the natural state of the bush for shelter, are much more vulnerable. Some species have already become extinct within the relatively short time since the settlement of Australia just over two hundred years ago. Kangaroos usually live in groups. Males are usually larger than females. The largest species are the grey and red kangaroos, followed by the wallaroo or euro. Red kangaroos live in the drier regions; grey kangaroos in the cooler forest, woodland and grassy areas, while the wallaroo lives over much of the continent, from hot to cold, especially where there is rocky shelters or thick vegetation in which to hide. The front limbs are relatively short, and are only used for walking at low speed. There are five digits, all clawed. The hands are used to dig, scratch, hold vegetation, and clutch an opponent in a fight. The rear limbs are very strong and are used in conjunction with the muscular tail to stand erect, and in high speed locomotion. As a Kangaroo bounds forward with a hop of its hind feet, the tail rises and then descends helping to balance the body. In fights with other kangaroos, they will attempt to grasp the foe with their front limbs, balance on their tail and rip downwards into the body of the predator with their strong hind limbs. There are four digits on the hind limb, all with impressive claws. Focal Points: 1. AUSTRALIA'S STOLEN GENERATION ---Aboriginals  Recommended websites: http://www.aboriginalaustralia.com/ http://www.crystalinks.com/aboriginals.html The literal translation of the word 'Aborigine' is: the people who were here from the beginning. It is not synonymous (doesn't have the same meaning), as the word 'indigenous' as this means originating in an area (latin: indigena = in (in) + ginere (be born) in a particular place. There is no written record regarding prehistoric Aboriginal Australia. Knowledge of the past is found in archaeological evidence and Aboriginal oral traditions which have been handed down from generation to generation. Therefore using reliable dates derived from archaeological evidence, theories of the initial colonization of Australia have been determined. Prior to colonization which began in January 1788, the Australian Aborigines lived a lifestyle based on their Dreamtime beliefs. They had survived as a race for thousands of years and their lifestyle and cultural practices had remained virtually unchanged during that time. We refer to this as the traditional period. However colonization imposed changes on the Aborigines as people who lived in areas that were being settled by the Europeans, were forced off their land as towns and farms were developed. We identify the period in which the changes took place, as the historical period. The sort of changes that took place usually commenced with explorers entering the area of a tribe and being challenged by the people for trespassing on their land. The Europeans often (usually) responded by shooting at the people. Many were killed. When settlers followed the explorers and began felling trees and building farms, they restricted the ability of the Aborigines to move freely around their land. They also destroyed their traditional food sources. These changes took place throughout the continent at different times. They began in the Sydney and Parramatta districts from 1788; in the Cowpastures (Campbelltown / Camden)area from the early 1800s and in the Illawarra district from 1815. Gradually - but with increasing speed colonization spread throughout the entire continent. The settlers had arrived in this country to build a new life for themselves and their families and had 'no time for the Dreamtime'. In other words most were not interested in the affects colonization was having on the Aborigines. In fact they were often considered to be a pest and a nuisance. Many were killed by diseases such as influenza. Thousands were massacred to make way for farms and settlements. On the other hand some Aboriginal people adapted to the Whitman's laws and the new lifestyle. In doing so, many were reduced to pauperism and were beggars. Others broke the traditional tribal lore's by accepting Brass Plates and by moving into the traditionallands of other tribes. In many cases they had no option in doing this as they were facing starvation or the gun. Overall, the Australian Aborigines went through stages of being conquered through an 'invasion' and taking of their lands. Many adapted to the new lifestyle (when many became reliant on alcohol, tobacco and handouts of food and clothing. However the settlers were often contemptuous of the Aborigines and separated them from their society and the people became the fringe dwellers of society. Others were removed from their families and placed into institutions. From the late 1830s the remnants of the tribes in the settled areas were moved onto Reserves and Missions where they were 'managed' by Whitemen and were forbidden from teaching their children their language and customs. During the 1900s separation was an official government policy which lasted for many decades and today, many Aboriginal people do not know their origins. In other words, which tribe they are descended from or the names of their parents and or grandparents. They are a lost generation. Australian Aborigines - the original inhabitants of the continent - are one of the best known and least understood people in the world. Since the nineteenth century they have been singled out as the world's most primitive culture and the living representatives of the ancestors of mankind. Aborigines are therefore probably more familiar to the rest of the world than are the white Australians who immigrated to the continent from Britain and other European countries. In reality, Aboriginal culture, as anthropological work over the last hundred years has revealed, is a complex, subtle, and rich way of life. On our way toward describing and understanding Aboriginal art, we need to look briefly at this culture, what it was in the past and what it has become today. Aborigines have occupied Australia for at least forty thousand years. They came originally from southeast Asia, entering the continent from the north. (Present-day Australia, including Tasmania, was then one continent with what is now New Guinea.) Although Aborigines are Homo sapiens, biological isolation has meant that they are not racially closely related to any other people. Because of their relative cultural isolation, Aborigines were forced to develop their own solutions to the problems of human adaptation in the unique and harsh Australian environment. The result was a stable and efficient way of life. Probably because of its effectiveness, the society was slow to change, especially technologically. This gave to Aboriginal Australia the appearance of unchangingness. The archaeological record reveals, however, a number of innovations, among them the earliest known human cremations, some of the earliest rock art, and certainly the first boomerangs, ground axes, and grindstones in the world. The stereotype of Aborigines passively succumbing to the dictates of their environment has also been recently questioned. We now know that they altered the landscape in significant ways, using what has been called "firestick farming" to control underbrush growth and to facilitate hunting. Aborigines also altered species occurrence of flora and fauna by resource management and possibly assisted in the extinction of prehistoric animals. The notion of pristine natives with a "pure" culture was an artificial one - many Aborigines had considerable contact with Melanesians and Indonesians long before the European colonists arrived in Australia. Aboriginal groups also influenced each other. Waves of change swept the entire continent - changes in tools and implements, in social organisation, and in ceremonial practices and mythological concepts. Aboriginal culture was dynamic, not static. The Aboriginal culture of the last two hundred years, the period after the arrival of the colonists, has also been dynamic. This is why it is difficult to speak of a hard and fast dichotomy between Aborigines "before" and "after" contact with the Europeans. Nevertheless, it is useful to look at Aboriginal culture at the point of first contact and as it is today. The population of Australia at the time of the arrival of the whites in 1788 was probably between 250,000 and 500,000. The pattern of Aboriginal settlement was like that for present-day Australians, except in the tropical north, with most of the population living along the coasts and rivers. Densities varied from one person for every thirty-five square miles in the arid regions to five to ten persons for every one square mile on the eastern coast. Residential groups ranged in size from ten to fifty people, with some temporary ceremonial gatherings reaching up to five hundred. Most people tend to think of Aborigines as a unified, homogeneous group. Yet the Aborigines never used one collective term to describe themselves. No one individual Aborigine, in the precolonial past, would have known of the existence of many of the other Aboriginal peoples and regions of the vast continent of Australia, which covers nearly three million square miles - almost the area of the United States. Recent scientific studies have concluded that the Australian Aborigines were the original Americans! In other words, the theory is that ATSI people were adventurers who arrived in the North American continent before the Vikings or Columbus. This theory states that the ancestors of the American Indians. are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians. "Separate studies by both Brazilian and US scholars are revealing that the first humans to enter the New World more than 14,000 years ago were not Mongoloid peoples as has always been thought - but were instead people of the same race as present day Australian Aborigines."  APPEARANCE: To the early Europeans, the Aborigines of the Sydney district (and later those throughout the whole continent), were primitives, natives or Noble Savages. So, descriptions of them (either written or in sketches/ paintings), were classificatory and comparative. There were a number of physical distinctions between different tribes. It was noted that the Gundungurra who lived in the Blue Mountains west of Camden were taller and stronger than the Eora / Dharawal who lived on the coast. Or so European observers said. Some tribespeople were said to be darker than others (dark brown or black) and were different in other ways, but anyone who indulges in descriptions should ask themselves why they are doing this. People are people and differences of color and shape shouldn't matter. However derogatory descriptions of Aborigines during the 19th century were often a justification for massacres and poisoning of people.   Spears were personal possessions of individual Aboriginal males. Each tribe had their own particular style of spears. Basically, all spears were made from timber or from the stems of plants. They ranged in length from about 1.5 meters to 4 or 5 meters with various forms of points, tips or blades. Some spear tips were prongs which were used to catch fish; others were made from stone flakes while others were made from fish bones and shells. Spears were mainly used for hunting but they were also used in battles.  FOOD: Hunting is a word that is used to identify the practice of catching and killing 'game' either as a sport or as a source of food. Gathering is the collecting of food such as plants, berries, eggs or insects. Fishing is another method of obtaining food. The Aborigines who lived in areas which included waterways such as rivers or were on the seacoast, made canoes from bark or tree trunks.  The Eora / Dharawal made canoes which carried up to three or four people. In other areas, the canoes were much larger and included dugouts and outrigger types. They were made from tree trunks (not just the bark). Aboriginal men and women who lived in coastal regions or in areas where there were rivers, caught and collected food by fishing. Males usually used spears, while females used hand lines with hooks made from shells and rocks as sinkers. Fish species were also caught by the use of fish traps. Some traps were made from rocks in the form of a pen. At high tide fish could swim in and out of them, but some were trapped within the rock walls at low tide. Traps were also constructed from sticks and tree branches across rivers to make a dam. When sufficient numbers were trapped the people would enter the water, scoop up the fish in their hands and throw them onto the river bank to be collected for cooking.  Males hunted animals such as kangaroos, wallabies, echidnas and possums. But also reptiles (snakes and lizards) and birds such as ducks, swans and parrots. They used spears and boomerangs to hit, catch and kill - but also climbed trees to get their food. Sometimes they hunted in parties or groups and each person shared the catch. On these occasions some of the men acted as 'beaters' driving animals towards another group of men who were armed and waiting to spear the animals that were driven towards them. Sometimes they used fire to drive the animals forward. Aboriginal woman (often carrying babies on their backs) and assisted by young children left the camp on a daily basis searching and collecting berries, yams and other sources of food.  Some writers have suggested that 'gathering' provided the bulk or main source of food for the Australian Aborigines. It has also been said that some tribes people were mainly 'vegetarians' because 'meat' was not readily available in some areas. It is also a fact that some Aboriginal people ate more marine life (fish, oysters and mussels etc) because these food items were predominant in the area in which they lived. Survival was highly dependent upon knowledge of the life-cycle of flora and fauna and it is certain that the Aborigines had excellent understanding as they learned to track, hunt and gather food from when they were young children. In 1972 Australian Anthropologist, Kenneth Maddock,said: "Australia is the only continent to have been populated until modern times exclusively by hunters and gatherers..." (The Australian Aborigines. A Portrait of their society). He also quoted statistics showing that in 10,000 BC all human beings (100%) were hunters and gatherers; by 1,500 AD this had reduced to about 1% because mankind had generally developed skills in the cultivation of crops and domestication of animals. By 1960 only 0.001% of the world's population were hunters and gatherers. The fact that the Australian Aborigines did not cultivate land to grow crops or domesticate animals, they have often been portrayed as being a backward race. However this can be disputed. After all, the Aborigines did harvest crops in the sense that they made a form of flour from various types of flora. Domestication of animals was not possible due to the type (or perhaps kind) of animals that roamed the continent of Australia. For example kangaroos, wombats, possums and snakes. Sheep and cow were introduced by Europeans. But there is evidence to suggest that the Aborigines of the Cowpastures district (Campbelltown area) herded and killed cattle that had escaped from the Port Jackson area circa 1788 and found there way to that area. These cattle had been transported from Africa and before vandals destroyed it, there was a cave in the Campbelltown area that was called Bull Cave, because of the drawings of cattle on the walls. Those Aborigines who lived in coastal regions or near waterways caught fish and eels in a number of ways. Males often used a spear but are known to have also built fish-traps by making rectangular areas with rocks, that stood above the water at low tide. This meant that fish could swim into the traps at high tide and were trapped as the tide receded. In the Illawarra district the Aborigines were often observed barricading (blocking) rivers with tree branches and logs. As fish swam down the river towards the sea they were trapped behind the dam where they were scooped up and thrown onto the shore. The Aborigines also fished from rocks and beaches using hand lines made from plants and hooks made from shells. Stones were used as sinkers. Aboriginal people had to catch and collect their food, each and every day of their life. They were successful at doing this because they had an intimate knowledge of food-chain cycles, the migration patterns of birds and of the habitat where they lived. No doubt there were times when there were food shortages. But the essential point is that the Aboriginal people had a complete understanding of the flora and fauna within their tribal territory. They also engaged in land management practices - mainly burning grass and weeds. Their totemic practices protected species because a person could not eat his own totem and others needed permission to catch another person's totem on his land. For example, a man whose totem was a waterfowl would not eat that bird (otherwise it would be a form of cannibalism). Other members of the tribe could not hunt the bird in the territory that belonged to another man. This provided a safe environment for different species.  GOVERNMENT: In Aboriginal society every person (particular every initiated male) was considered to be equal. No one had authority over anyone else in the sense of ruling them, but this is not to say that there weren't leaders. There are always leaders in any society - people who have personal qualities that others admire. But there were no elected leaders in Aboriginal society. There were also people who performed particular roles. For example clever men also known as Koradjis and as Doctors by Europeans, had or acquired special skills and were considered to be authorities on certain matters. There were leaders known as Elders. People whom others listened to, asked for advice and generally obeyed when they issued orders. The Elders were considered to be wise in knowledge of the Dreamtime the law and the lore's of the tribe. An Elder was usually a male but gray hair and old age were not the only criteria to be an Elders. In fact some elderly people were not considered to be Elders. To understand the role of the Elders it is necessary to understand that the Aborigines lived in small family groups also known as clans, bands and sub-tribes. Within the immediate family groups, the eldest males and females were treated with respect and acknowledged as leaders in the sense that they made decisions about the family. For example they settled disputes and decided when the group would move camp to another area. When a number of blood-line families lived together it is likely that the Elder of the group was the person considered by the members to be the wisest of the older people. In large groups which may have been comprised of several hundred people, a number of Elders met to make decisions on behalf of the group. This has become known as an Elder's Council, but it wasn't a council in the sense of being a form of government. Instead such councils met for the purpose of conducting initiation, marriage and burial ceremonies In traditional Aboriginal society females were not considered to be Elders. However, older females often acted as midwives and as authorities on other matters relevant to their gender. The role of female Elders today, as spokespersons for groups, appears to be a phenomena of the 20th century.  LAW: The Aborigines had a number of laws that governed their society. They ranged from family discipline (whereby children and others were expected to conform and behave to a code of conduct) to laws about trespassing, food taboos, marriage laws or regulations and breaches of acceptable behavior such as rape, murder and stealing. The source of the laws were Dreamtime stories that told of the behavior of men, woman and children (sometimes in allegorical forms of animals, birds or reptiles - etc. in which the perpetrators actions were punished by being beaten, speared or by banishment.  SOCIAL STRUCTURE: Aboriginal Australians were social beings who lived in a number of social groups sometimes called bands, clans, sub-tribes and tribes, but essentially in a family or kinship group who were 1) of the same blood-line and 2) were related to other people through totems. The social groupings of ATSI people meant that their relationships were far more extensive than our own method of identifying people as mother, father, brother, sister and cousins (etc). Aboriginal relationships are difficult to understand but the relationships of an Aboriginal male child are detailed in following script (with western ones shown in brackets), to give some idea of them: The family was usually comprised of father's father (grandfather) and often his brother or brothers who was / were known also known as father's father (no western equivalent); his wife or wives (grandmother); a father (father) and perhaps his brothers (uncles) who was also considered to be an Aboriginal male child's father. Each family group had a headman or Elder who was the leader of the unit. He decided when to move camp and settled disputes Food such as oysters, mussels and pippies were enjoyed. Sometimes they cooked them on the ashes of a fire and the Sydney Aborigines are known to have taken a fire with them aboard their canoes when they went fishing. This meant they could cook and eat their catch as they continued catching fish. They also took some of their catch back to the camp to share with others, but eating food while catching it gave them the energy to collect sufficient quantity for others. Animals, birds and reptiles were also caught and cooked on an open fire. However they 'scorched' rather than cooked these foods. In other words, they did not roast the joint of a kangaroo like Europeans do today. For example by placing a leg of lamb in an oven for an hour or two. The Aborigines simply singed the food to remove feathers, scales and fur and ate partly cooked meat. Other sources of food included yams (sweet potatoes), berries and intestines such as liver (yuck). But they generally hunted and collected the wide variety of food that was available in the places in which they lived. One food that was cooked by the Aborigines was a type of bread which was also popular among early European settlers who called it damper. This is made by grinding seeds into flour, mixing this with water into a doughy paste and cooking it in the ashes of a warm fire. The Aborigines lived within a tribal territory where they obtained their daily food needs. Some tribes lived in desert country, while others lived in mountain, coastal or timbered areas. This meant that the members of different tribes ate different foods. It also meant that some of them were constantly on the move hunting and gathering. Others lived a semi-nomadic life in areas where there were amply food supplies. The Eora / Dharawal people who lived on the coastal area between the Hawkesbury River and the Shoalhaven River were hunters and gatherers of fish, shellfish, plants and animals. They caught fish such as bream, groper, snapper and whiting; collected shellfish including oysters (rock and mud), cockles and conniwink. Plant foods included: native cherries, the cabbage palm, water lilies, five-corners and pigface. Animals, birds and reptiles such as kangaroos, ducks and snakes were also hunted for consumption purposes.  MARRIAGE: Every tribe in Australia was divided into a number of small social groups, but for marriage purposes, into two main groups sometimes called marriage moieties. People didn't marry outside of their group. Marriage arrangements were made when children were very young and even before they were born.  HOMES:  Aboriginal people were social beings as they lived and gathered together in family groups . Their camps were comprised of a number of gunyas (bark huts), but the people also lived in caves or in the open air. Some camps were comprised of as few as 6 to 10 people while in others there were up to 400 people. No doubt the availability of food was a factor in the size of a camp. Each day, various members of the group would leave the camp to hunt and gather food and return to the camp to share the catch with others. During the 1830s William Govett (surveyor), visited a camp and recorded (in Sketches of New South Wales), that the people usually settled in their camp as night fell and were engaged in a number of activities - normal family life - sharing stories about the happenings of the day, repairing weapons, singing songs and playing games etc. Govett described a young man in one gunya using double sets of strings to make diamonds, squares, circles and other shapes. He also told of an adult amusing a young child by placing a leaf on the back of his left hand, striking it with his finger causing the leaf to ascend perpendicularly to the squeals of delight from the child. Aboriginal people lived in family groups. The Elder or Elders gunyah (hut) were situated in the center of the camp and others spanned out in circles around the central hut. However, the people often slept in the open and in caves, so it is likely that the Elder decided where he wanted to sleep with his wife or wives and everyone one else spread-out from the spot he had chosen. No doubt some people were more important than others and the most important ones camped near the Elders.  LAND: The affinity of attachment to a particular area of land by the Aborigines was based on their Dreamtime beliefs, that the land had been created for them by ancestral heroes and heroines. Every rock, tree and waterhole; every animal, bird and insect; the sky above and all it contained were believed to have been created in the Dreamtime. At some indefinite time the creators disappeared, however, many were believed to have remained in secret places in the land - in rivers, caves and other places. In other words, the Aborigines believed that their land had been created by spirits who continued to live in the land. This was a superstitious belief, but it was very important to the Aborigines. For example, there were never any wars of conquest between Aboriginal tribes. They were too superstitious to do this and living in the land of another tribe would have involved them in living among strange and no doubt hostile spirits. Land was spiritual, but also an economic resource as it provided the people with food, sources of wood, fiber and glue for making spears, utensils and other implements. However the people respected these aspects of their land and were environmentalists in the sense of 'taking care' of the land through their practices of performing increase ceremonies, singing 'Songlines' and relationships with flora and fauna through a system of totemic relationships. Traditional Aboriginal people (before their society was changed with the arrival of the British into their lands), lived in relatively small groups which have been called clans, bands, family groups, sub-tribes and by a variety of other names. The larger (well known term) social unit known as a tribe, was made up of a number of smaller social units (clans and bands etc). Maybe we can explain it this way: A clan was a family group made up of a grandfather and his wife or wives, his sons and their wife or wives and their children. A number of these groups formed a tribe. The exact number of clans which comprised a tribe cannot be said precisely, as this varied. However in the Sydney district it is known that in 1788 there were at least 30 clans of the Eora / Dharawal tribe. Each clan had a name for themselves based on the name in their language for the area they lived in. For example the men of Cadi were known as the Cadigal (Cadjigal) females added the postfix eean so the women from Cadi were the Cadieean and they lived around South Head, Elizabeth Bay, Rushcutters Bay to present day Circular Quay. The Gweagal / Gweaeean lived at Kurnell. The clans which formed a tribe were those who believed in the same Dreamtime creation stories, spoke the same language and celebrated the same customs such as initiation rites.  The Aboriginal people of the Sydney, Illawarra and Shoalhaven district (and most, if not in all parts of Australia), were often observed by early settlers to be naked. The men and women of some tribes are known to have worn a belt around their middle made of hair, animal fur, skin or fiber which they used to carry tools and weapons.  These belts often had a flap at the front, however, this was a modification that was added during European colonization when the British colonists and authorities were concerned about modesty and imposed their standards on the Aborigines - who were unashamed of their nakedness. However, Aboriginal people needed to be warm in winter months and did make cloaks which they made from animal skins e.g.., possum skins. They worn them during the day and used them as blankets during the night. A number of skins were needed to make the garment and they were cleaned, dried and sewn together. During colonization individual settlers gave the Aborigines their old clothes (known as slops). So the people were often recorded as wearing a variety of clothes such as army or navy jackets, trousers, petticoats and blouses (etc). From the 1830's a number of Governors issued English blankets to the Aborigines through Magistrates and well respected settlers in various parts of the country. The blankets were not as warm as possums skin cloaks and many Aborigines caught influenza and bronchitis and died from these diseases.  DANCE: The Aborigines did not dance. They held corroborees in which there were elements of music, song and movement that imitated or replicated animal movements, hunting prowess, battles or ceremonies of initiation that had been conducted for thousands of years. Corroborees are part of Aboriginal culture. They were not simply dances, but were highly significant events and belong to the Australian Aborigines.  MUSIC: The Australian Aborigines used a limited variety of implements to make musical sounds. The didgeridoo (see separate listing) is probably the best known, but others included rattles, clapping sticks and two boomerangs clapped together. However they do not appear to have used drums. The exception may be the Torres Strait Islander people. Another instrument that wasn't used, was a flute or whistle. The melodies, tunes, harmonies and rhythms of Aboriginal music included traditional ceremonial songs that were handed down from generation to generation. It was very important in Aboriginal thinking, to replicate the songs that had been first played and sung by the ancestors in the Dreamtime. When the traditional music and songs were used, living men considered themselves to be in the Dreamtime. Particularly during initiation ceremonies. However 'new songs' were created from time to time. They told of important events in the history of the tribe. Events such as great battles or hunting expeditions. Other songs and music were for general amusement or entertainment and early European observations of the Aborigines included camp life where the people played games and sang songs around their camp fires. CULTURE: Culture is a celebration of beliefs and usually (if not always) includes rites of passage from one stage of life to another. Culture is stories and songs. Particularly because their stories and songs informed them about creation, the relationship between mankind and nature and were the source of their tribal laws. The tradition of initiation was an expression of Aboriginal culture and was carried out for thousands of years in exactly the way that had been ordered by the ancestors in the Dreamtime. On another level the stories and songs were believed to be important for the preservation and conservation of their land and all it contained. This involved singing Songlines that had been sung by the ancestors and the concept of taking care. Until 1788 the Aborigines of Australia lived and celebrated a culture that was basically unchanged for thousands of years. Each tribe had their own beliefs - their own songs and stories, but until colonization, they were the oldest surviving race in the entire world. They existed as a race of people well before the Egyptians were building the pyramids, while the Greeks were constructing the Pantheon and while Britain was ruled by the Roman Empire. However the first Europeans to arrive in the continent considered the 'natives' to be primitives. This was largely due to a lack of understanding about the culture of the Aborigines. A cultural group was comprised of two or more tribes that associated with each other for cultural purposes. For example to celebrate corroborees, barter or exchange goods, conduct initiation ceremonies or intermarry. On the Far South Coast of New South Wales early records show that members of the Yuin tribe often associated with those from the Canberra area. These tribes did not associate with the Dharawal tribe of the Shoalhaven, Illawarra and Sydney districts, who gathered from time to time with the Gundungurra of the Goulburn and Camden area.  Modern day scientists and others often say that the Australian Aborigines arrived in the continent of Australia, by crossing land bridges or landing on the northern shores by canoes. LANGUAGES: Before colonization there were between 200 and 250 Aboriginal languages spoken throughout the continent of Australia. In other words the Aborigines did not speak the same or 'one' language. It has also been estimated that there were as many as 600 languages spoken at the time of colonization. However, it has also been said, that there was one language and several dialects. The 'one language' theory fits with the theory of the migratory origins of the people in the continent. In other words that all Aborigines belong to the one race as descendants of people who came from Asia, Africa and other places across land bridges. Whether this happened or not is speculative. What is certain, is that the Aborigines who belonged to a particular tribe spoke a language that was different to their neighbors. This fact has led to scientists identifying Language or Cultural groups which were comprised of a number of tribes who spoke the same language. It is also certain that some Aboriginal people spoke more than one language and it is interesting to note, that when the Europeans arrived in this country some Aborigines quickly learned to speak English while the Europeans themselves often struggled to speak even a few Aboriginal words. In 1888 it was said that the language of the Australian Aborigines was "in fullness of tone, variety of sound, and easy flow, is not to be surpassed. In proof of this it is only necessary to refer to the Aboriginal names of the various locations throughout the colonies. Some Aboriginal words are still used today. For example the word Bundi is the basis for the name Bondi n Sydney's eastern suburbs which has become the most famous beach in the world. Bennelong Point (the site of the Sydney Opera House) is named after Bennelong an Aborigine of the Manly area who was kidnapped by Governor Arthur Philip); Botany Bay was known as Kamay to the Aborigines of the area; Cronulla is based on the word Kurranulla meaning 'pink shell'; Dapto in the Illawarra district is a corruption of the word Dappeto; Dhurawal Bay on the George's River near Liverpool is named after the traditional tribe of the Sydney district the Dharawal also called the Eora. 2. Australian Commemorative Days Australia Day Australia Day is the day set aside to commemorate the arrival of Captain Arthur Phillip and the First Fleet at Sydney Cove on 26th January 1788. On the day of his arrival, Captain Phillip proclaimed the area that became the colony of New South Wales to be a British possession. This landing started the first permanent European settlement on this island continent. Over 200 years later, we acknowledge with maturity that this wonderful Continent of ours was not ours to begin with and we rightfully respect, the original Indigenous people of our land. May we live in peace and harmony to celebrate this "Land Down Under". The celebrations of Australia Day have changed over the years. The traditional flag-raising and commemorative events still play an important part, but are now augmented by activities that promote Australia and the diverse cultural backgrounds represented in the Australian society. Special celebrations associated with Australia Day include the presentation of Australia Day Citizen and Young Citizen Awards as well as naturalization and citizenship ceremonies. Anzac Day Anzac Day is a Nationally commemorated on April 25 in Australia. This date marks the anniversary of the first major military action fought by Australian and New Zealand forces during the First World War. ANZAC stands for Australian and New Zealand Army Corps. Commemorative services are generally held at dawn, the time of the landing at Gallipoli, across the nation. Later in the day ex-servicemen and women meet and join in marches through the major cities and many smaller centres. It is a day when Australians reflect on the many different meanings of war. Anzac Day Traditions :The poppy, formerly associated with Remembrance Day (11 November), is commonly used in wreaths on Anzac Day. According to the Australian War Memorial, an early use of the poppy on Anzac Day was in 1940 in Palestine, where it grows in profusion in the spring. At the Dawn Service each solider dropped a poppy as he filed past the Stone of Remembrance. A senior Australian officer also a laid a wreath of poppies that had been picked from the hillside of Mt Scopus. Why is this day so special to Australians? When war broke out in 1914 Australia had been a federal commonwealth for only fourteen years. The new national government was eager to establish its reputation among the nations of the world. In 1915 Australian and New Zealand soldiers formed part of the allied expedition that set out to capture the Gallipoli peninsula to open the way to the Black Sea for the allied navies. The plan was to capture Constantinople (now Istanbul), capital of the Ottoman Empire and an ally of Germany. They landed at Gallipoli on 25 April, meeting fierce resistance from the Turkish defenders. What had been planned as a bold stroke to knock Turkey out of the war quickly became a stalemate, and the campaign dragged on for eight months. At the end of 1915 the allied forces were evacuated after both sides had suffered heavy casualties and endured great hardships. News of the landing at Gallipoli made a profound impact on Australians at home and 25 April quickly became the day on which Australians remembered the sacrifice of those who had died in war. 3.Australia’s national flag in vexillological terms, the Australian flag is a defaced British blue ensign (the State Ensign of the United Kingdom). In the upper hoist or canton of the flag is the Union Flag (i.e. the State and Civil Flag of the United Kingdom, usually erroneously called the Union Jack). On the fly are 5 white stars, representing the Southern Cross, a constellation of stars generally only visible in the southern hemisphere. Each of these stars has 7 points except for the smallest star which has only five. Directly below the Union Flag is a large 7 pointed white star called the Federation Star, representing the federation of the colonies of Australia in 1901 to become a (notionally) independent nation of the British Commonwealth. There is one point for each of the six original states, and one to represent all of Australia's internal and external territories and any future states. The Australian flag was usually flown in conjunction with, or in an inferior position to, the Union Flag of the UK well into the 1960s despite the requirements of the Flags Act. Many Australians considered themselves to be Britons, and Arthur Smout in his 1968 Australian Flag Book lamented the fact that many seemed to show more loyalty to the Union Flag than to the Australian flag. Today, there is a growing debate about whether Australia should adopt a new flag, as many see the current ensign-based design as inappropriate in an increasingly multicultural country that has been progressively weakening its ties with Britain since 1901. Also, the Union Flag occupies what is known as the vexillological honour point, and as Australia becomes more independent, many think Australian symbology should occupy the honour point rather than the flag of another nation. National anthem of Australia: Advance Australia Fair was proclaimed as our national anthem after exhaustive surveys of national opinion. In 1974 the Australian Bureau of Statistics conducted a national opinion poll of 60,000 and in 1977 a plebiscite for a national song was conducted. On each occasion, Advance Australia Fair was the preferred option, and it was in consideration of such support that Advance Australia Fair was proclaimed as the national anthem by the Governor-General on 19 April 1984. Advance Australia Fair Australians all let us rejoice, For we are young and free; We've golden soil and wealth for toil, Our home is girt by sea; Our land abounds in Nature's gifts Of beauty rich and rare; In history's page, let every stage Advance Australia fair! In joyful strains then let us sing, "Advance Australia fair!" When gallant Cook from Albion sail'd, To trace wide oceans o'er, True British courage bore him on, Till he landed on our shore. Then here he raised Old England's flag, The standard of the brave; With all her faults we love her still, "Brittannia rules the wave!" In joyful strains then let us sing "Advance Australia fair!" Beneath our radiant southern Cross, We'll toil with hearts and hands; To make this Commonwealth of ours Renowned of all the lands; For those who've come across the seas We've boundless plains to share; With courage let us all combine To advance Australia fair. In joyful strains then let us sing "Advance Australia fair!" While other nations of the globe Behold us from afar, We'll rise to high renown and shine Like our glorious southern star; From England, Scotia, Erin's Isle, Who come our lot to share, Let all combine with heart and hand To advance Australia fair! In joyful strains then let us sing "Advance Australia fair!" Shou'd foreign foe e'er sight our coast, Or dare a foot to land, We'll rouse to arms like sires of yore To guard our native strand; Brittannia then shall surely know, Beyond wide ocean's roll, Her sons in fair Australia's land Still keep a British soul. In joyful strains then let us sing "Advance Australia fair!" Assignments for Session One Choose one topic from below and write an essay of about 500 words. (1) What suggestions would you give to the Australian government to help them solve the problem of the aboriginals? (2) If you were to join the Ausflag Professional Design Competition, how would you design the flag? Explain to the class your interpretation of it. Explain the meaning and origin of the following words and expressions: