York Conference 2001: Levels of Perception, L. Harris and M. Jenkin, Eds., Springer Verlag Human Visual Orientation in Weightlessness Charles M. Oman Man Vehicle Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 Abstract: An astronaut's sense of self-orientation is relatively labile, since the gravitational “down” cues provided by gravity are absent and visual cues to orientation are often ambiguous, and familiar objects can be difficult to recognize when viewed from an unfamiliar aspect. This chapter surveys the spatial orientation problems encountered in weightlessness including 0-G inversion illusions, visual reorientation illusions, EVA height vertigo, and spatial memory problems described by astronauts. We consider examples from Shuttle, Mir, and International Space Station. A vector model for sensory cue interaction is synthesized which includes gravity, gravireceptor bias, frame (architectural symmetry), and polarity cues, and an intrinsic “idiotropic” tendency to perceive the visual vertical in a footward direction. Experimental evidence from previous studies and recent research by our York and MIT teams in orbital flight is summarized. Supported by NASA Cooperative Agreement NCC9-58 with the National Space Biomedical Research Institute, and NASA Grant NAG9-1004 from Johnson Space Center. 1. Introduction Understanding how humans maintain spatial orientation in the absence of gravity is of practical importance for astronauts and flight surgeons. It is also of fundamental interest to neurobiologists and cognitive scientists, since the force of gravity is a universal constant in normal evolution and development. Gravireceptor information plays a major role in the coordination of all types of body movement, and anchors the coordinate frame of our place and direction sense, as neurally coded in the limbic system. This chapter reviews four related types of spatial orientation problems, as described by crewmembers on the US Shuttle and Russian and international space stations. We synthesize a set of working hypotheses which account for static orientation illusions in 0-G and 1-G, their relationship to height vertigo and spatial memory, and the role of visual cues, and summarize supporting evidence from ground, parabolic, and orbital flight experiments. There is evidence astronauts are more susceptible to dynamic (circular- and linear-vection) self-motion illusions during the first weeks of spaceflight, but for reasons of brevity, these dynamic illusions are not considered here. This year’s symposium honors Professor Ian Howard, who has made so many contributions to the understanding of human perception. Human spatial orientation has been a longstanding Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 2 interest of Ian’s. His 1982 book “Human Visual Orientation”, though out of print, remains the student’s best introduction to this subject. Over the subsequent two decades, he and his students built a set of unique stimulus devices in the basements of three buildings: the now legendary rotating sphere, vection sled, mirrored bed and two tumbling rooms. They did a series of experiments on static and dynamic visual orientation which are landmarks in this field. Ian has always been fascinated by the orientation illusions reported by astronauts, and has done experiments in parabolic flight. In the early 1990s, he accepted my challenge to help me write the first NASA proposal for what has since become a series of continuing space flight investigations on human visual orientation on the Shuttle and the International Space Station, employing virtual reality technology in space for the first time. Both in the laboratory and in the field, Ian’s discipline, intellect, curiosity, creativity, infectious scientific passion, and adaptability to Tex-Mex food inspired everyone, including our astronauts. Some of the results from Neurolab - our first flight - are included here. Our laboratories also continue to collaborate in ground based research sponsored by the NASA National Space Biomedical Research Institute. 2. Human orientation problems in space flight. Vision plays a critical role in maintaining spatial orientation in weightlessness. One of the most striking things about entering 0-G is that if the observers are in a windowless cabin, usually no one has any sensation of falling. Obviously “falling” sensations are visually and cognitively mediated. If the observers make normal head movements, the visual surround seems quite stable. Oscillopsia (apparent motion of the visual environment), so common among patients who have inner ear disease, is only rarely reported in weightlessness. What can change – often in dramatic fashion – is one’s perception of static orientation with respect to the cabin and the environment beyond: 2.1 0-G Inversion Illusions. Ever since the second human orbital spaceflight by the late Gherman Titov in 1961, crewmembers in both the US and Russian space programs have described a bizarre sensation of feeling continuously inverted in 0-G, even though in a familiar “visually upright” orientation in the cabin (Gazenko, 1964; Oman, et al, 1986). “The only way I can describe it”, some say, “is that though I’m floating upright in the cabin in weightlessness, both the spacecraft and I seem to somehow be flying upside down ”. Visual cues clearly play a role in the strength of the illusion, but in contrast with visual reorientation illusions (Sect. 2.2), inversion illusions are relatively persistent, and continue after eyes are closed. Some report the illusion is stronger in the visually symmetrical mid-deck area of the Shuttle than when on the flight deck, or in the asymmetrical Spacelab module. Inversion illusion is sometimes reversible by belting or pulling yourself firmly into a seat, or looking at yourself in a mirror. The illusion is quite common among shuttle crewmembers in the first minutes of weightlessness, continuing or recurring for minutes to hours thereafter, but reports are rare after the second day in orbit. It is almost universal in parabolic flight among blindfolded volunteers entering weightlessness for the first time (Lackner, 1992). As detailed later, inversion illusion in 0-G has been attributed to the combined effects of gravitational unloading of the inner ear otolith organs, elevation of viscera, and to the sensations of facial fullness and nasal stuffiness caused by sitting with feet elevated prior to launch, launch accelerations, and 0-G fluid shift. Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 3 Many astronauts are familiar with “aerobatic” inversion illusion, a sensation of inversion resulting from the “eyeballs up” acceleration component involved in an aerobatic pushover or inverted flight. Since the US Shuttle thrusts into orbit into an inverted attitude, and crewmembers experience “eyeballs-in and up” acceleration, it is not surprising crewmembers experience aerobatic inversion illusion during launch. Perhaps the aerobatic inversion illusion due to the launch profile primes the onset of 0-G inversion illusion after entering weightlessness. 2.2 Visual Reorientation Illusions. Unlike their predecessors in the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs, Skylab and Shuttle astronauts no longer routinely worked in their seats. Instead, their tasks frequently required them to move around, and work in orientations relative to the spacecraft interior, which were physically impossible to practice in simulators beforehand. Fundamental symmetries in the visual scene can create an ambiguity in the perceived identity of surrounding surfaces. When floating horizontally or upside down, they discovered that the spacecraft floor, ceiling, and walls would frequently exchange identities: “You know intellectually what is going on but somehow whichever surface is seen beneath your feet seems like a floor”; “surfaces parallel to your body axis are walls”; “surfaces overhead are ceilings”. (Figure 1). Interior architectural asymmetries and familiar objects in fixed locations provided important landmarks which tended to prevent or reverse the illusion. However, the human body is also a familiar form, viewed on Earth primarily in a gravitationally upright position. Astronauts found that catching sight of another crewmember floating inverted nearby would sometimes make they themselves suddenly feel upside down (Figure 2). The Earth can provide a powerful “down” orienting stimulus k. In crew debriefings, other examples Figure 1. Crewmember with feet toward Spacelab ceiling seems right side up. Note canted “upper racks in the lower part of the photo. when viewed out a porthole or when on a spacewal abound: Astronauts working inverted on the flight deck, photographing the Earth through the overhead windows felt they were looking “down” through windows in the floor of a gondola. Crewmembers working close to the canted upper racks in the Spacelab module were surprised to look down and see the lower racks tilting outward beneath them. Astronauts in the nodes and laboratory modules of the US portions of the International Space Station sometimes find it difficult to distinguish walls from ceiling from floor, since the modules have a square cross section, and interchangable rack systems. Crewmembers passing headfirst through the horizontal Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 4 tunnel connecting Spacelab with the Shuttle mid-deck sometimes feel as if they are ascending inside a vertical tube, and encountering another crewmember coming the other way can make them suddenly feel as if they are upside down, descending headfirst. Looking backwards at their own feet makes them feel upright again. After these illusions were described by Skylab crewmembers (Cooper, 1976) and in more detail by the crew of Spacelab-1, we decided to name them “visual reorientation illusions” (Oman, et al, 1984, 1986; Oman 1986), since they differed from 0-G inversion illusions in several important respects: First, the sensation was not necessarily of being “upside down” – rather, the subjective vertical was frequently beneath your feet. Second, whereas Inversion Illusions were difficult Figure 2. Seeing a crewmember in an inverted position can make to reverse and continued when An observer himself feel “upside down”. eyes were closed, VRIs were easily reversed, and typically depended on what you were looking at. Though VRIs usually occurred spontaneously, they could be cognitively manipulated in much the same way one can reverse a figure/ground illusion, or the perceived orientation of a Necker cube. “I can make whichever way I want to be down become down” was the frequent comment. When one slowly rolls inside a spacecraft, the moment of interchange of the subjective identity of the walls, ceilings, and floors is a perceptually quite distinct event, just as is the reversal of the corners of a Necker cube, or a figure-ground illusion. Lastly, most crewmembers experienced VRIs, and susceptibility continued throughout even long duration Skylab and Mir missions, whereas 0-G inversion illusions are rare after the first day or two in weightlessness. VRIs have also been described in parabolic flight (Graybiel and Kellogg 1967; Lackner and Graybiel, 1983) though the distinction between inversion and reorientation illusions was not made in the older literature. Astronauts now sometimes refer to VRIs as “the downs”. Actually, it is possible to have a VRI right here on Earth, as when you leave an underground subway station labyrinth, and upon seeing a familiar visual landmark, realize that e.g. you are facing east, not west. On Earth, gravity constrains our body orientation, and provides an omnipresent “down” cue, so we normally only experience VRIs about a vertical axis. However, VRIs can be easily created about the gravitational horizontal in a 1-G laboratory using real or virtual tumbling rooms (Howard and Childerson, 1994; Oman and Skwersky, 1997) 2.3 Inversion Illusions, VRIs, and Space Sickness. There is relatively strong circumstantial and scientific evidence (reviewed by Oman and Shubentsov, 1992) that head movements made about Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 5 any axis, particularly in pitch, are the dominant stimulus causing space sickness. However, it is clear from crewmember reports that inversion illusions and VRIs – when they occur - often increase nausea. Crewmembers experiencing Inversion Illusions are reportedly continually aware of the sensory cue discrepancy. Apparently it is the onset of a VRI – and the sudden change in perceived self-orientation without a concurrent change in semicircular canal or otolith cue – which provides the nauseogenic stimulus. For example, one Shuttle pilot awoke, removed the sleep shades from the flight deck windows, saw the Earth above instead of below where he had previously seen it, and vomited immediately after. Other crewmembers described vomiting attacks after seeing other crewmembers – or doffed space suits – floating inverted nearby, and suddenly feeling tilted or uncertain about their orientation. One astronaut who was feeling nauseous described “getting it over with” simply by deliberately cognitively inducing VRIs. This causal relationship makes sense in terms of what we know about the role of vestibular sensory conflict in motion sickness (Reason, 1978; Oman, 1982, 1990). Once we recognized the etiologic role of VRIs in space sickness (Oman, et al, 1984, 1986; Oman, 1986), we suggested that whenever anyone on board was suffering from space sickness, everyone – not just the afflicted – should try to work “visually upright” in the cabin. This advice has since been broadly accepted by Shuttle crews. 2.4 EVA Height Vertigo. Over the past decade, there have been anecdotal reports from several crewmembers that while working inverted in the Shuttle payload bay, or while standing in foot restraints on the end of the Shuttle robot arm (Figure 3), or hanging at the end of a pole used as a mobility aid, they experienced a sudden attack of height anxiety, and fear of falling toward Earth somewhat resembling the physiological height vertigo many people experience on Earth when standing at the edge of a cliff or the roof of a tall building. Some report experience enhanced orbital motion awareness, and a sensation of falling “down”. The associated anxiety is Figure 3. Spacewalking Shuttle crewmember standing disturbing, or in some cases even In foot restraints on the end of the Canadian robotic arm. disabling, causing crewmembers to “hang on for dear life”. A NASA astronaut flying on Mir published a vivid account (Linenger, 2000; see also Richards, et al, 2001). We do not yet have prospective or retrospective statistical data on the incidence of the phenomenon. However height vertigo is clearly a potential problem which will become more important during the ISS construction era, when many more EVAs are being made. Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 6 2.5 3D spatial memory and navigation difficulties. The US and Russian space program gradually evolved to using larger vehicles with more complex three dimensional architectures. For practical reasons, the local visual verticals in different modules are not universally coaligned. Ground trainer modules are not always physically connected in the same way as they are in the actual vehicle. Therefore, occupants say that they have difficulty visualizing the spatial relationships between landmarks on the interiors of the two modules. They cannot point in the direction of familiar interior landmarks in other modules the way they say they could when in their homes on Earth. They often do not instinctively know which way to turn when moving between modules through symmetrical multi-ported nodes. Shuttle crew visiting the Mir station (Figure 4) often had difficulty finding their way back, without assistance from Mir crewmembers, or arrows fashioned and positioned to help them (Richards, et al, 2001) Comparable problems have not been described within the US Shuttle itself, probably because the flight deck, mid-deck, and payload bay research modules have coaligned and less ambiguous internal visual verticals. Maintaining spatial orientation during EVA activity on the outside of the Mir and International Space Station was sometimes also difficult, particularly during the dark half of each orbit, due to the lack of easily recognizable visual landmarks. Figure 4. Russian Mir space station had four research modules connected to a central node. Visual verticals of some modules were not coaligned. Several operational crises which occurred in 1997 aboard the Russian MIR station convinced crewmembers and human factors specialists that the ability to make three dimensional spatial judgements is important in emergency situations and critical if an emergency evacuation is necessary in darkness, or when smoke obscures the cabin. Twice when collisions with Progress spacecraft were imminent, crewmembers moved from module to module and window to window, unsuccessfully trying to locate the inbound spacecraft. Another emergency required the crew to reorient the entire station using thrusters on a docked Soyuz spacecraft. Members of the crew in the MIR base block module discovered they had great difficulty mentally visualizing the orientation of another crewmember in the differently oriented Soyuz cockpit, and verbally relaying the appropriate commands (Burrough, 1998). Related difficulties are being encountered on the new International Space Station. Egress routes to Shuttle and Soyuz require turns in potentially disorienting nodes. Emergency egress is complicated by the limited capacity of rescue vehicles, so different crewmembers are assigned different vehicles and egress routes. One early station crew placed emergency “Exit” signs beside the node hatches, but subsequently Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 7 discovered that one the signs had been misplaced, probably as a result of a visual reorientation illusion. Improved egress signs are in development, and “you are here” maps, inflight practice, and preflight virtual reality based spatial memory training are under consideration. 3. A model for human visual orientation Based on prior research on human visual orientation in 1-G (reviewed by Howard, 1982), and synthesizing more recent theories and experiments of Mittelstaedt (1983, 1988), Young, et al (1986), Oman (1986), Oman et al (1986), and Howard and Childerson (1993), the following heuristic model for static orientation perception emerges: 3.1 Beginning with a 1-G Model: On Earth in 1-G, the direction of the subjective vertical (SV) is the nonlinear sum of three vectors: G, the gravitational stimulus to the otoliths, cardiovascular, and kidney gravireceptors. B, a net gravireceptor bias acting in the direction of the body’s major axis. The magnitude and headward vs. footward direction is presumed to be an individual characteristic. V, the perceptual visual vertical, is normally determined by: F, “frame” (architectural symmetry) visual cues, disambiguated by P, “polarity” cues, associated with the recognition of top/bottom of familiar objects in view, and M, an “idiotropic” tendency to perceive the visual vertical as oriented along the body axis in a footward direction. Note that as is the convention in engineering and physics, the G vector defining the gravitational “vertical” is depicted pointing “down”, as are the Figure 5. Model for 1-G “Tilted Room” illusion Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 8 corresponding V, P, and M vectors. (Mittelstaedt has adopted the opposite convention). The idiotropic vector is denoted “M” in recognition of Mittelstaedt’s many contributions (Young et al, 1986). The SV in complete darkness (sometimes called the postural vertical) is determined only by the G and B vectors. The SV of gravitationally horizontal observers who have a headward gravireceptor bias is tilted slightly in a headward direction, i.e. they report feeling tilted slightly head down, and conversely. Measurement of the postural vertical provides a convenient way to assess a person’s gravireceptor bias B – at least in one G. The “idiotropic” tendency M affects all judgements of SV when any visual cues are present. The idiotropic effect a usually stronger than gravireceptor bias, even when the latter is in a headward direction. Hence the SV of a horizontally recumbent subject is deviated footward. When no F or P cues are present, the resultant of M and B deviates the SV footward. Hence an observer perceives a dimly lit gravitationally vertical line as rotated in the opposite direction to body tilt – the well known Aubert illusion. Figure 5 shows a horizontally recumbent observer viewing the interior of a tilted, barnlike room in 1-G. The major and minor axes of symmetry of the visual environment are depicted with the array of bidirectional vectors F. Since the room interior has a familiar shape, and readily distinguishable ceiling (top) and floor (bottom), it is also said to possess visual polarity, depicted by the vector P. The visual vertical V lies along one of the major the axes of symmetry in a direction closest to P and M. Here V points in the direction of the true floor, so it is subjectively perceived as a floor. The direction of the subjective vertical SV is determined by a nonlinear interaction of the visual V and gravireceptor (G+B) vectors. How the vectors combine depends on the orientation of the subject. For relatively small static tilts of the subject or the environment as shown in the figure – up to a limit of perhaps 45 degrees – the SV lies in a direction intermediate between V and (G+B). However, if the subject is not in the normal erect position, but instead recumbent, supine or prone with respect to gravity, and V aligns with M, the SV can be “captured”by (i.e. align with) the V and M vectors. Thus a supine subject feels gravitationally upright if the environment is tilted so P and V align with the body axis M. 3.2 Extending the model to 0-G: How the model applies in weightlessness is shown in Figure 6. The physical stimulus to the body’s gravireceptors G is absent, but a headward or footward bias B remains. As in 1-G, the direction of the visual vertical V is Figure 6. Model for 0-G Visual Reorientation Illusion. Crewmember inverted in a Spacelab module feels right side up. Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 9 determined by the interaction of environmental frame F and polarity P cues, and the idiotropic vector M. Depending on the relative weighting the SV is captured by the visual vertical V or the resultant of the idiotropic vector M and the gravireceptor bias vector B. Unlike the near-upright 1-G case, the SV never lies in an intermediate direction between V and (M+B). It is always captured by one or the other. In Figure 6, the observer is depicted inside a Spacelab module, which has canted overhead racks. The structured environment provides a strong set of symmetry cues F. Here, the observer’s feet are oriented toward the canted ceiling, and the footward idiotropic bias overcomes relatively weak polarity cues available from the visual scene. The perceptual visual vertical and the SV point toward the true ceiling, which the observer perceives as a subjective floor. The observer experiences a visual reorientation illusion. It is important to understand that frame and polarity cues are not physical properties of the entire Figure 7. Model for VRI when working close to a canted visual environment. Both depend Upper rack in Spacelab. on the observer’s viewpoint and gaze direction . For example, Figure 7 shows a crewmember working on equipment mounted in the upper Spacelab racks. Working close to the upper racks, the dominant frame cue in the scene is aligned with the upper rather than lower racks. Written labels on rack mounted equipment enhance the strength of downward polarity cues. As a result, V is parallel to the plane of the upper rack, which is perceived as a subjective wall. Unless the subject has a strong idiotropic bias M, the SV is also in the plane of the upper rack. If the observer momentarily looks “down” at the lower rack, he is surprised that it seems to tilt outward at the bottom. Figure 8. Model for 0-G Inversion Illusion Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 10 Figure 8 illustrates the factors which likely contribute to a 0-G inversion illusion. This observer is shown floating with his feet in the general direction of the true floor. The frame, polarity and idiotropic cues F,P, and M align the visual vertical V toward the floor. Hence the true floor is perceived as a floor, and the subjects report being “visually upright” in the cabin. However, unlike the individuals depicted in previous figures, this person has an abnormally large headward gravireceptor bias, so though visually upright with respect to the cabin, he feels that he and the entire spacecraft are somehow upside down. Figure 9. Model for EVA Height Vertigo Figure 9 provides a plausible explanation for the onset of EVA height vertigo. In the left panel, the crewmember is working “visually upright” in the payload bay of the Space Shuttle. The Earth is perceived as being “above”. However, if the crewmember rolls inverted, and sees the Earth beneath his feet, rather than feeling upside down, idiotropic M and Earth view polarity cues reverse the direction of the visual and subjective verticals, as shown in the right panel. Suddenly the crewmember perceives he is hanging by one hand beneath an inverted spacecraft. 4.0 Related Experiments 4.1 Gravireceptor Bias. Laboratory evidence for the existence of a gravireceptor bias comes from the experiments of Mittelstaedt (1986), who asked observers lying on a tilting bed to set themselves gravitationally horizontal in darkness. More than 40 normals and five previously flown astronauts were tested. The tilt angle of the entire group averaged almost perfectly horizontal, but there were consistent differences between individuals. As shown in Figure 10, some tended to set the bed a few degrees head down, while others set it a few degrees head up. Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 It was a personal characteristic which remained stable over periods of more than three y Mittelstaedt hypothesized that those who set the out a headward gravireceptor bias, and noted t inversion illusion in orbital flight had head up bia the origin of the bias, he conducted experiments on a short radius centrifug nephrectomized patients (Mittelstaedt, 1996), he found evidence that the effect was mediated by mechanoreceptors in the s and large blood vessels of the t remains to be verified how well 1-G bed tests of individual gravireceptor Also, B is a nsory bias which could conceivably kidney abdomen. I tilting Figure 10. Tilting bed test for 1-G gravireceptor bias predict 0-G inversion illusion under bias. operational conditions. multise be influenced by 0-G and launch acceleration induced fluid shift, facial edema, and nasal stuffiness not present in the 1-G tilting bed tests. If so, gravireceptor bias measured in 1-G may be somewhat different than that found in flight. 4.2 Visual Frame Effects. In their classic “rod and frame” experiments, Witkin and Asch (1948) asked erect observers in a dark room to set a dimly lit pivoting rod to the SV. The rod was surrounded by a similarly lit square frame, which was tilted 28 degrees clockwise or counterclockwise with respect to G. As depicted in Figure11, the observer’s SV indications consistently deviated in the direction of frame rotation. There were consistent differences between observers in the size Page 11 ears. bed slightly head up did so to effectively cancel hat the two astronauts who had experienced ses, whereas the other three did not. Pursuing e where the observers could adjust their position relative to the axis of rotation until they felt subjectively horizontal. Normal observers felt horizontal when the rotation axis passed through their upper chest. Presumably the effect on tilt perception of the centrifugal stimulus to the vestibular otoliths was being balanced by centrifugal stimulation of previously unknown gravireceptors located on the other side of the axis of rotation. In further tests on paraplegics and Figure 11. Rod and Frame Test Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 12 of the effect, with group average being about 6 degrees. The effect diminished with larger frame tilts, probably because the square was perceived as an upright diamond, so the diagonals became the perceptually dominant axes. Ebenholtz (1977) later showed that larger frames induced greater rod tilt than smaller ones, showing that field of view is important in producing a frame effect. Singer (1970) and Howard and Childerson (1994) extended this result by having gravitationally upright observers view the interior of an unfurnished cubic chamber. The SV was consistently deviated towards the nearest axis of room symmetry, either the floor-ceiling-wall directions, or the room diagonals. 4.3 Visual Polarity Effects. Howard (1982) noted that in daily life, there is a class of common objects that we almost always encounter in a “upright” orientation with respect to gravity. Examples include tables, chairs, rugs, doors, houses, trees, cars, or human figures. These objects all have a readily identifiable “top” and “bottom”, with mass distributed approximately equally on either side of an axis of symmetry, so they do not tip over. Howard refers to these as “intrinsically polarized” objects. Their relative orientation of conveys information about the direction of gravity, and can help disambiguate frame cues. Many other objects such as coins, pencils, books, etc. which are not usually seen in a consistent gravitational orientation are described as “non-polarized”. In the context of orientation in weightlessness, it is important to note that large surfaces, including those which extend beyond the immediate field of view, establish the major planes of visual space, but if their visual identity is ambiguous, they can provide only frame cues. We believe that in weightlessness the perceptual floor/ceiling/wall ambiguity of such surfaces is resolved by the relative orientation of the surface with respect to the body axis, or polarized visual details on the surface itself. To experimentally measure object polarity, Hu, Howard and Palmisano (1999) had observers lying supine on a an elevated bed (Figure 12), look upward into a wide mirror, angled at 45 degrees so they saw a left-right reversed view of the laboratory beyond the head of the bed. If the scene was a blank wall, observers perceived it as a ceiling. However, when intrinsically polarized objects were placed in view, the Figure 12. Mirror bed apparatus of Hu, et al (used with observers perceived their heads permission) as upright, and their bodies tilted by an amount which varied depending on the characteristics of the objects in the scene. The extent of perceived body tilt was used as a measure of visual polarity. Polarized objects placed in the background appeared Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 13 more potent than in the foreground. It was also confirmed that non-polarized objects can inherit a form of “extrinsic” polarity if they appear to be lying on or hanging from other objects. A second type of “extrinsic” polarity derives from the conventional location of certain types of objects. For example, doors and simple window and picture frames are often up-down symmetrical. However their placement relative to adjacent surfaces provides extrinsic polarity cues for surfaces in a vertical plane. We do not expect to see a door in the middle of a wall, or a picture frame positioned close to a floor. It makes sense to think that object polarity depends little on the relative orientation of the object and observer. We must only recognize “what” type of object it is. Relative orientation is probably more important for distinguishing details that allow an observer to distinguish “which” specific member of a class an object is. 4.4 Interaction between Gravity, Polarity, Frame, and Idiotropic Cues. The “rules” describing how G, F, P, and M cues in various directions are combined under 1-G conditions have been defined in experiments where observers have been viewed the interior of tilted furnished rooms. The interiors were fitted with anchored tables, desks, bookshelves, and other props etc. so as to provide strong frame and polarity cues. Probably for practical reasons, most of the testing has been done with the observers and rooms tilted less than 30 degrees from the gravitational vertical (Kleint, 1936; Asch and Witkin, 1948; Singer, et al, 1970). As in the Rod and Frame experiments, the indicated subjective vertical represents a compromise between the gravitational and frame/polarity directions. Howard and Childerson (1994) tested at larger room tilt angles, and found that the SV was deviated toward the floor-ceiling-wall closest to being beneath their feet, but not to the diagonals (as in their frame experiments described in Sect. 4.2 above). The subjects were not asked whether the subjective identities of the floor-wall-ceiling surfaces exchanged as the room rotated into various positions, but in retrospect, and after trying it ourselves, Ian and I are almost certain they did, and thus experienced VRIs analogous to those of astronauts. Subsequently, Howard and Hu (2000) also tested at the 90 and 180 degree extremes of body tilt. We knew from earlier experiments (e.g. Young, Oman and Dichgans, 1975) that pitch and roll angular self-motion illusions (vection) was enhanced when the observer’s head and body were supine or inverted. But we were still surprised to discover that when Howard and Hu’s observers were gravitationally supine or inverted, and the room polarity vector was aligned with their body axis M vector, a substantial fraction felt gravitationally upright in the motionless room ! It was as if gravireceptor information was being discounted when the head-body axis was not in the familiar gravitationally upright position. The subjective vertical seemed to be closely aligned with the coaligned idiotropic, visual polarity, and visual frame axes. This sort “capture” was reminiscent of what we think happens to the astronauts. Not all subjects felt this, of course. Some still felt oriented with respect to gravity, and others said their perceptions seemed to switch back and forth in a confusing way between the two rival interpretations. It was also amusing that if gravitationally supine but subjectively upright observers extended their arms gravitationally upward, the arms felt oddly levitated, as if floating. It felt different than extending your arms while lying supine in bed at home in a gravitationally upright visual environment. Ian refers to this special sensation as a “levitation” illusion. Howard, Jenkin and Hu (2000) also showed that the incidence of “levitation” illusion increases as a function of age. We cannot be sure whether the latter is due to increased experience with polarity cues as one ages, senescent loss of vestibular receptor sensitivity, or both. O Page 14 4.5 eightlessness. Many astronauts have asked us “isn’t it strang htlessness, even though dropped objects don’t fall whether t , everyone maintains an e anchor for our hierarchically org s are – the latter is sometimes called a “spatial framework”. s are, look and reach for thing relative orientation. stem of animals on Earth (O’Keefe 1976; Taube et al, 1990) believe that the human sense of place and direction is neurally Taube showed that prominent visual landmarks can reorient our sense of direction within this horiz orientation of this plane is anchored by monitored rat head direction cells in parabolic flig behavi cont or walls of the test chamber. allocentric reference frames sometimes – but not alway was walking weig These animal ex allocentric reference direction at the neural level, represented by model. identity di can cause the orientation of the horiz individual, “down” is either along 6). the observer ex associated with the local visual vertical V, but with an unseen outside coordinate frame, and man York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Animal and Human Visual Orientation Experiments in W e that we still have a vertical in weig ?” Certainly, but since an astronaut’s job requires knowing hey are facing forward or aft, port or starboard in the spacecraft xocentric (allocentric) reference frame. This frame is the anized set of knowedge and visual memories for where thing The framework lets us remember where thing s in the correct direction, and mentally visualize unseen parts of the vehicle in correct Based on recordings from place and direction cells in the limbic sy coded in a gravitationally horizontal plane. ontal plane. Normally, the gravity. We (Taube, et al, 1999, 2000) recently ht, and Knierim, et al (2000) studied place cell or in orbital flight. Both experiments confirmed that place and direction cells usually inue to maintain allocentric place and directional coding when the animals walk on the floor However in both experiments, there was evidence that the s - reoriented onto the surface the animal on. Apparently humans are not the only animals who experience VRIs in htlessness. periments strongly support the notion that the human CNS also maintains an the SV direction in the present It makes sense to think that the CNS uses this SV direction to determine the perceptual of ambiguous nonpolarized surfaces in the visual surround. However, since the SV rection is not “anchored” by gravity, idiotropic and gravireceptor bias and visual polarity cues ontal reference plane to suddenly shift. Depending on the the body axis, or perpendicular to the subjective floor (Figure However, if gravireceptor bias is strongly headward, in conflict with the visual vertical V, periences a 0-G Inversion Illusion (Figure 8) by assuming that the SV is no longer describes himself as right side up in an upside down vehicle. In 1998 we had the opportunity to quantify how frame and polarity cues affected the SV in four astronauts on the STS-90 Neurolab mission (Oman, et al, 2000). For practical reasons, we could not use real tilted visual environments, so instead our observers wore a wide field of view (65 deg. x 48 deg.), color stereo head mounted display Figure 13. Neurolab crewmember wearing head Mounted display and spring harness. Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 15 (Figure 13) and viewed a sequence of virtual spacecraft interior scenes (Figure 14), presented at random angles with respect to their body axis. Subjects indicated the SV using a joystick controlled pointer. Responses were categorized as to whether they were aligned within 5 degrees of one of the scene visual axes, the body axis or in between. We defined a metric which gave us a measure of average visual vs. idiotropic dominance across all angles of scene tilt. We tested the subjects preflight and postflight in both a gravitationally upright and supine position. Inflight, we tested them on the third or fourth day of the mission both free floating and while “standing” in spring harness that pulled them down to the deck with an 70 pound force. As we expected, we usually saw “in between” responses only in the 1G conditions. Inflight, responses aligned with either the body axis or one of the scene axes. Based on results of previous and concurrent 0-G linear- and circular-vection experiments (Young, et al, 1996; Oman et al, 2000), which showed increased sensitivity to moving visual scenes, we expected that our observers might also be more reliant on the orientation of frame in polarity cues in motionless visual scenes. One observer who was moderately visually independent on the ground became more visually dependent in flight, and then recovered postflight, after a short period of carry over. He responded to the scene polarity manipulation inflight. But the other three observers – two of whom were strongly “idiotropic” and one of whom was strongly “visual” showed little overall change during or after the flight. The “down” cues from the spring harness did reduce the visual category responses of the two visual observers. None of these observers showed any signs of “inversion illusion” during these flight day 4 tests, although one reported a brief inversion illusion in darkness while a subject in another experiment. Obviously these results are only preliminary. Ultimately we cannot be sure that subjects respond exactly the same way to our virtual environments as they would if we could use real ones. But our results do confirm the notion - suggested by Young et al (1986) and Reschke, et al (1994) based on astronaut debriefs - Figure 14. Stereogram of polarized visual scene used in Neurolab visual orientation experiments. that crewmembers differ markedly in terms of whether they adopt a “visual” or “idiotropic” reference frame in making subjective vertical judgements. We expect to have the opportunity to test more observers over a longer flight duration on International Space Station missions starting in about two years. Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 16 4.6 EVA Height Vertigo. Height vertigo, experienced by many people when standing on top of a high structure, is generally seen as a normal physiological aversive response to a potentially dangerous situation. Symptoms include subjective instability of posture and locomotion, coupled with a fear or sensation of falling, and autonomic symptoms. Brandt, et al (1980) found the intensity of symptoms was greatest when the subject was standing, intermediate when sitting and least when lying. It was strong when there were no stationary objects in front of the subject within 15-20 meters. They noted that when a standing observer looks out over a distant vista, the subtle visual cues resulting from small translations of the body’s center of mass fall below visual threshold. The observer must depend on other vestibular and proprioceptive sources of information to be sure his center of gravity does not slip forward of his point of support. If the subject increases postural reflex gains in response to this uncertainty, his postural sway amplitude may actually increase, increasing his anxiety further. Of course height vertigo is not limited to situations in which subjects stand erect. The training director of a major New England area telephone company has estimated that fully one third of lineman trainees drop out due to height vertigo experienced while learning to climb telephone poles (personal communication). Height workers generally say that habituation usually occurs after repeated, graded exposures. It makes sense to think that EVA height vertigo is triggered by visual reorientation illusions resulting from seeing the Earth “below”, as described in Section 3, and Figure 9. If subjects feel they are “standing” on the end of the Shuttle robot arm looking down at Earth, the lack of visual cues from nearby Shuttle-stationary objects in response to body movement may seem disturbing. Based on this interpretation obvious EVA height vertigo countermeasures include immediately rotating body to face the spacecraft, and if possible working “right side up” relative to the spacecraft with the Earth nadir is in the upper visual vield. Use body and hand restraints in addition to foot restraints may be helpful. Preflight practice with these techniques or even graded preflight habituation of the susceptible is possible, but the use of virtual reality techniques may be required since using conventional underwater EVA training techniques, the pool walls nearby are readily visible . 4.7 3D spatial memory and navigation difficulties. Given that the interior architectures of space station modules and nodes are so symmetrical, and VRIs happen often, is not surprising crewmembers occasionally have difficulty maintaining a exocentric reference frame veridically aligned with the vehicle. However there is a second problem which relates to the way that we establish local spatial frameworks, and the difficulty we apparently have in vehicles like the Mir station or ISS when we have to turn the spatial frameworks – originally learned in 1-G simulators - over in our minds, connect them together, and make spatial judgements. It is not so easy. Humans appear to choose salient spatial reference points to define a “spatial framework” and use this to remember the location of other objects and places in hierarchical fashion (Sadalla, et al, 1980; McNamara, 1986, Franklin and Tversky, 1990), often employing their body axes to help establish referent directions. Observers can use mental imagery to change viewpoint location and direction. Creem, et al (in press) recently found that observers can more easily rotate memories of previously seen external object arrays about their body axis – perhaps because we have do it in everyday life – though the relative orientation of the gravity vector was unimportant. We recently studied how observers establish a spatial framework inside a cubic virtual room and recognize targets after the room had been rotated 90 or 180 degrees about any of the three axes, not just the body axis (Oman, et al, submitted). Observers had to memorize the Oman York Conference (2001 in press) 11/2/01 Page 17 relative directions of objects at the center of each wall, and correctly deduce the direction of an unseen target object after the objects located ahead and below were shown as a relative orientation cue. As in Creem et al’s study, performance had little to do with the relative direction of gravity. Those who performed best also performed significantly better on traditional card and cube paper –and-pencil tests of mental rotation ability. Most observers could do the 3D task robustly within 60 trials, but many said they memorized the cube in a particular reference orientation, and employed rules (e.g. remembering opposite pairs, and/or learning the three objects in a specific corner) to assist themselves in determining relative target directions. Taken together, these studies imply that astronauts should anticipate difficulty in situations where they have to mentally rotate the spatial framework of their current module or adjacent modules in order to make spatial judgements, and even greater difficulty making spatial judgements between modules, if the spatial frameworks must be mentally rotated from the orientation learned on the ground in 1-G trainers in order to connect the frameworks together. Further experiments on this question are currently underway in our laboratory. Potential inflight countermeasures for 3D spatial memory and navigation difficulties now under consideration include route and emergency egress path signs; the use of easily remembered icons and colored surfaces to establish spatial reference landmarks and directions in a station rather than module-centric coordinate system; “you-are-here” maps with the major spatial reference landmarks on the interior of each module clearly shown; inflight egress practice sessions; and preflight training using virtual reality techniques so that crewmembers learn how to establish a consistent hierarchical spatial framework for the entire assembly of modules and nodes. 4.8 Conclusion. There is still a great deal that we do not understand about human visual orientation, both on Earth and in weightlessness. Our current models are useful in parsing and understanding the different types of 0-G illusions, but the models can’t yet be used to make quantitiative predictions for individual subjects, since they are largely heuristic and incomplete. For example, we need to better understand the effects of fluid shift and otolith unweighting on the gravireceptor bias terms in our models, and have reliable ways of predicting or measuring their magnitude and time course in 0-G. The orientation model presented in this paper is a simple one, and does not include the effects of surface contact forces, which can have a major effect when present. We also know that visual and vestibular angular velocity cues influence the SV, and in certain situations can cause static illusions such as “aviator’s leans”, but these effects are omitted from the current model. Why does susceptibility to “levitation” illusion gradually increase with age on Earth ? 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