The Online English Grammar：Anthony.Huge.English4today.The.Online.English.Grammar

分类：外语格式：pdf 日期：2009年05月16日

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ABOUT THIS VERSION
PDF Version 1.1
This full PDF version of the Online English Grammar has a number of
advantages over the version that you can find online for public viewing:
a71 It covers more grammar topics than the online version
a71 You can view it on your desktop as an easy reference guide
a71 It is easy to print out pages from this version using any standard
printer
a71 You can access regular updates to the Online English Grammar now
that you have purchased this copy,All that is required is that you
supply your username and password to begin the download,You will
receive regular emails when new updates are available,The update
subscription is valid for one year from the date you purchased the
item from us.
WHAT ELSE IS PLANNED?
After the outstanding response to our release of the Online English Grammar
as a desktop edition,we are developing a range of new English language
guides and worksheets to help both students and teachers with their English
language requirements,These guides and worksheets will all be available as
downloads from our website at http://www.English4Today.com and you will
be notified of their release as we publish them,At the moment we have the
following under development:
a71 English grammar worksheets for teachers and students
a71 A Writer's Guide to Using English
a71 Writing Letters
a71 A Guide to English Pronunciation
a71 Grammar Games Pack
We are also in the process of working on Version 2.0 of the PDF Version of
the Online English Grammar - adding even more sections,sound files and
exercises.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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MAIN SUBJECT INDEX
1,active/passive equivalents
Keywords,active,passive equivalent
2,as + adjective + as
Keywords,as,adjective
3,as present participle
Keywords,present participle,with verbs of movement with verbs of perception,as adjective with
spend,with waste,with catch,with find,replacing time clause,replacing reason clause
4,certainty
Keywords,certainly,definitely,probably,surely
5,changes of time and place reference
Keywords,time reference,place reference
6,common irregular verbs - group 1
Keywords,irregular verbs
7,common irregular verbs - group 2
Keywords,irregular verbs
8,common irregular verbs - group 3
Keywords,irregular verbs
9,comparative + than
Keywords,comparative,than,adjective
10,comparative form
Keywords,comparative,adverbs
11,comparatives & superlatives
Keywords,comparatives,superlatives,adjectives
12,comparisons of quantity - showing no difference
Keywords,quantity,comparison,adjective,difference
13,comparisons of quantity - menu
Keywords,quantity,comparison,adjective
14,comparisons of quantity - showing difference
Keywords,quantity,comparison,adjective,difference
15,compound nouns
Keywords,compound nouns,phrasal verbs
16,countable & uncountable
Keywords,countable,uncountable,noun
17,defining relative clauses
Keywords,defining relative clauses
18,defining words - which,whose
Keywords,which,whose
19,degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc
Keywords,enough,very,too,extremely,almost,nearly,completely
20,demonstratives - this,that,these,those etc
Keywords,this,that,these,those,determiners
21,difference words - other,another
Keywords,other,another
22,distributives - all,both,half
Keywords,all,both,half,distributives,determiners
23,distributives - each,every,either,neither
Keywords,each,every,either,neither
24,distributives - menu
Keywords,all,both,half,each,every,either,neither
25,examples
Keywords,get,got,getting
26,exceptions to using the definite article
Keywords,no definite article,determiner,exceptions
27,form - adjectives
Keywords,gender,position,form,adjective
28,form - adverb
Keywords,adverb,form
29,form -past
Keywords,be + past participle
30,form,with or without 'to'
Keywords,to-infinitive,zero infinitive
31,function
Keywords,order,adjectives,function
32,function
Keywords,adverb,function
33,function
Keywords,function,infinitive of purpose,infinitive as subject,infinitive after adjectives,infinitive
with too/enough
34,function
Keywords,unknown agent,subject,by formal/scientific texts
35,future continuous
Keywords,future,actions in progress
36,future forms - introduction
Keywords,future,attitude
37,future forms - simple future
Keywords,will/shall,prediction,decision,future facts,certainty
38,future perfect
Keywords,future,completed actions
39,future perfect continuous
Keywords,unfinished,future time
40,future with 'going to'
Keywords,plans,intentions
41,gerund or infinitive?
Keywords,gerund/infinitive-,no difference in meaning
42,gerund/infinitive - difference in meaning
Keywords,gerund/infinitive,difference in meaning
43,gerunds
Keywords,gerund,as subject,after prepositions,after phrasal verbs,in compound nouns,can't
stand.can't help
44,get,got,getting
Keywords,get,got,getting
45,get/have something done,x needs doing
Keywords,get,need
46,if sentences with conditional perfect continuous
Keywords,conditional perfect continuous
47,if sentences with if + past,would,present condtional
Keywords,if + past,would,present condtional
48,if sentences with if,condtional tenses
Keywords,if,condtional tenses
49,if sentences with if+not,unless,verbs
Keywords,if+not,unless,verbs
50,if sentences with mixed conditionals
Keywords,mixed conditionals
51,if sentences with perfect conditional,if + past perfect
Keywords,perfect conditional,if + past perfect
52,if sentences with wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
Keywords,wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
53,if setences with present continuous conditional
Keywords,present continuous conditional
54,infinitive after question words
Keywords,infinitive,question words
55,interrogative - why,where,how,when
Keywords,why,where,how,when
56,introduction - defining relative clauses,non-defining relative clauses
Keywords,defining relative clauses,non-defining relative clauses
57,introduction - irregular verbs
Keywords,verbs,irregular
58,introduction - present participle,gerund
Keywords,present participle,gerund
59,introduction - reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
Keywords,reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
60,irregular comparatives & superlatives
Keywords,irregular comparatives,superlatives,adjectives
61,list of common irregular verb
Keywords,irregular,verbs
62,main menu - adjectives
Keywords,adjectives
63,main menu - adverbs
Keywords,adverbs
64,manner - adverbs
Keywords,adverbs,manner
65,menu - function and class
Keywords,determiners,function,class,pre-determiners
66,menu - kinds of adverbs
Keywords,kinds,adverbs
67,menu - nouns
Keywords,nouns
68,menu - quantifiers
Keywords,much,many,a little,a few,some,any
69,menu / introduction
Keywords,menu,introduction,tenses
70,nationalities
Keywords,nationalities,country,nouns
71,negative infinitive
Keywords,negative infinitive
72,non-defining relative clauses
Keywords,relative clauses,non-defining
73,not as + adjective + as
Keywords,not,as,so,not as,not so,adjective
74,noun gender
Keywords,gender,masculine,feminine,noun
75,order of adjectives
Keywords,order,adjectives
76,other forms of future
Keywords,is to,obligation,about to,immediate future
77,other forms of infinitive
Keywords,perfect infinitive,continuous infinitive,passive infinitive,perfect continuous infinitive
78,past continuous
Keywords,past continuous,description,narrative
79,past perfect
Keywords,past perfect,just
80,past perfect continuous
Keywords,past perfect continuous,process,reported speech
81,place,adverbs of place
Keywords,adverbs,place
82,plurals
Keywords,singular plural,irregular plural,noun
83,possessive
Keywords,possessive,time expressions,apostrophe,names,possessive
84,possessives
Keywords,possessive adjectives,possessive pronouns,my,mine,your,yours,his,her,hers,our,
ours,their,theirs
85,pre-determiners
Keywords,such,what,rather,quite
86,prepositions in relative clauses
Keywords,prepositions,relative clauses
87,present continuous
Keywords,-ing,verbs,tenses,present participle,verbs not used in continuous form
88,present continuous for future events
Keywords,arrangements,future
89,present perfect 1
Keywords,present perfect,past participle,irregular verbs
90,present perfect 2
Keywords,present perfect,ever,never,already,yet
91,present perfect 3
Keywords,present perfect,simple past,time,attitude
92,present perfect 4
Keywords,present perfect,for,since
93,present perfect continous
Keywords,present perfect continous,present participle
94,quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little
Keywords,determiners,a few,few,a little,little
95,quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc,
Keywords,many,much,more,most,little,less,least,few,fewer,fewest
96,quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc,
Keywords,how,much,many,few,lot,number,several,countable,uncountable
97,quantifiers 4 - numbers
Keywords,cardinal,ordinal,fractions,decimals,units,years,zero
98,quantifiers 5 - some and any
Keywords,determiners,quantifiers,some,any
99,quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc,
Keywords,something,somebody,someone,somewhere,anything,anybody,anyone,anywhere,
nothing,nobody,noone,nowhere,
100,quantifiers 7 - enough
Keywords,enough,quantifiers,determiners
101,question words - which,what,whose
Keywords,which,what,whose
102,relative adverbs - which,what,whose
Keywords,where,when,why
103,reporting hopes and intentions
Keywords,hopes,intentions,to-infinitive,that-clause
104,reporting orders,requests,suggestions
Keywords,orders,requests,suggestions,should - omission,that-clause
105,reporting questions
Keywords,reporting yes/no questions,reporting questions with question words
106,simple past
Keywords,simple past,form,function,irregular verbs,irregular verbs,auxiliary 'did',ago
107,simple present
Keywords,verbs,tenses,present simple
108,simple present for future events
Keywords,future,facts,timetable,calendar
109,summary
Keywords,verb tenses,present tenses,perfect tenses,conditional tenses,past tenses,future tenses
110,summary of reporting verbs
Keywords,summary,reporting verbs,to-infintive,that-clause
111,tense changes
Keywords,reported speech,tense changes
112,the + superlative
Keywords,the,superlative,adjectives
113,the definite article
Keywords,the,definite article
114,the indefinite article
Keywords,the,indefinite article,a,an
115,the,a,an
Keywords,the,a,an,indefinite article,exceptions
116,time,adverbs of
Keywords,adverbs,time
117,type 1 conditional
Keywords,if + present + future,fact
118,use of capital letters
Keywords,capital letters,names,months,days,holidays,seasons,geographical,names,streets,
buildings,titles of books,nouns
119,verbs + infinitive with/without noun
Keywords,verb with or without noun + infinitive
120,verbs followed by gerund
Keywords,verb + gerund
121,verbs followed by infinitive
Keywords,verbs + infinitive without a noun
122,verbs followed by noun + infinitive
Keywords,verb + noun + infinitive
123,viewpoint,commenting
Keywords,adverbs,viewpoint,commenting
124,zero conditional
Keywords,if + present,general truths,instructions
125,zero infinitive
Keywords,zero infinitive
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
General
About the author
Which English?
Ask our English teachers a question
Visit the members' section of the English4Today website
Adjectives
as + adjective + as
comparative + than
comparatives & superlatives
comparisons of quantity - showing no difference
comparisons of quantity - menu
comparisons of quantity - showing difference
form - adjectives
function
irregular comparatives & superlatives
main menu - adjectives
not as + adjective + as
order of adjectives
the + superlative
Adverbs
certainty
comparative form
degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc
form - adverb
function
interrogative - why,where,how,when
main menu - adverbs
manner - adverbs
menu - kinds of adverbs
place,adverbs of place
relative adverbs - which,what,whose
time,adverbs of
viewpoint,commenting
Determiners
defining words - which,whose
demonstratives - this,that,these,those etc
difference words - other,another
distributives - all,both,half
distributives - each,every,either,neither
distributives - menu
exceptions to using the definite article
menu - function and class
menu - quantifiers
possessives
pre-determiners
quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little
quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc,
quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc,
quantifiers 4 - numbers
quantifiers 5 - some and any
quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc,
quantifiers 7 - enough
question words - which,what,whose
the definite article
the indefinite article
the,a,an
Direct and Indirect Speech
changes of time and place reference
introduction - reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
reporting hopes and intentions
reporting orders,requests,suggestions
reporting questions
summary of reporting verbs
tense changes
-ING Form
as present participle
gerund or infinitive?
gerund/infinitive - difference in meaning
gerunds
introduction - present participle,gerund
verbs followed by gerund
Irregular Verbs
common irregular verbs - group 1
common irregular verbs - group 2
common irregular verbs - group 3
introduction - irregular verbs
list of common irregular verb
Nouns
compound nouns
countable & uncountable
menu - nouns
nationalities
noun gender
plurals
use of capital letters
Passive
active/passive equivalents
form -past
function
get/have something done,x needs doing
Possessive with 's and '
possessive
Relative Clauses
defining relative clauses
introduction - defining relative clauses,non-defining relative
clauses
non-defining relative clauses
prepositions in relative clauses
The Infinitive
form,with or without 'to'
function
infinitive after question words
negative infinitive
other forms of infinitive
verbs + infinitive with/without noun
verbs followed by infinitive
verbs followed by noun + infinitive
zero infinitive
To Get
examples
get,got,getting
Verbs and Verb Tenses
future continuous
future forms - introduction
future forms - simple future
future perfect
future perfect continuous
future with 'going to'
if sentences with conditional perfect continuous
if sentences with if + past,would,present condtional
if sentences with if,condtional tenses
if sentences with if+not,unless,verbs
if sentences with mixed conditionals
if sentences with perfect conditional,if + past perfect
if sentences with wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
if setences with present continuous conditional
menu / introduction
other forms of future
past continuous
past perfect
past perfect continuous
present continuous
present continuous for future events
present perfect 1
present perfect 2
present perfect 3
present perfect 4
present perfect continous
simple past
simple present
simple present for future events
summary
type 1 conditional
zero conditional
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
A
Your search for items starting with the letter 'A' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
irregular comparatives & superlatives Keywords,irregular
comparatives,superlatives,adjectives
main menu - adjectives Keywords,adjectives
comparisons of quantity - menu Keywords,quantity,comparison,
adjective
not as + adjective + as Keywords,not,as,so,not as,not so,adjective
as + adjective + as Keywords,as,adjective
the + superlative Keywords,the,superlative,adjectives
comparisons of quantity - showing difference Keywords,quantity,
comparison,adjective,difference
comparisons of quantity - showing no difference Keywords,
quantity,comparison,adjective,difference
comparatives & superlatives Keywords,comparatives,superlatives,
adjectives
order of adjectives Keywords,order,adjectives
function Keywords,order,adjectives,function
form - adjectives Keywords,gender,position,form,adjective
comparative + than Keywords,comparative,than,adjective
Adverbs
comparative form Keywords,comparative,adverbs
manner - adverbs Keywords,adverbs,manner
form - adverb Keywords,adverb,form
certainty Keywords,certainly,definitely,probably,surely
time,adverbs of Keywords,adverbs,time
relative adverbs - which,what,whose Keywords,where,when,why
interrogative - why,where,how,when Keywords,why,where,
how,when
function Keywords,adverb,function
viewpoint,commenting Keywords,adverbs,viewpoint,commenting
place,adverbs of place Keywords,adverbs,place
degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc Keywords,
enough,very,too,extremely,almost,nearly,completely
menu - kinds of adverbs Keywords,kinds,adverbs
main menu - adverbs Keywords,adverbs
Determiners
possessives Keywords,possessive adjectives,possessive pronouns,my,
mine,your,yours,his,her,hers,our,ours,their,theirs
exceptions to using the definite article Keywords,no definite
article,determiner,exceptions
the,a,an Keywords,the,a,an,indefinite article,exceptions
distributives - menu Keywords,all,both,half,each,every,either,
neither
difference words - other,another Keywords,other,another
distributives - all,both,half Keywords,all,both,half,distributives,
determiners
the indefinite article Keywords,the,indefinite article,a,an
quantifiers 5 - some and any Keywords,determiners,quantifiers,
some,any
quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc,Keywords,
something,somebody,someone,somewhere,anything,anybody,anyone,
anywhere,nothing,nobody,noone,nowhere,
the definite article Keywords,the,definite article
-ING Form
as present participle Keywords,present participle,with verbs of
movement with verbs of perception,as adjective with spend,with waste,
with catch,with find,replacing time clause,replacing reason clause
Passive
active/passive equivalents Keywords,active,passive equivalent
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
B
Your search for items starting with the letter 'B' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Determiners
distributives - all,both,half Keywords,all,both,half,distributives,
determiners
distributives - menu Keywords,all,both,half,each,every,either,
neither
Passive
form -past Keywords,be + past participle
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
C
Your search for items starting with the letter 'C' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
irregular comparatives & superlatives Keywords,irregular
comparatives,superlatives,adjectives
comparatives & superlatives Keywords,comparatives,superlatives,
adjectives
comparative + than Keywords,comparative,than,adjective
comparisons of quantity - showing difference Keywords,quantity,
comparison,adjective,difference
comparisons of quantity - showing no difference Keywords,
quantity,comparison,adjective,difference
comparisons of quantity - menu Keywords,quantity,comparison,
adjective
Adverbs
comparative form Keywords,comparative,adverbs
certainty Keywords,certainly,definitely,probably,surely
viewpoint,commenting Keywords,adverbs,viewpoint,commenting
Determiners
quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc,Keywords,
something,somebody,someone,somewhere,anything,anybody,anyone,
anywhere,nothing,nobody,noone,nowhere,
menu - function and class Keywords,determiners,function,class,pre-
determiners
quantifiers 4 - numbers Keywords,cardinal,ordinal,fractions,
decimals,units,years,zero
quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc,Keywords,how,
much,many,few,lot,number,several,countable,uncountable
Direct and Indirect Speech
changes of time and place reference Keywords,time reference,
place reference
Irregular Verbs
common irregular verbs - group 3 Keywords,irregular verbs
common irregular verbs - group 1 Keywords,irregular verbs
common irregular verbs - group 2 Keywords,irregular verbs
Nouns
nationalities Keywords,nationalities,country,nouns
use of capital letters Keywords,capital letters,names,months,days,
holidays,seasons,geographical,names,streets,buildings,titles of books,
nouns
countable & uncountable Keywords,countable,uncountable,noun
compound nouns Keywords,compound nouns,phrasal verbs
Relative Clauses
introduction - defining relative clauses,non-defining relative
clauses Keywords,defining relative clauses,non-defining relative clauses
prepositions in relative clauses Keywords,prepositions,relative
clauses
non-defining relative clauses Keywords,relative clauses,non-
defining
Verbs and Verb Tenses
type 1 conditional Keywords,if + present + future,fact
present continuous Keywords,-ing,verbs,tenses,present participle,
verbs not used in continuous form
future continuous Keywords,future,actions in progress
zero conditional Keywords,if + present,general truths,instructions
if sentences with if + past,would,present condtional Keywords,
if + past,would,present condtional
if setences with present continuous conditional Keywords,
present continuous conditional
if sentences with perfect conditional,if + past perfect Keywords,
perfect conditional,if + past perfect
if sentences with conditional perfect continuous Keywords,
conditional perfect continuous
if sentences with mixed conditionals Keywords,mixed conditionals
if sentences with if,condtional tenses Keywords,if,condtional
tenses
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
D
Your search for items starting with the letter 'D' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adverbs
degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc Keywords,
enough,very,too,extremely,almost,nearly,completely
Determiners
quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc,Keywords,many,
much,more,most,little,less,least,few,fewer,fewest
defining words - which,whose Keywords,which,whose
question words - which,what,whose Keywords,which,what,whose
difference words - other,another Keywords,other,another
distributives - each,every,either,neither Keywords,each,every,
either,neither
distributives - menu Keywords,all,both,half,each,every,either,
neither
menu - function and class Keywords,determiners,function,class,pre-
determiners
quantifiers 7 - enough Keywords,enough,quantifiers,determiners
menu - quantifiers Keywords,much,many,a little,a few,some,any
possessives Keywords,possessive adjectives,possessive pronouns,my,
mine,your,yours,his,her,hers,our,ours,their,theirs
demonstratives - this,that,these,those etc Keywords,this,that,
these,those,determiners
exceptions to using the definite article Keywords,no definite
article,determiner,exceptions
the,a,an Keywords,the,a,an,indefinite article,exceptions
the definite article Keywords,the,definite article
quantifiers 4 - numbers Keywords,cardinal,ordinal,fractions,
decimals,units,years,zero
distributives - all,both,half Keywords,all,both,half,distributives,
determiners
quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc,Keywords,
something,somebody,someone,somewhere,anything,anybody,anyone,
anywhere,nothing,nobody,noone,nowhere,
quantifiers 5 - some and any Keywords,determiners,quantifiers,
some,any
quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little Keywords,
determiners,a few,few,a little,little
quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc,Keywords,how,
much,many,few,lot,number,several,countable,uncountable
the indefinite article Keywords,the,indefinite article,a,an
pre-determiners Keywords,such,what,rather,quite
Direct and Indirect Speech
reporting hopes and intentions Keywords,hopes,intentions,to-
infinitive,that-clause
summary of reporting verbs Keywords,summary,reporting verbs,to-
infintive,that-clause
reporting orders,requests,suggestions Keywords,orders,requests,
suggestions,should - omission,that-clause
reporting questions Keywords,reporting yes/no questions,reporting
questions with question words
changes of time and place reference Keywords,time reference,
place reference
tense changes Keywords,reported speech,tense changes
introduction - reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
Keywords,reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
Passive
get/have something done,x needs doing Keywords,get,need
Relative Clauses
non-defining relative clauses Keywords,relative clauses,non-
defining
defining relative clauses Keywords,defining relative clauses
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
E
Your search for items starting with the letter 'E' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adverbs
degree - enough,very,too,extremely,almost etc Keywords,
enough,very,too,extremely,almost,nearly,completely
Determiners
distributives - each,every,either,neither Keywords,each,every,
either,neither
quantifiers 7 - enough Keywords,enough,quantifiers,determiners
exceptions to using the definite article Keywords,no definite
article,determiner,exceptions
the,a,an Keywords,the,a,an,indefinite article,exceptions
To Get
examples Keywords,get,got,getting
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
F
Your search for items starting with the letter 'F' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
form - adjectives Keywords,gender,position,form,adjective
function Keywords,order,adjectives,function
Adverbs
function Keywords,adverb,function
form - adverb Keywords,adverb,form
comparative form Keywords,comparative,adverbs
Determiners
quantifiers 4 - numbers Keywords,cardinal,ordinal,fractions,
decimals,units,years,zero
quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc,Keywords,many,
much,more,most,little,less,least,few,fewer,fewest
menu - function and class Keywords,determiners,function,class,pre-
determiners
quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little Keywords,
determiners,a few,few,a little,little
-ING Form
introduction - present participle,gerund Keywords,present
participle,gerund
Nouns
noun gender Keywords,gender,masculine,feminine,noun
Passive
form -past Keywords,be + past participle
function Keywords,unknown agent,subject,by formal/scientific texts
The Infinitive
verbs followed by infinitive Keywords,verbs + infinitive without a
noun
form,with or without 'to' Keywords,to-infinitive,zero infinitive
function Keywords,function,infinitive of purpose,infinitive as subject,
infinitive after adjectives,infinitive with too/enough
other forms of infinitive Keywords,perfect infinitive,continuous
infinitive,passive infinitive,perfect continuous infinitive
Verbs and Verb Tenses
future continuous Keywords,future,actions in progress
future forms - introduction Keywords,future,attitude
future with 'going to' Keywords,plans,intentions
future perfect Keywords,future,completed actions
future perfect continuous Keywords,unfinished,future time
other forms of future Keywords,is to,obligation,about to,immediate
future
future forms - simple future Keywords,will/shall,prediction,
decision,future facts,certainty
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
G
Your search for items starting with the letter 'G' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
form - adjectives Keywords,gender,position,form,adjective
-ING Form
gerund/infinitive - difference in meaning Keywords,
gerund/infinitive,difference in meaning
gerund or infinitive? Keywords,gerund/infinitive-,no difference in
meaning
verbs followed by gerund Keywords,verb + gerund
gerunds Keywords,gerund,as subject,after prepositions,after phrasal
verbs,in compound nouns,can't stand.can't help
Nouns
noun gender Keywords,gender,masculine,feminine,noun
Passive
get/have something done,x needs doing Keywords,get,need
To Get
examples Keywords,get,got,getting
get,got,getting Keywords,get,got,getting
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
H
Your search for items starting with the letter 'H' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Determiners
distributives - all,both,half Keywords,all,both,half,distributives,
determiners
distributives - menu Keywords,all,both,half,each,every,either,
neither
Direct and Indirect Speech
reporting hopes and intentions Keywords,hopes,intentions,to-
infinitive,that-clause
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
I
Your search for items starting with the letter 'I' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
irregular comparatives & superlatives Keywords,irregular
comparatives,superlatives,adjectives
Adverbs
interrogative - why,where,how,when Keywords,why,where,
how,when
Determiners
the,a,an Keywords,the,a,an,indefinite article,exceptions
the indefinite article Keywords,the,indefinite article,a,an
Direct and Indirect Speech
summary of reporting verbs Keywords,summary,reporting verbs,to-
infintive,that-clause
reporting hopes and intentions Keywords,hopes,intentions,to-
infinitive,that-clause
reporting orders,requests,suggestions Keywords,orders,requests,
suggestions,should - omission,that-clause
changes of time and place reference Keywords,time reference,
place reference
tense changes Keywords,reported speech,tense changes
introduction - reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
Keywords,reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
-ING Form
verbs followed by gerund Keywords,verb + gerund
introduction - present participle,gerund Keywords,present
participle,gerund
gerunds Keywords,gerund,as subject,after prepositions,after phrasal
verbs,in compound nouns,can't stand.can't help
gerund or infinitive? Keywords,gerund/infinitive-,no difference in
meaning
gerund/infinitive - difference in meaning Keywords,
gerund/infinitive,difference in meaning
as present participle Keywords,present participle,with verbs of
movement with verbs of perception,as adjective with spend,with waste,
with catch,with find,replacing time clause,replacing reason clause
Irregular Verbs
introduction - irregular verbs Keywords,verbs,irregular
list of common irregular verb Keywords,irregular,verbs
common irregular verbs - group 1 Keywords,irregular verbs
common irregular verbs - group 3 Keywords,irregular verbs
common irregular verbs - group 2 Keywords,irregular verbs
Relative Clauses
introduction - defining relative clauses,non-defining relative
clauses Keywords,defining relative clauses,non-defining relative clauses
The Infinitive
negative infinitive Keywords,negative infinitive
infinitive after question words Keywords,infinitive,question words
function Keywords,function,infinitive of purpose,infinitive as subject,
infinitive after adjectives,infinitive with too/enough
other forms of infinitive Keywords,perfect infinitive,continuous
infinitive,passive infinitive,perfect continuous infinitive
verbs followed by infinitive Keywords,verbs + infinitive without a
noun
verbs followed by noun + infinitive Keywords,verb + noun +
infinitive
verbs + infinitive with/without noun Keywords,verb with or
without noun + infinitive
zero infinitive Keywords,zero infinitive
form,with or without 'to' Keywords,to-infinitive,zero infinitive
Verbs and Verb Tenses
if sentences with mixed conditionals Keywords,mixed conditionals
menu / introduction Keywords,menu,introduction,tenses
if sentences with if,condtional tenses Keywords,if,condtional
tenses
zero conditional Keywords,if + present,general truths,instructions
type 1 conditional Keywords,if + present + future,fact
if sentences with if + past,would,present condtional Keywords,
if + past,would,present condtional
if setences with present continuous conditional Keywords,
present continuous conditional
if sentences with conditional perfect continuous Keywords,
conditional perfect continuous
if sentences with if+not,unless,verbs Keywords,if+not,unless,
verbs
if sentences with wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
Keywords,wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
if sentences with perfect conditional,if + past perfect Keywords,
perfect conditional,if + past perfect
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
J
Your search for items starting with the letter 'J' has not returned any related
items,You may have better luck with a keyword search using the keyword
search box,
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
K
Your search for items starting with the letter 'K' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adverbs
menu - kinds of adverbs Keywords,kinds,adverbs
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
L
Your search for items starting with the letter 'L' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Determiners
quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little Keywords,
determiners,a few,few,a little,little
quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc,Keywords,many,
much,more,most,little,less,least,few,fewer,fewest
Irregular Verbs
list of common irregular verb Keywords,irregular,verbs
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
M
Your search for items starting with the letter 'M' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
main menu - adjectives Keywords,adjectives
Adverbs
menu - kinds of adverbs Keywords,kinds,adverbs
main menu - adverbs Keywords,adverbs
manner - adverbs Keywords,adverbs,manner
Determiners
distributives - menu Keywords,all,both,half,each,every,either,
neither
quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc,Keywords,many,
much,more,most,little,less,least,few,fewer,fewest
menu - quantifiers Keywords,much,many,a little,a few,some,any
menu - function and class Keywords,determiners,function,class,pre-
determiners
Nouns
menu - nouns Keywords,nouns
noun gender Keywords,gender,masculine,feminine,noun
Verbs and Verb Tenses
menu / introduction Keywords,menu,introduction,tenses
if sentences with mixed conditionals Keywords,mixed conditionals
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
N
Your search for items starting with the letter 'N' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
not as + adjective + as Keywords,not,as,so,not as,not so,adjective
Determiners
quantifiers 4 - numbers Keywords,cardinal,ordinal,fractions,
decimals,units,years,zero
quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc,Keywords,how,
much,many,few,lot,number,several,countable,uncountable
distributives - each,every,either,neither Keywords,each,every,
either,neither
quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc,Keywords,
something,somebody,someone,somewhere,anything,anybody,anyone,
anywhere,nothing,nobody,noone,nowhere,
Nouns
plurals Keywords,singular plural,irregular plural,noun
countable & uncountable Keywords,countable,uncountable,noun
compound nouns Keywords,compound nouns,phrasal verbs
use of capital letters Keywords,capital letters,names,months,days,
holidays,seasons,geographical,names,streets,buildings,titles of books,
nouns
noun gender Keywords,gender,masculine,feminine,noun
menu - nouns Keywords,nouns
nationalities Keywords,nationalities,country,nouns
Relative Clauses
non-defining relative clauses Keywords,relative clauses,non-
defining
The Infinitive
negative infinitive Keywords,negative infinitive
verbs followed by noun + infinitive Keywords,verb + noun +
infinitive
verbs + infinitive with/without noun Keywords,verb with or
without noun + infinitive
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
O
Your search for items starting with the letter 'O' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
order of adjectives Keywords,order,adjectives
function Keywords,order,adjectives,function
Determiners
difference words - other,another Keywords,other,another
quantifiers 4 - numbers Keywords,cardinal,ordinal,fractions,
decimals,units,years,zero
Direct and Indirect Speech
reporting orders,requests,suggestions Keywords,orders,requests,
suggestions,should - omission,that-clause
The Infinitive
other forms of infinitive Keywords,perfect infinitive,continuous
infinitive,passive infinitive,perfect continuous infinitive
Verbs and Verb Tenses
other forms of future Keywords,is to,obligation,about to,immediate
future
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
P
Your search for items starting with the letter 'P' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adverbs
place,adverbs of place Keywords,adverbs,place
Determiners
menu - function and class Keywords,determiners,function,class,pre-
determiners
pre-determiners Keywords,such,what,rather,quite
possessives Keywords,possessive adjectives,possessive pronouns,my,
mine,your,yours,his,her,hers,our,ours,their,theirs
-ING Form
as present participle Keywords,present participle,with verbs of
movement with verbs of perception,as adjective with spend,with waste,
with catch,with find,replacing time clause,replacing reason clause
introduction - present participle,gerund Keywords,present
participle,gerund
Nouns
plurals Keywords,singular plural,irregular plural,noun
Passive
form -past Keywords,be + past participle
function Keywords,unknown agent,subject,by formal/scientific texts
get/have something done,x needs doing Keywords,get,need
active/passive equivalents Keywords,active,passive equivalent
Possessive with 's and '
possessive Keywords,possessive,time expressions,apostrophe,names,
possessive
Relative Clauses
prepositions in relative clauses Keywords,prepositions,relative
clauses
defining relative clauses Keywords,defining relative clauses
Verbs and Verb Tenses
past perfect Keywords,past perfect,just
present perfect 1 Keywords,present perfect,past participle,irregular
verbs
present continuous Keywords,-ing,verbs,tenses,present participle,
verbs not used in continuous form
present perfect 2 Keywords,present perfect,ever,never,already,yet
present perfect 3 Keywords,present perfect,simple past,time,
attitude
present perfect 4 Keywords,present perfect,for,since
past continuous Keywords,past continuous,description,narrative
past perfect continuous Keywords,past perfect continuous,process,
reported speech
present continuous for future events Keywords,arrangements,
future
if sentences with wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
Keywords,wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
present perfect continous Keywords,present perfect continous,
present participle
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
Q
Your search for items starting with the letter 'Q' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
comparisons of quantity - showing no difference Keywords,
quantity,comparison,adjective,difference
comparisons of quantity - showing difference Keywords,quantity,
comparison,adjective,difference
comparisons of quantity - menu Keywords,quantity,comparison,
adjective
Determiners
quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc,Keywords,
something,somebody,someone,somewhere,anything,anybody,anyone,
anywhere,nothing,nobody,noone,nowhere,
quantifiers 5 - some and any Keywords,determiners,quantifiers,
some,any
quantifiers 1 - determiners,a few,few,a little,little Keywords,
determiners,a few,few,a little,little
quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc,Keywords,how,
much,many,few,lot,number,several,countable,uncountable
pre-determiners Keywords,such,what,rather,quite
question words - which,what,whose Keywords,which,what,whose
quantifiers 4 - numbers Keywords,cardinal,ordinal,fractions,
decimals,units,years,zero
quantifiers 7 - enough Keywords,enough,quantifiers,determiners
quantifiers 2 - many,much,more,most etc,Keywords,many,
much,more,most,little,less,least,few,fewer,fewest
menu - quantifiers Keywords,much,many,a little,a few,some,any
Direct and Indirect Speech
reporting questions Keywords,reporting yes/no questions,reporting
questions with question words
The Infinitive
infinitive after question words Keywords,infinitive,question words
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
R
Your search for items starting with the letter 'R' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adverbs
relative adverbs - which,what,whose Keywords,where,when,why
Determiners
pre-determiners Keywords,such,what,rather,quite
Direct and Indirect Speech
summary of reporting verbs Keywords,summary,reporting verbs,to-
infintive,that-clause
reporting hopes and intentions Keywords,hopes,intentions,to-
infinitive,that-clause
reporting orders,requests,suggestions Keywords,orders,requests,
suggestions,should - omission,that-clause
reporting questions Keywords,reporting yes/no questions,reporting
questions with question words
changes of time and place reference Keywords,time reference,
place reference
tense changes Keywords,reported speech,tense changes
introduction - reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
Keywords,reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
Relative Clauses
non-defining relative clauses Keywords,relative clauses,non-
defining
prepositions in relative clauses Keywords,prepositions,relative
clauses
defining relative clauses Keywords,defining relative clauses
introduction - defining relative clauses,non-defining relative
clauses Keywords,defining relative clauses,non-defining relative clauses
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
S
Your search for items starting with the letter 'S' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
the + superlative Keywords,the,superlative,adjectives
comparatives & superlatives Keywords,comparatives,superlatives,
adjectives
Determiners
quantifiers 6 - something,somebody,someone etc,Keywords,
something,somebody,someone,somewhere,anything,anybody,anyone,
anywhere,nothing,nobody,noone,nowhere,
quantifiers 5 - some and any Keywords,determiners,quantifiers,
some,any
pre-determiners Keywords,such,what,rather,quite
Direct and Indirect Speech
summary of reporting verbs Keywords,summary,reporting verbs,to-
infintive,that-clause
introduction - reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
Keywords,reported speech,'that',say,tell,talk,speak
Verbs and Verb Tenses
simple present for future events Keywords,future,facts,timetable,
calendar
simple past Keywords,simple past,form,function,irregular verbs,
irregular verbs,auxiliary 'did',ago
simple present Keywords,verbs,tenses,present simple
summary Keywords,verb tenses,present tenses,perfect tenses,
conditional tenses,past tenses,future tenses
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
T
Your search for items starting with the letter 'T' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adjectives
the + superlative Keywords,the,superlative,adjectives
comparative + than Keywords,comparative,than,adjective
Adverbs
time,adverbs of Keywords,adverbs,time
Determiners
the indefinite article Keywords,the,indefinite article,a,an
demonstratives - this,that,these,those etc Keywords,this,that,
these,those,determiners
the,a,an Keywords,the,a,an,indefinite article,exceptions
the definite article Keywords,the,definite article
Direct and Indirect Speech
changes of time and place reference Keywords,time reference,
place reference
tense changes Keywords,reported speech,tense changes
The Infinitive
verbs + infinitive with/without noun Keywords,verb with or
without noun + infinitive
infinitive after question words Keywords,infinitive,question words
negative infinitive Keywords,negative infinitive
zero infinitive Keywords,zero infinitive
other forms of infinitive Keywords,perfect infinitive,continuous
infinitive,passive infinitive,perfect continuous infinitive
form,with or without 'to' Keywords,to-infinitive,zero infinitive
verbs followed by infinitive Keywords,verbs + infinitive without a
noun
verbs followed by noun + infinitive Keywords,verb + noun +
infinitive
function Keywords,function,infinitive of purpose,infinitive as subject,
infinitive after adjectives,infinitive with too/enough
To Get
examples Keywords,get,got,getting
get,got,getting Keywords,get,got,getting
Verbs and Verb Tenses
present perfect continous Keywords,present perfect continous,
present participle
simple present Keywords,verbs,tenses,present simple
future continuous Keywords,future,actions in progress
present continuous Keywords,-ing,verbs,tenses,present participle,
verbs not used in continuous form
present perfect 1 Keywords,present perfect,past participle,irregular
verbs
present perfect 2 Keywords,present perfect,ever,never,already,yet
present perfect 3 Keywords,present perfect,simple past,time,
attitude
present perfect 4 Keywords,present perfect,for,since
summary Keywords,verb tenses,present tenses,perfect tenses,
conditional tenses,past tenses,future tenses
simple past Keywords,simple past,form,function,irregular verbs,
irregular verbs,auxiliary 'did',ago
past continuous Keywords,past continuous,description,narrative
past perfect Keywords,past perfect,just
past perfect continuous Keywords,past perfect continuous,process,
reported speech
future forms - introduction Keywords,future,attitude
future forms - simple future Keywords,will/shall,prediction,
decision,future facts,certainty
present continuous for future events Keywords,arrangements,
future
future with 'going to' Keywords,plans,intentions
menu / introduction Keywords,menu,introduction,tenses
future perfect Keywords,future,completed actions
future perfect continuous Keywords,unfinished,future time
other forms of future Keywords,is to,obligation,about to,immediate
future
type 1 conditional Keywords,if + present + future,fact
simple present for future events Keywords,future,facts,timetable,
calendar
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
U
Your search for items starting with the letter 'U' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Determiners
quantifiers 3 - how,much,many,few,lot etc,Keywords,how,
much,many,few,lot,number,several,countable,uncountable
quantifiers 4 - numbers Keywords,cardinal,ordinal,fractions,
decimals,units,years,zero
Nouns
use of capital letters Keywords,capital letters,names,months,days,
holidays,seasons,geographical,names,streets,buildings,titles of books,
nouns
countable & uncountable Keywords,countable,uncountable,noun
Verbs and Verb Tenses
if sentences with wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
Keywords,wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
V
Your search for items starting with the letter 'V' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adverbs
viewpoint,commenting Keywords,adverbs,viewpoint,commenting
Direct and Indirect Speech
summary of reporting verbs Keywords,summary,reporting verbs,to-
infintive,that-clause
-ING Form
verbs followed by gerund Keywords,verb + gerund
Irregular Verbs
common irregular verbs - group 2 Keywords,irregular verbs
common irregular verbs - group 1 Keywords,irregular verbs
list of common irregular verb Keywords,irregular,verbs
introduction - irregular verbs Keywords,verbs,irregular
common irregular verbs - group 3 Keywords,irregular verbs
The Infinitive
verbs followed by noun + infinitive Keywords,verb + noun +
infinitive
verbs + infinitive with/without noun Keywords,verb with or
without noun + infinitive
verbs followed by infinitive Keywords,verbs + infinitive without a
noun
Verbs and Verb Tenses
present continuous Keywords,-ing,verbs,tenses,present participle,
verbs not used in continuous form
simple past Keywords,simple past,form,function,irregular verbs,
irregular verbs,auxiliary 'did',ago
future forms - introduction Keywords,future,attitude
past perfect continuous Keywords,past perfect continuous,process,
reported speech
past perfect Keywords,past perfect,just
future forms - simple future Keywords,will/shall,prediction,
decision,future facts,certainty
past continuous Keywords,past continuous,description,narrative
present perfect continous Keywords,present perfect continous,
present participle
present perfect 4 Keywords,present perfect,for,since
present perfect 3 Keywords,present perfect,simple past,time,
attitude
present continuous for future events Keywords,arrangements,
future
present perfect 1 Keywords,present perfect,past participle,irregular
verbs
if sentences with if,condtional tenses Keywords,if,condtional
tenses
simple present Keywords,verbs,tenses,present simple
summary Keywords,verb tenses,present tenses,perfect tenses,
conditional tenses,past tenses,future tenses
present perfect 2 Keywords,present perfect,ever,never,already,yet
if sentences with if + past,would,present condtional Keywords,
if + past,would,present condtional
menu / introduction Keywords,menu,introduction,tenses
if sentences with wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
Keywords,wish,would rather,suppose,what if,if only
if sentences with if+not,unless,verbs Keywords,if+not,unless,
verbs
if sentences with mixed conditionals Keywords,mixed conditionals
if sentences with conditional perfect continuous Keywords,
conditional perfect continuous
future perfect continuous Keywords,unfinished,future time
if setences with present continuous conditional Keywords,
present continuous conditional
simple present for future events Keywords,future,facts,timetable,
calendar
type 1 conditional Keywords,if + present + future,fact
zero conditional Keywords,if + present,general truths,instructions
other forms of future Keywords,is to,obligation,about to,immediate
future
future perfect Keywords,future,completed actions
future continuous Keywords,future,actions in progress
future with 'going to' Keywords,plans,intentions
if sentences with perfect conditional,if + past perfect Keywords,
perfect conditional,if + past perfect
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
W
Your search for items starting with the letter 'W' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Adverbs
relative adverbs - which,what,whose Keywords,where,when,why
interrogative - why,where,how,when Keywords,why,where,
how,when
Determiners
pre-determiners Keywords,such,what,rather,quite
defining words - which,whose Keywords,which,whose
question words - which,what,whose Keywords,which,what,whose
The Infinitive
verbs + infinitive with/without noun Keywords,verb with or
without noun + infinitive
form,with or without 'to' Keywords,to-infinitive,zero infinitive
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
X
Your search for items starting with the letter 'X' has not returned any
related items,You may have better luck with a keyword search using the
keyword search box,
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
Y
Your search for items starting with the letter 'Y' has not returned any
related items,You may have better luck with a keyword search using the
keyword search box,
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SEARCH BY ALPHABETICAL LETTER
Z
Your search for items starting with the letter 'Z' has returned the following
list.
The item may appear in the top heading,main sub-heading or in the list of
keywords,
Determiners
quantifiers 4 - numbers Keywords,cardinal,ordinal,fractions,
decimals,units,years,zero
The Infinitive
zero infinitive Keywords,zero infinitive
form,with or without 'to' Keywords,to-infinitive,zero infinitive
Verbs and Verb Tenses
zero conditional Keywords,if + present,general truths,instructions
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THE QUANTIFIERS
NUMBERS
The cardinal numbers (one,two,three,etc.) are adjectives referring to
quantity,and the ordinal numbers (first,second,third,etc.) refer to
distribution.
Number Ordinal Cardinal
1 one first
2 two second
3 three third
4 four fourth
5 five fifth
6 six sixth
7 seven seventh
8 eight eighth
9 nine ninth
10 ten tenth
11 eleven eleventh
12 twelve twelfth
13 thirteen thirteenth
14 fourteen fourteenth
15 fifteen fifteenth
16 sixteen sixteenth
17 seventeen seventeenth
18 eighteen eighteenth
19 nineteen nineteenth
20 twenty twentieth
21 twenty-one twenty-first
22 twenty-two twenty-second
23 twenty-three twenty-third
24 twenty-four twenty-fourth
25 twenty-five twenty-fifth
26 twenty-six twenty-sixth
27 twenty-seven twenty-seventh
28 twenty-eight twenty-eighth
29 twenty-nine twenty-ninth
30 thirty thirtieth
31 thirty-one thirty-first
40 forty fortieth
50 fifty fiftieth
60 sixty sixtieth
70 seventy seventieth
80 eighty eightieth
90 ninety ninetieth
100 one hundred hundredth
500 five hundred five hundredth
1,000 one thousand thousandth
100,000 one hundred thousand hundred thousandth
1,000,000 one million millionth
Examples:
a71 There are twenty-five people in the room.
a71 He was the fourteenth person to win the award since 1934.
a71 Six hundred thousand people were left homeless after the
earthquake.
a71 I must have asked you twenty times to be quiet.
a71 He went to Israel for the third time this year.
Fractions and decimals
Said Written Said
half 0.5 point five
a quarter 0.25 point two five
three quarters 0.75 point seven five
Percentages
Written Said
25% twenty five percent
50% fifty percent
75% seventy five percent
100% a/one hundred percent
Units
Written Said
$1,200 one thousand two hundred
dollars
￡16,486 sixteen thousand four hundred
and eighty-six pounds
545kms five hundred and forty-five
kilometres
$25.35 twenty-five dollars thirty-five
Years
Written Said
1988 Nineteen eighty-eight
1864 Eighteen sixty-four
1999 Nineteen ninety-nine
How to say '0'
nought
used in mathematical expressions and
decimals:
'nought times three equals nought'
0.3 = 'nought point three' (or 'point three')
0.03 = 'point nought three'
zero used in scientific expressions,especially
temperatures:
20
o
C = minus twenty degrees or
twenty degrees below zero
also used to mean 'the lowest point':
'The heavy rain reduced visibility to zero'
'o' (the letter) used in telephone numbers:
0171 390 0062 = 'o one seven one three
nine o double o six two'
nil/nothing used to express the score in games such
as football:
2 - 0 = 'two nil' or 'two nothing'
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DETERMINERS
FUNCTION AND CLASSES OF DETERMINERS
Function
Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the
noun refers to,The word 'people' by itself is a general reference to some
group of human beings,If someone says 'these people',we know which group
they are talking about,and if they say 'a lot of people' we know how big the
group is,
Classes of Determiners
There are several classes of determiners:
Definite and Indefinite articles
the,a,an
Demonstratives
this,that,these,those
Possessives
my,your,his,her,its,our,their
Quantifiers
a few,a little,much,many,a lot of,most,some,any,enough,etc.
Numbers
one,ten,thirty,etc.
Distributives
all,both,half,either,neither,each,every
Difference words
other,another
Question words
Which,what,whose
Defining words
which,whose
The following words are pre-determiners,They go before determiners,such
as articles,such and what,half,rather,quite
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DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES
THE,A,AN
Definite article,THE
Indefinite article,A/AN
Exceptions to using the definite article
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DEFINITE ARTICLE
THE
Articles in English are invariable,That is,they do not change according to
the gender or number of the noun they refer to,e.g,the boy,the woman,
the children
'The' is used:
1,to refer to something which has already been mentioned,
Example,An elephant and a mouse fell in love.
The mouse loved the elephant's long trunk,
and the elephant loved the mouse's tiny nose,
2,when both the speaker and listener know what is being talked about,even
if it has not been mentioned before.
Example,'Where's the bathroom?'
'It's on the first floor.'
3,in sentences or clauses where we define or identify a particular person or
object:
Examples,The man who wrote this book is famous.
'Which car did you scratch?' 'The red one.
My house is the one with a blue door.'
4,to refer to objects we regard as unique:
Examples,the sun,the moon,the world
5,before superlatives and ordinal numbers,(see Adjectives)
Examples,the highest building,the first page,the last
chapter,
6,with adjectives,to refer to a whole group of people:
Examples,the Japanese (see Nouns - Nationalities),the old
7,with names of geographical areas and oceans:
Examples,the Caribbean,the Sahara,the Atlantic
8,with decades,or groups of years:
Example,she grew up in the seventies
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
THE + SUPERLATIVE
'the' is placed before the superlative,
For example,He is the richest man in the world.
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
These adjectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative
forms:
Adjective Comparative Superlative
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
much more most
far further / farther furthest / farthest
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
FORMING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE
Number of syllables Comparative Superlative
one syllable + -er + -est
tall taller tallest
one syllable with the spelling consonant + single vowel + consonant,double the
final consonant,
fat fatter fattest
big bigger biggest
sad sadder saddest
Number of syllables Comparative Superlative
two syllables + -er OR more + adj + -est OR most + adj
ending in,-y,-ly,-ow
ending in,-le,-er or -ure
these common adjectives - handsome,polite,pleasant,common,quiet
happy happier/ more happy happiest/ most happy
yellow yellower/ more yellow yellowest/ most yellow
simple simpler/ more simple simplest/ most simple
tender tenderer/ more tender tenderest/ most tender
If you are not sure,use MORE + OR MOST +
Note,Adjectives ending in '-y' like happy,pretty,busy,sunny,lucky etc:,replace
the -y with -ier or -iest in the comparative and superlative form
busy busier busiest
Number of syllables Comparative Superlative
three syllables or more more + adj most + adj
important more important most important
expensive more expensive most expensive
Examples,
a,A cat is fast,a tiger is faster but a cheetah is the fastest
b,A car is heavy,a truck is heavier,but a train is the heaviest
c,A park bench is comfortable,a restaurant chair is more comfortable,but a sofa
is the most comfortable
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FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES
ORDER
Where a number of adjectives are used together,the order depends on the
function of the adjective,The usual order is:
Value/opinion,Size,Age/Temperature,Shape,Colour,Origin,Material
Value/opinion delicious,lovely,charming
Size small,huge,tiny
Age/Temperature old,hot,young
Shape round,square,rectangular
Colour red,blonde,black
Origin Swedish,Victorian,Chinese
Material plastic,wooden,silver
Examples,
a71 a lovely old red post-box
a71 some small round plastic tables
a71 some charming small silver ornaments
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FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES
FUNCTION
Adjectives tell us more about a noun,They can:
Describe feelings or qualities:
He is a lonely man
They are honest people
Give nationality or origin,
Pierre is French
This clock is German
Our house is Victorian
Tell more about a thing's characteristics:
A wooden table.
The knife is sharp,
Tell us about age:
He's a young man
My coat is very old
Tell us about size and measurement:
John is a tall man.
This is a very long film,
Tell us about colour:
Paul wore a red shirt.
The sunset was crimson and gold,
Tell us about material/what something is made of:
It was a wooden table
She wore a cotton dress
Tell us about shape:
A rectangular box
A square envelope
Express a judgement or a value:
A fantastic film
Grammar is boring.
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FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES
FORM
1,Adjectives are invariable:
They do not change their form depending on the gender or number of the
noun.
A hot potato Some hot potatoes
2,To emphasise or strengthen the meaning of an adjective use 'very' or
'really':
A very hot potato Some really hot potatoes.
(BUT see also Modifiers/Adverbs)
3,Position of adjectives,
a) Usually in front of a noun,A beautiful
girl.
b) After verbs like "to be","to seem","to
look","to taste",
a71 The girl is beautiful
a71 You look tired
a71 This meat tastes funny.
c) After the noun,in some fixed
expressions:
a71 The Princess Royal
a71 The President elect
a71 a court martial
the adjectives involved,present,concerned:
1,I want to see the people involved/concerned (= the people who
have something to do with the matter)
2,Here is a list of the people present (= the people who were in the
building or at the meeting)
Be careful! When these adjectives are used before the noun they have a
different meaning:
a71 An involved discussion = detailed,complex
a71 A concerned father = worried,anxious
a71 The present situation = current,happening now
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ADVERBS - FUNCTION
Adverbs modify,or tell us more about other words,usually verbs:
a71 The bus moved slowly.
a71 The bears ate greedily.
Sometimes they tell us more about adjectives:
a71 You look absolutely fabulous!
They can also modify other adverbs:
a71 She played the violin extremely well.
a71 You're speaking too quietly.
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ADVERBS - MENU
a71 Function
a71 Form
a71 Comparative forms
a71 Kinds of adverbs
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ADVERBS - FORM
1,In most cases,an adverb is formed by adding '-ly' to an
adjective:
Adjective Adverb
cheap
quick
slow
cheaply
quickly
slowly
Examples:
a71 Time goes quickly.
a71 He walked slowly to the door.
a71 She certainly had an interesting life.
a71 He carefully picked up the sleeping child,
If the adjective ends in '-y',replace the 'y' with 'i' and add '-ly':
Adjective Adverb
easy
angry
happy
lucky
easily
angrily
happily
luckily
If the adjective ends in -'able','-ible',or '-le',replace the '-e' with '-y':
Adjective Adverb
probable
terrible
gentle
probably
terribly
gently
If the adjective ends in '-ic',add '-ally':
Adjective Adverb
basic
economic
tragic
basically
economically
tragically
Note,Exception,public - publicly
2,Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective:
Adjective / Adverb
early
fast
hard
high
late
near
straight
wrong
Compare:
a71 It is a fast car.
a71 He drives very fast.
a71 This is a hard exercise.
a71 He works hard.
a71 We saw many high buildings.
a71 The bird flew high in the sky.
3,'Well' and 'good'
'Well' is the adverb that corresponds to the adjective 'good',
Examples:
a71 He is a good student.
a71 He studies well.
a71 She is a good pianist.
a71 She plays the piano well.
a71 They are good swimmers.
a71 They swim well.
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COMPARATIVE FORMS OF ADVERBS
In general,comparative and superlative forms of adverbs are the same as for
adjectives:
a71 add -er or -est to short adverbs:
Adverb Comparative Superlative
hard
late
fast
harder
later
faster
the hardest
the latest
the fastest
Example,
a71 Jim works harder than his brother.
a71 Everyone in the race ran fast,but John ran the fastest of all.
with adverbs ending in -ly,use more for the comparative and most for the
superlative:
Adverb Comparative Superlative
quietly
slowly
seriously
more quietly
more slowly
more seriously
most quietly
most slowly
most seriously
Example,
a71 The teacher spoke more slowly to help us to understand.
a71 Could you sing more quietly please?
Some adverbs have irregular comparative forms:
Adverb Comparative Superlative
badly
far
little
well
worse
farther/further
less
better
worst
farthest/furthest
least
best
Example,
a71 The little boy ran further than his friends,
a71 You're driving worse today than yesterday !
BE CAREFUL! Sometimes 'most' can mean 'very':
a71 We were most grateful for your help
a71 I am most impressed by this application.
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KINDS OF ADVERBS
There are several classes or 'kinds' of adverbs that we use for specific
functions:
1,Adverbs of manner
2,Adverbs of place
3,Adverbs of time
4,Adverbs of certainty
5,Adverbs of degree
6,Interrogative adverbs
7,Relative adverbs
8,Viewpoint and commenting adverbs
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KINDS OF ADVERBS
ADVERBS OF MANNER
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens,They are usually placed
after the main verb or after the object,
Examples:
a71 He swims well,(after the main verb)
a71 He ran..,rapidly,slowly,quickly.,
a71 She spoke..,softly,loudly,aggressively..
a71 James coughed loudly to attract her attention.
a71 He plays the flute beautifully,(after the object)
a71 He ate the chocolate cake greedily.
BE CAREFUL! The adverb should not be put between the verb and the
object:
a71 He ate greedily the chocolate cake [incorrect]
a71 He ate the chocolate cake greedily [correct]
If there is a preposition before the object,e.g,at,towards,we can place
the adverb either before the preposition or after the object.
Example:
a71 The child ran happily towards his mother.
a71 The child ran towards his mother happily,
Sometimes an adverb of manner is placed before a verb + object to add
emphasis:
a71 He gently woke the sleeping woman.
Some writers put an adverb of manner at the beginning of the sentence to
catch our attention and make us curious:
a71 Slowly she picked up the knife.
(We want to know what happened slowly,who did it slowly,why they did it
slowly)
However,adverbs should always come AFTER intransitive verbs (=verbs
which have no object),
Example:
a71 The town grew quickly
a71 He waited patiently
Also,these common adverbs are almost always placed AFTER the verb:
a71 well
a71 badly
a71 hard
a71 fast
The position of the adverb is important when there is more than one verb in
a sentence,If the adverb is placed after a clause,then it modifies the whole
action described by the clause.
Notice the difference in meaning between the following pairs of sentences:
a71 She quickly agreed to re-type the letter (= her agreement was quick)
a71 She agreed to re-type the letter quickly (= the re-typing was quick)
a71 He quietly asked me to leave the house (= his request was quiet)
a71 He asked me to leave the house quietly (= the leaving was quiet)
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KINDS OF ADVERBS
ADVERBS OF PLACE
Adverbs of place tell us where something happens.
They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object:
Example:
after the main verb:
a71 I looked everywhere
a71 John looked away,up,down,around...
a71 I'm going home,out,back
a71 Come in
after the object:
a71 They built a house nearby
a71 She took the child outside
'Here' and 'there'
With verbs of movement,here means towards or with the speaker:
a71 Come here (= towards me)
a71 It's in here (= come with me to see it)
There means away from,or not with the speaker:
a71 Put it there (= away from me)
a71 It's in there (= go by yourself to see it)
Here and there are combined with prepositions to make many common
adverbial phrases:
down here,down there;
over here,over there;
under here,under there;
up here,up there
Here and there are placed at the beginning of the sentence in exclamations
or when emphasis is needed,
They are followed by the verb if the subject is a noun,
a71 Here comes the bus,(followed by the verb)
Or by a pronoun if this is the subject (it,she,he etc.):
a71 Here it is! (followed by the pronoun)
a71 There she goes! (followed by the pronoun)
NOTE,most common adverbs of place also function as prepositions.
Examples:
about,across,along,around,behind,by,down,in,off,on,over,round,
through,under,up.
Go to Prepositions or Phrasal Verbs
Other adverbs of place,ending in '-wards',expressing movement in a
particular direction:
backwards
forwards
downwards
upwards
inwards
outwards
northwards
southwards
eastwards
westwards
homewards
onwards
Example:
a71 Cats don't usually walk backwards.
a71 The ship sailed westwards.
BE CAREFUL! 'Towards' is a preposition,not an adverb,so it is always
followed by a noun or a pronoun:
a71 He walked towards the car.
a71 She ran towards me,
expressing both movement and location:
ahead,abroad,overseas,uphill,downhill,sideways,indoors,outdoors
Example:
a71 The child went indoors.
a71 He lived and worked abroad.
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KINDS OF ADVERBS
ADVERBS OF TIME
Adverbs of time tell us when an action happened,but also for how long,and
how often.
Examples:
a71 When,today,yesterday,later,now,last year
a71 For how long,all day,not long,for a while,since last year
a71 How often,sometimes,frequently,never,often,yearly
"When" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:
a71 Goldilocks went to the Bears' house yesterday.
a71 I'm going to tidy my room tomorrow,
This is a "neutral" position,but some "when" adverbs can be put in other
positions to give a different emphasis
Compare:
a71 Later Goldilocks ate some porridge,(the time is more important)
a71 Goldilocks later ate some porridge,(this is more formal,like a
policeman's report)
a71 Goldilocks ate some porridge later,(this is neutral,no particular
emphasis)
"For how long" adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:
a71 She stayed in the Bears' house all day.
a71 My mother lived in France for a year,
Notice,'for' is always followed by an expression of duration:
a71 for three days,
a71 for a week,
a71 for several years,
a71 for two centuries,
'since' is always followed by an expression of a point in time:
a71 since Monday,
a71 since 1997,
a71 since the last war,
"How often" adverbs expressing the frequency of an action are usually
placed before the main verb but after auxiliary verbs (such as be,have,may,
must):
a71 I often eat vegetarian food,(before the main verb)
a71 He never drinks milk,(before the main verb)
a71 You must always fasten your seat belt,(after the auxiliary must)
a71 She is never sea-sick.(after the auxiliary is)
a71 I have never forgotten my first kiss,(after the auxiliary have and
before the main verb forgotten)
Some other "how often" adverbs express the exact number of times an
action happens and are usually placed at the end of the sentence:
a71 This magazine is published monthly.
a71 He visits his mother once a week.
When a frequency adverb is placed at the end of a sentence it is much
stronger.
Compare:
a71 She regularly visits France.
a71 She visits France regularly.
Adverbs that can be used in these two positions:
a71 frequently,
a71 generally,
a71 normally,
a71 occasionally,
a71 often,
a71 regularly,
a71 sometimes,
a71 usually
'Yet' and 'still'
Yet is used in questions and in negative sentences,and is placed at the end
of the sentence or after not.
a71 Have you finished your work yet? (= a simple request for information)
No,not yet,(= simple negative answer)
a71 They haven't met him yet,(= simple negative statement)
a71 Haven't you finished yet? (= expressing slight surprise)
Still expresses continuity; it is used in positive sentences and questions,and
is placed before the main verb and after auxiliary verbs (such as be,have,
might,will)
a71 I am still hungry.
a71 She is still waiting for you
a71 Are you still here?
a71 Do you still work for the BBC?
ORDER OF ADVERBS OF TIME
If you need to use more than one adverb of time at the end of a sentence,
use them in this order:
1,'how long'
2,'how often'
3,'when' (think of 'low')
Example:
a71 1 + 2,I work (1) for five hours (2) every day
a71 2 + 3,The magazine was published (2) weekly (3) last year.
a71 1 + 3,I was abroad (1) for two months (3) last year,
a71 1 + 2 + 3,She worked in a hospital (1) for two days (2) every week
(3) last year,
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KINDS OF ADVERBS
ADVERBS OF CERTAINTY
These adverbs express how certain or sure we feel about an action or event.
Common adverbs of certainty:
certainly,definitely,probably,undoubtedly,surely
Adverbs of certainty go before the main verb but after the verb 'to be':
a71 He definitely left the house this morning,
a71 He is probably in the park.
With other auxiliary verb,these adverbs go between the auxiliary and the
main verb:
a71 He has certainly forgotten the meeting,
a71 He will probably remember tomorrow.
Sometimes these adverbs can be placed at the beginning of the sentence:
a71 Undoubtedly,Winston Churchill was a great politician.
BE CAREFUL! with surely,When it is placed at the beginning of the sentence,
it means the speaker thinks something is true,but is looking for
confirmation:
Example:
a71 Surely you've got a bicycle?
See also ADVERBS OF ATTITUDE
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KINDS OF ADVERBS
VIEWPOINT AND COMMENTING ADVERBS
There are some adverbs and adverbial expressions which tell us about the
speaker's viewpoint or opinion about an action,or make some comment on
the action.
Viewpoint
Frankly,I think he is a liar,(= this is my frank,honest opinion)
Theoretically,you should pay a fine,(= from a theoretical point of view but
there may be another way of looking at the situation)
These adverbs are placed at the beginning of the sentence and are
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
Some common Viewpoint adverbs:
honestly,seriously,confidentially,personally,surprisingly,ideally,
economically,officially,obviously,clearly,surely,undoubtedly.
Examples:
a71 Personally,I'd rather go by train.
a71 Surprisingly,this car is cheaper than the smaller model.
a71 Geographically,Britain is rather cut off from the rest of Europe.
Commenting
a71 She is certainly the best person for the job.
a71 You obviously enjoyed your meal.
These are very similar to viewpoint adverbs,and often the same words,but
they go in a different position - after the verb to be and before the main
verb.
Some common Commenting adverbs:
definitely,certainly,obviously,simply.
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KINDS OF ADVERBS
ADVERBS OF DEGREE
Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action,an
adjective or another adverb.
Common adverbs of degree:
Almost,nearly,quite,just,too,enough,hardly,scarcely,completely,
very,extremely.
Adverbs of degree are usually placed:
1,before the adjective or adverb they are modifying:
e.g,The water was extremely cold.
2,before the main verb:
e.g,He was just leaving,She has almost finished.
Examples:
a71 She doesn't quite know what she'll do after university.
a71 They are completely exhausted from the trip.
a71 I am too tired to go out tonight.
a71 He hardly noticed what she was saying.
Enough,very,too
Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after adjectives
and adverbs.
Example:
a71 Is your coffee hot enough? (adjective)
a71 He didn't work hard enough,(adverb)
It also goes before nouns,and means 'as much as is necessary',In this case it
is not an adverb,but a 'determiner'.
Example:
a71 We have enough bread,
a71 They don't have enough food.
Too as an adverb meaning 'more than is necessary or useful' goes before
adjectives and adverbs,e.g.
a71 This coffee is too hot,(adjective)
a71 He works too hard,(adverb)
Enough and too with adjectives can be followed by 'for someone/something'.
Example,
a71 The dress was big enough for me.
a71 She's not experienced enough for this job.
a71 The coffee was too hot for me,
a71 The dress was too small for her.
We can also use 'to + infinitive' after enough and too with
adjectives/adverb.
Example,
a71 The coffee was too hot to drink,
a71 He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam,
a71 She's not old enough to get married,
a71 You're too young to have grandchildren!
Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger.
Example,
a71 The girl was very beautiful,(adjective)
a71 He worked very quickly,(adverb)
If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb,we can use a
word of opposite meaning,or not very.
Example:
a71 The girl was ugly OR The girl was not very beautiful
a71 He worked slowly OR He didn't work very quickly.
BE CAREFUL! There is a big difference between too and very,
a71 Very expresses a fact:
He speaks very quickly.
a71 Too suggests there is a problem:
He speaks too quickly (for me to understand).
Other adverbs like very
These common adverbs are used like very and not very,and are listed in
order of strength,from positive to negative:
extremely,especially,particularly,pretty,rather,quite,fairly,rather,
not especially,not particularly.
Note,rather can be positive or negative,depending on the adjective or
adverb that follows:
Positive,The teacher was rather nice.
Negative,The film was rather disappointing.
Note on inversion with negative adverbs:
Normally the subject goes before the verb,
SUBJECT VERB
I
She
left
goes
However,some negative adverbs can cause an inversion - the order is
reversed and the verb goes before the subject
Example,
I have never seen such courage,Never have I seen such courage,
She rarely left the house,Rarely did she leave the house.
Negative inversion is used in writing,not in speaking.
Other adverbs and adverbial expressions that can be used like this:
seldom,scarcely,hardly,not only,....
but also,no sooner,....
than,not until,under no circumstances.
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KINDS OF ADVERBS
INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS
These are:
why,where,how,when
They are usually placed at the beginning of a question.
Examples:
a71 Why are you so late?
a71 Where is my passport?
a71 How are you?
a71 How much is that coat?
a71 When does the train arrive?
Notice that how can be used in four different ways:
1,meaning 'in what way?':
How did you make this sauce?
How do you start the car?
2,with adjectives:
How tall are you?
How old is your house?
3,with much and many:
How much are these tomatoes?
How many people are coming to the party?
4,with other adverbs:
How quickly can you read this?
How often do you go to London?
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KINDS OF ADVERBS
RELATIVE ADVERBS
The following adverbs can be used to join sentences or clauses,They replace
the more formal structure of preposition + which in a relative clause:
where,when,why
Examples:
a71 That's the restaurant where we met for the first time.
(where = at/in which)
a71 I remember the day when we first met.
(when = on which)
a71 There was a very hot summer the year when he was born.
(when = in which)
a71 Tell me (the reason) why you were late home.
(why = for which,but could replace the whole phrase 'the reason for
which')
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ADJECTIVES
Section Menu
FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES
a73 Form
a73 Function
a73 Order
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
a73 Forming the Comparative and Superlative
a73 Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives
a73 the + Superlative
a73 The Comparative + than
a73 As + adjective + as
a73 Not as + adjective + as
a73 Comparisons of quantity
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
COMPARATIVE + THAN
To compare the difference between two people,things or events.
Examples:
a71 Mt,Everest is higher than Mt,Blanc.
a71 Thailand is sunnier than Norway.
a71 A car is more expensive than a bicycle.
a71 Albert is more intelligent than Arthur.
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
AS + ADJECTIVE + AS
To compare people,places,events or things,when there is no difference,
use as + adjective + as:
a71 Peter is 24 years old,John is 24 years old,Peter is as old as John,
More examples:
a71 Moscow is as cold as St,Petersburg in the winter.
a71 Ramona is as happy as Raphael.
a71 Einstein is as famous as Darwin.
a71 A tiger is as dangerous as a lion,
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS
Difference can also be shown by using not so/as,..as:
a71 Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest
a71 Norway is not as sunny as Thailand
a71 A bicycle is not as expensive as a car
a71 Arthur is not as intelligent as Albert
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY
To show difference,more,less,fewer + than
To show no difference,as much as,as many as,as few as,as little as
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY
To show difference,more,less,fewer + than
Examples,
With countable nouns,more / fewer
a71 Eloise has more children than Chantal,
a71 Chantal has fewer children than Eloise,
a71 There are fewer dogs in Cardiff than in Bristol
a71 I have visited fewer countries than my friend has,
a71 He has read fewer books than she has,
With uncountable nouns,more / less
a71 Eloise has more money than Chantal,
a71 Chantal has less money than Eloise,
a71 I spend less time on homework than you do,
a71 Cats drink less water than dogs,
a71 This new dictionary gives more information than the old one,
So,the rule is:
MORE + nouns that are countable or uncountable
FEWER + countable nouns
LESS + uncountable nouns
To show no difference see next page.
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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY
To show no difference,as much as,as many as,as few as,as little as
a71 as many as / as few as + countable nouns
a71 as much as / as little as + uncountable nouns
Examples,
With countable nouns:
a71 They have as many children as us,
a71 We have as many customers as them,
a71 Tom has as few books as Jane,
a71 There are as few houses in his village as in mine,
a71 You know as many people as I do,
a71 I have visited the States as many times as he has,
With uncountable nouns,
a71 John eats as much food as Peter,
a71 Jim has as little food as Sam,
a71 You've heard as much news as I have,
a71 He's had as much success as his brother has,
a71 They've got as little water as we have.
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NOUNS
NATIONALITIES
a,Country,I live in England.
b,Adjective,He reads English literature.
c,Noun,She is an Englishwoman.
COUNTRY ADJECTIVE NOUN
Africa African an African
America American an American
Argentina Argentinian an Argentinian
Austria Austrian an Austrian
Autralia Australian an Australian
Bangladesh Bangladesh(i) a Bangladeshi
Belgium Belgian a Belgian
Brazil Brazilian a Brazilian
Britain British a Briton/Britisher
Cambodia Cambodian a Cambodian
Chile Chilean a Chilean
China Chinese a Chinese
Colombia Colombian a Colombian
Croatia Croatian a Croat
the Czech Republic Czech a Czech
Denmark Danish a Dane
England English an
Englishman/Englishwoman
Finland Finnish a Finn
France French a Frenchman/Frenchwoman
Germany German a German
Greece Greek a Greek
Holland Dutch a Dutchman/Dutchwoman
Hungary Hungarian a Hungarian
Iceland Icelandic an Icelander
India Indian an Indian
Indonesia Indonesian an Indonesian
Iran Iranian an Iranian
Iraq Iraqi an Iraqi
Ireland Irish an Irishman/Irishwoman
Israel Israeli an Israeli
Jamaica Jamaican a Jamaican
Japan Japanese a Japanese
Mexico Mexican a Mexican
Morocco Moroccan a Moroccan
Norway Norwegian a Norwegian
Peru Peruvian a Peruvian
the Philippines Philippine a Filipino
Poland Polish a Pole
Portugal Portuguese a Portuguese
Rumania Rumanian a Rumanian
Russia Russian a Russian
Saudi Arabia Saudi,Saudi Arabian a Saudi,a Saudi Arabian
Scotland Scottish a Scot
Serbia Serbian a Serb
the Slovak Republic Slovak a Slovak
Sweden Swedish a Swede
Switzerland Swiss a Swiss
Thailand Thai a Thai
The USA American an American
Tunisia Tunisian a Tunisian
Turkey Turkish a Turk
Vietnam Vietnamese a Vietnamese
Wales Welsh a Welshman/Welshwoman
Yugoslavia Yugoslav a Yugoslav
Note,We use the + nationality adjective ending in -ese or -ish with a
plural verb,to refer to all people of that nationality:
The Chinese are very hard-working.
The Spanish often go to sleep in the afternoon.
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INDEFINITE ARTICLE
A / AN
Use 'a' with nouns starting with a consonant (letters that are not vowels),
'an' with nouns starting with a vowel (a,e,i,o,u)
Examples:
A boy
An apple
A car
An orange
A house
An opera
NOTE:
An before an h mute - an hour,an honour.
A before u and eu when they sound like 'you',a european,a university,a
unit
The indefinite article is used:
a71 to refer to something for the first time:
An elephant and a mouse fell in love.
Would you like a drink?
I've finally got a good job.
a71 to refer to a particular member of a group or class
Examples:
a72 with names of jobs:
John is a doctor.
Mary is training to be an engineer.
He wants to be a dancer,
a72 with nationalities and religions:
John is an Englishman.
Kate is a Catholic.
a72 with musical instruments:
Sherlock Holmes was playing a violin when the visitor arrived.
(BUT to describe the activity we say "He plays the violin.")
a72 with names of days:
I was born on a Thursday
a71 to refer to a kind of,or example of something:
the mouse had a tiny nose
the elephant had a long trunk
it was a very strange car
a71 with singular nouns,after the words 'what' and 'such':
What a shame!
She's such a beautiful girl.
a71 meaning 'one',referring to a single object or person:
I'd like an orange and two lemons please.
The burglar took a diamond necklace and a valuable painting.
Notice also that we usually say a hundred,a thousand,a million.
NOTE,that we use 'one' to add emphasis or to contrast with other numbers,
I don't know one person who likes eating elephant meat.
We've got six computers but only one printer.
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EXCEPTIONS TO USING THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
There is no article:
a71 with names of countries (if singular)
Germany is an important economic power.
He's just returned from Zimbabwe.
(But,I'm visiting the United States next week.)
a71 with the names of languages
French is spoken in Tahiti.
English uses many words of Latin origin.
Indonesian is a relatively new language.
a71 with the names of meals.
Lunch is at midday.
Dinner is in the evening.
Breakfast is the first meal of the day.
a71 with people's names (if singular):
John's coming to the party.
George King is my uncle.
(But,we're having lunch with the Morgans tomorrow.)
a71 with titles and names:
Prince Charles is Queen Elizabeth's son.
President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.
Dr,Watson was Sherlock Holmes' friend.
(But,the Queen of England,the Pope.)
a71 After the 's possessive case:
His brother's car,
Peter's house.
a71 with professions:
Engineering is a useful career.
He'll probably go into medicine.
a71 with names of shops:
I'll get the card at Smith's.
Can you go to Boots for me?
a71 with years:
1948 was a wonderful year.
Do you remember 1995?
a71 With uncountable nouns:
Rice is the main food in Asia.
Milk is often added to tea in England.
War is destructive.
a71 with the names of individual mountains,lakes and islands:
Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in Alaska.
She lives near Lake Windermere.
Have you visited Long Island?
a71 with most names of towns,streets,stations and airports:
Victoria Station is in the centre of London.
Can you direct me to Bond Street?
She lives in Florence.
They're flying from Heathrow.
a71 in some fixed expressions,for example:
by car
by train
by air
on foot
on holiday
on air (in
broadcasting)
at school
at work
at University
in church
in prison
in bed
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THE DEMONSTRATIVES
THIS,THAT,THESE,THOSE
1,Function
The demonstratives this,that,these,those,show where an object or
person is in relation to the speaker.
This (singular) and these (plural) refer to an object or person near the
speaker,That (singular) and those (plural) refer to an object or person
further away,It can be a physical closeness or distance as in:
Who owns that house? (distant)
Is this John's house? (near)
Or it can be a psychological distance as in:
That's nothing to do with me.,(distant)
This is a nice surprise! (near)
2,Position
a) Before the noun.
b) Before the word 'one'.
c) Before an adjective + noun.
d) Alone when the noun is 'understood'.
Examples:
This car looks cleaner than that one.
This old world keeps turning round
Do you remember that wonderful day in June?
I'll never forget this.
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THE POSSESSIVES
Possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives show who the thing belongs to.
PERSON ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS
1st (I) my mine
2nd (you) your yours
3rd (he) his his
(she) her hers
(it) it its
Plural
1st (we) our ours
2nd (you) your yours
3rd (they) their theirs
NOTE,In English,possessive adjectives and pronouns refer to the possessor,
not the object or person that is possessed.
Example,
Jane's brother is married to John's sister.
Her brother is married to his sister.
Examples:
a,Peter and his sister.
b,Jane and her father.
c,Do you know where your books are?
d,Is this their picnic? No,it is ours.
e,I think this is your passport,Yes,it is mine.
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THE QUANTIFIERS
Quantifiers are adjectives and adjectival phrases that give approximate
answers to the questions "How much?" and "How many?"
Example:
I've got a little money,
I've got a lot of friends.
a72 Quantifiers with countable and uncountable nouns
a72 A few and few,a little and little
a72 Some and any
a72 Compound nouns made with SOME,ANY and NO
a72 Graded Quantifiers
a72 Enough + Noun
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THE QUANTIFIERS
Quantifiers with countable
and uncountable nouns
Adjectives and adjectival phrases that describe quantity are shown below,
Some can only go with countable nouns (friends,cups,people),and some
can only go with uncountable nouns (sugar,tea,money,advice),The words
in the middle column can be used with both countable and uncountable
nouns.
Only with
uncountable nouns
With uncountable
and countable nouns
Only with
countable nouns
How much?
How much? or How many?
How many?
a little no/none a few
a bit (of) not any a number (of)
- some (any) several
a great deal of a lot of a large number of
a large amount of plenty of a great number of
- lots of -
+ noun
Note,much and many are used in negative and question forms.
Example:
a71 How much money have you got?
a71 How many cigarettes have you smoked?
a71 There's not much sugar in the cupboard,
a71 There weren't many people at the concert.
They are also used with too,(not) so,and (not) as,There were too many
people at the concert - we couldn't see the band.
It's a problem when there are so many people.
There's not so much work to do this week.
In positive statements,we use a lot of:
a71 I've got a lot of work this week.
a71 There were a lot of people at the concert.
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THE QUANTIFIERS
A few and few,a little and little
These expressions show the speaker's attitude towards the quantity he/she is
referring to.
A few (for countable nouns) and a little (for uncountable nouns) describe
the quantity in a positive way,
a71 "I've got a few friends" (= maybe not many,but enough)
a71 "I've got a little money" (= I've got enough to live on)
Few and little describe the quantity in a negative way:
a71 Few people visited him in hospital (= he had almost no visitors)
a71 He had little money (= almost no money)
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THE QUANTIFIERS
Some and Any
Some and any are used with countable and uncountable nouns,to describe
an indefinite or incomplete quantity.
Some is used in positive statements:
a71 I had some rice for lunch
a71 He's got some books from the library,
It is also used in questions where we are sure about the answer,
a71 Did he give you some tea? (= I'm sure he did.)
a71 Is there some fruit juice in the fridge? (= I think there is)
Some is used in situations where the question is not a request for
information,but a method of making a request,encouraging or giving an
invitation:
a71 Could I have some books,please?
a71 Why don't you take some books home with you?
a71 Would you like some books?
Any is used in questions and with not in negative statements:
a71 Have you got any tea?
a71 He didn't give me any tea.
a71 I don't think we've got any coffee left.
More examples,
SOME in positive sentences.
a,I will have some news next week.
b,She has some valuable books in her house.
c,Philip wants some help with his exams.
d,There is some butter in the fridge.
e,We need some cheese if we want to make a fondue.
SOME in questions:
a,Would you like some help?
b,Will you have some more roast beef?
ANY in negative sentences
a,She doesn't want any kitchen appliances for Christmas.
b,They don't want any help moving to their new house.
c,No,thank you,I don't want any more cake.
d,There isn't any reason to complain.
ANY in interrogative sentences
a,Do you have any friends in London?
b,Have they got any children?
c,Do you want any groceries from the shop?
d,Are there any problems with your work?
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THE QUANTIFIERS
Compound nouns made with SOME,ANY and NO
Some +
-thing -body -one -whereAny +
No +
Compound nouns with some- and any- are used in the same way as some and
any.
Positive statements:
a71 Someone is sleeping in my bed.
a71 He saw something in the garden.
a71 I left my glasses somewhere in the house.
Questions,
a71 Are you looking for someone? (= I'm sure you are)
a71 Have you lost something? (= I'm sure you have)
a71 Is there anything to eat? (real question)
a71 Did you go anywhere last night?
Negative statements,
a71 She didn't go anywhere last night.
a71 He doesn't know anybody here,
NOTICE that there is a difference in emphasis between nothing,nobody etc,
and not,.,anything,not,.,anybody,
a71 I don't know anything about it,(= neutral,no emphasis)
a71 I know nothing about it (= more emphatic,maybe defensive)
More examples:
SOMETHING,SOMEBODY,SOMEWHERE
a,I have something to tell you.
b,There is something to drink in the fridge.
c,He knows somebody in New York
d,Susie has somebody staying with her.
e,They want to go somewhere hot for their holidays.
f,Keith is looking for somewhere to live.
ANYBODY,ANYTHING,ANYWHERE
a,Is there anybody who speaks English here?
b,Does anybody have the time?
c,Is there anything to eat?
d,Have you anything to say?
e,He doesn't have anything to stay tonight.
f,I wouldn't eat anything except at Maxim's.
NOBODY,NOTHING,NOWHERE
a,There is nobody in the house at the moment
b,When I arrived there was nobody to meet me.
c,I have learnt nothing since I began the course.
d,There is nothing to eat.
e,There is nowhere as beautiful as Paris in the Spring.
f,Homeless people have nowhere to go at night.
ANY can also be used in positive statements to mean 'no matter which','no
matter who','no matter what':
Examples:
a,You can borrow any of my books.
b,They can choose anything from the menu.
c,You may invite anybody to dinner,I don't mind.
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THE QUANTIFIERS
Graded Quantifiers
They function like comparatives and hold a relative
position on a scale of increase or decrease,
INCREASE From 0% to 100%
With plural countable nouns:
many more most
With uncountable nouns:
much more most
DECREASE From 100% to 0%
With plural countable nouns:
few fewer fewest
With uncountable nouns:
little less least
Examples:
a71 There are many people in England,more in India,
but the most people live in China.
a71 Much time and money is spent on education,more
on health services but the most is spent on
national defence.
a71 Few rivers in Europe are not polluted.
a71 Fewer people die young now than in the
seventeenth century.
a71 The country with the fewest people per square
kilometre must be Australia.
a71 Scientists have little hope of finding a complete
cure for cancer before the year 2,000.
a71 She had less time to study than Paul but had better
results.
a71 Give that dog the least opportunity and it will bite
you.
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THE QUANTIFIERS
Enough + Noun
Enough is placed before the noun,to indicate the quantity required or
necessary:
a71 There is enough bread for lunch.
a71 She has enough money.
Enough is also used with adjectives and adverbs - see these sections.
a71 We didn't have enough time to visit London Bridge.
a71 Are there enough eggs to make an omelette?
a71 Richard has enough talent to become a singing star.
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THE DISTRIBUTIVES
ALL,BOTH,HALF
EACH,EVERY,EITHER,NEITHER
These words refer to a group of people or things,and to individual members of the
group,They show different ways of looking at the individuals within a group,and
they express how something is distributed,shared or divided.
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THE DISTRIBUTIVES
ALL,BOTH,HALF
These words can be used in the following ways:
ALL +
1
2
3
4a
4b
-
the
my,your,etc,
this,that
these,those
Uncountable noun
or
Countable noun in the plural
Uncountable noun
Countable noun in the plural
Example,
1,All cheese contains protein
All children need affection
2,All the people in the room were silent.
Have you eaten all the bread?
3,I've invited all my friends to the party.
I've been waiting all my life for this opportunity.
4a,Who's left all this paper on my desk?
4b,Look at all those balloons!
BOTH +
1
2
3
4
-
the
my,your,etc.
these,those
Countable noun in the plural
Example:
1,Both children were born in Italy.
2,He has crashed both (of) the cars.
3,Both (of) my parents have fair hair.
4 You can take both (of) these books back to the
library.
See note below
HALF +
1
2
3
4
a
the
my,your,etc.
this,that,
these,those
Uncountable
or
countable noun
Example:
1,I bought half a kilo of apples yesterday.
2,You can have half (of) the cake.
She gave me half (of) the apples.
3,I've already given you half (of) my money.
Half (of) his books were in French.
4 Half (of) these snakes are harmless
You can take half (of) this sugar.
NOTE,All,both,half + OF,'OF' must be added when followed by a pronoun:
All of you; both of us; half of them
It is also quite common to add it in most of the above situations except when
there is no article (No.1 in all the tables above.)
.
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THE DISTRIBUTIVES
EACH,EVERY,EITHER,NEITHER
These distributive words are normally used with singular nouns,and are
placed before the noun.
Each,either and neither can be used with plural nouns but must be
followed by 'of':
Each is a way of seeing the members of a group as individuals:
a71 Each child received a present.
a71 Each of the children received a present.
Every is a way of seeing a group as a series of members:
a71 Every child in the world deserves affection.
It can also express different points in a series,especially with time
expressions:
a71 Every third morning John goes jogging.
a71 This magazine is published every other week.
Either and Neither are concerned with distribution between two things -
either is positive,neither is negative:
a71 Which chair do you want? Either chair will do.
a71 I can stay at either hotel,they are both good
a71 There are two chairs here,You can take either of them.
a71 Neither chair is any good,they're both too small.
a71 Which chair do you want? Neither of them - they're both too small.
.
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DIFFERENCE WORDS
OTHER,ANOTHER
These words refer to something different,remaining,or additional.
They are placed before the noun.
Another is used with singular nouns,other with singular or plural.
a71 There are other jobs you could try,
a71 Where's the other packet of cereals?
a71 Is there any other bread?
a71 Have another cup of tea.
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QUESTION WORDS
WHICH,WHAT,WHOSE
In questions,these words ask which thing or person is being referred to,They
are placed before the noun.
a71 Which dress are you going to wear tonight?
a71 What colour is your dress?
a71 Whose car are you going to use?
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DEFINING WORDS
WHICH AND WHOSE
In a statement,these words define or explain which thing or person is
referred to:
Example,
a71 He went back to the house,(Which house?) The house which stood on
the corner,= He went back to the house which stood on the corner.
a71 I saw the man,(Which man?) The man whose car you damaged,= I
saw the man whose car you damaged.
More examples:
a71 He couldn't remember which film he had seen,
a71 That's the man whose wife works in my office.
a71 Tell me which coffee you like,
a71 The woman whose dog bit you is at the door.
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PRE-DETERMINERS
SUCH,WHAT,RATHER,QUITE
These words are normally placed before the indefinite article.
Such and what are often used to express surprise or other emotions:
Examples:
a,What a lovely day!
b,She's such a lovely woman!
c,What an incredible film!
d,He's such a fantastic guitarist!
Rather and quite are 'commenting' words,referring to the degree of a
particular quality,They can express disappointment,pleasure,or other
emotions,and are used before a/an + adjective + noun:
Examples:
a,It's rather a small car,(= I'm a bit disappointed because it's small)
b,It was quite a nice day.(= I was agreeably surprised.)
c,He's had quite a bad accident,(= I'm worried)
d,I've just met rather a nice man,(= I'm pleased)
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THE INFINITIVE
The zero infinitive is used:
a,after most auxiliaries (e.g,must,can,should,may,might)
b,after verbs of perception,(e.g,see,hear,feel) with the pattern verb +
object + zero infinitive
c,after the verbs 'make' and 'let',with the pattern make/let + object + zero
infinitive
d,after the expression 'had better'
e,after the expression 'would rather'
when referring to the speaker's own actions
Examples:
After auxiliaries:
a71 She can't speak to you.
a71 He should give her some money.
a71 Shall I talk to him?
a71 Would you like a cup of coffee?
a71 I might stay another night in the hotel.
a71 They must leave before 10.00 a.m,
After verbs of perception:
a71 He saw her fall from the cliff.
a71 We heard them close the door.
a71 They saw us walk toward the lake.
a71 She felt the spider crawl up her leg.
After the verbs 'make' and 'let':
a71 Her parents let her stay out late.
a71 Let's go to the cinema tonight.
a71 You made me love you.
a71 Don't make me study that boring grammar book!
NOTICE that the 'to-infinitive' is used when 'make' is in the passive voice:
a71 I am made to sweep the floor every day.
a71 She was made to eat fish even though she hated it.
After 'had better':
We had better take some warm clothing.
She had better ask him not to come.
You'd better not smile at a crocodile!
We had better reserve a room in the hotel.
You'd better give me your address.
They had better work harder on their grammar!
After 'would rather':
Note,this is ONLY when referring to the speaker's own actions - see 'would
rather' in section on Unreal past.
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THE INFINITIVE
1,Form
The infinitive is the base form of a verb,It may be preceded by 'to' (the to-
infinitive) or stand alone (the base or zero infinitive).
2,Infinitive with or without 'to'
The to-infinitive is used:
a,after certain verbs,e.g,want,wish,agree,fail,mean,decide,learn
b,after the auxiliaries to be to,to have to,and ought to
c,in the pattern 'it is + adjective + to-infinitive'
Examples:
with 'to'
a71 The elephant decided to marry the mouse
a71 The mouse agreed to marry the elephant
a71 You will have to ask her
a71 You are to leave immediately
a71 He ought to relax
a71 She has to go to Berlin next week
a71 It's easy to speak English
a71 It is hard to change jobs after twenty years
a71 It's stupid to believe everything you hear
without 'to'
a71 I would rather visit Rome.
a71 She would rather live in Italy.
a71 Would you rather eat steak or fish?
a71 He would rather work in a bank.
a71 I'd rather be a forest than a tree.
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THE 'ZERO' CONDITIONAL
1,Form
In 'zero' conditional sentences,the tense in both parts of the sentence is the
simple present:
'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION) MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT)
If + simple present
If you heat ice
If it rains
simple present
it melts.
you get wet
NOTE,The order of the clauses is not fixed - the 'if' clause can be first or
second:
a71 Ice melts if you heat it.
a71 You get wet if it rains.
2,Function
In these sentences,the time is now or always and the situation is real and
possible,They are used to make statements about the real world,and often
refer to general truths,such as scientific facts,
Examples:
a,If you freeze water,it becomes a solid.
b,Plants die if they don't get enough water.
c,If my husband has a cold,I usually catch it.
d,If public transport is efficient,people stop using their cars.
e,If you mix red and blue,you get purple.
This structure is often used to give instructions,using the imperative in the
main clause:
a71 If Bill phones,tell him to meet me at the cinema.
a71 Ask Pete if you're not sure what to do.
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THE INFINITIVE
VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
C,These are the most common of the verbs followed by a to-infinitive,with
or without a noun.
Example:
a71 I asked him to show me the book.
a71 I asked to see the book,
ask*
beg*
choose
dare
desire*
elect
expect*
help
mean* (=intend)
request*
want
wish*
The verbs marked * can also be followed by a that-clause
Note:
dare,In negative and interrogative sentences the infinitive with or without
'to' is possible,though it is more common to omit the 'to':
a71 I never dared tell him what happened.
a71 Dare you tell him the news?
a71 Would you dare (to) jump out of a plane?
Examples:
a71 We've chosen John to represent the company at the conference.
a71 The elephant didn't mean to tread on the mouse.
a71 We expect you to do your best in the exam.
a71 Do you want to go to the beach?
a71 Do you want me to go with you to the beach?
a71 You are requested to be quiet in this library,
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REPORTED SPEECH
SUMMARY OF REPORTING VERBS
Note that some reporting verbs may appear in more than one of the following
groups.
1,Verbs followed by 'if' or 'whether' + clause:
ask
know
remember
say
see
2,Verbs followed by a that-clause:
add
admit
agree
announce
answer
argue
boast
claim
comment
complain
confirm
consider
deny
doubt
estimate
explain
fear
feel
insist
mention
observe
persuade
propose
remark
remember
repeat
reply
report
reveal
say
state
suggest
suppose
tell
think
understand
warn
3,Verbs followed by either a that-clause or a to-infinitive:
decide
expect
guarantee
hope
promise
swear
threaten
4,Verbs followed by a that-clause containing should
(but note that it may be omitted,leaving a subject + zero-infinitive):
advise
beg
demand
insist
prefer
propose
recommend
request
suggest
5,Verbs followed by a clause starting with a question word:
decide
describe
discover
discuss
explain
forget
guess
imagine
know
learn
realise
remember
reveal
say
see
suggest
teach
tell
think
understand
wonder
6,Verbs followed by object + to-infinitive
advise
ask
beg
command
forbid
instruct
invite
teach
tell
warn
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'- ING' FORM
VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND
The gerund is used after certain verbs.
Example:
miss,I miss living in England.
The most important of these verbs are shown below.
Those marked * can also be followed by a that-clause
Example:
VERB GERUND
She admitted..,breaking the window
THAT-CLAUSE
She admitted..,that she had broken the window,
acknowledge,*
admit,*
anticipate,* appreciate,*
avoid,
celebrate,
consider,contemplate,
defer,
delay,
deny,*
detest,
dislike,
dread,
enjoy,
entail,
escape,
excuse,
fancy (=imagine)*,
finish,
forgive,
imagine,*
involve,
keep,
loathe,
mean,(=have as result)*
mention,*
mind,
miss,
pardon,
postpone,
prevent,
propose,*
recall,*
recollect,*
remember,
report,*
resent,
resist,
risk,
save (=prevent the wasted
effort)
stop,
suggest,*
understand,*
Notes,
Appreciate is followed by a possessive adjective and the gerund when the
gerund does not refer to the subject,Compare,
I appreciate having some time off work,(I'm having the time...)
I appreciate your giving me some time off work,(You're giving me the
time...)
Excuse,forgive,pardon can be followed by an object and the gerund or for
+ object and the gerund (both common in spoken English),or a possessive
adjective + gerund (more formal and less likely to be said):
Excuse me interrupting.
Excuse me for interrupting.
Excuse my interrupting.
Suggest can be used in a number of ways,but BE CAREFUL,It is important
not to confuse these patterns:
suggest/suggested (+ possessive adjective) + gerund:
He suggests going to Glastonbury
He suggested going to Glastonbury
He suggested/suggests my going to Glastonbury
suggest/suggested + that-clause (where both that and should
may be omitted):
He suggests that I should go to Glastonbury
He suggested that I should go to Glastonbury
He suggested/suggests I should go to Glastonbury
He suggested/suggests I go to Glastonbury
He suggested I went to Glastonbury,
suggest/suggested + question word + infinitive:
He suggested where to go.
Propose is followed by the gerund when it means 'suggest':
John proposed going to the debate
but by the infinitive when it means 'intend':
The Government proposes bringing in new laws..
Stop can be followed by a gerund or infinitive,but there is a change of
meaning - see GERUND / INFINITIVE? section,
Dread is followed by the infinitive when used with 'think',in the expression 'I
dread to think':
I dread to think what she'll do next,
Prevent is followed
EITHER by a possessive adjective + gerund,
You can't prevent my leaving.
OR by an object + from + gerund:
You can't prevent me from leaving.
Examples:
a71 Normally,a mouse wouldn't contemplate marrying an elephant.
a71 Most mice dread meeting elephants.
a71 We can't risk getting wet - we haven't got any dry clothes.
a71 If you take that job it will mean getting home late every night.
a71 I can't imagine living in that big house.
a71 If you buy some petrol now,it will save you stopping on the way to
London.
a71 She couldn't resist eating the plum she found in the fridge.
a71 They decided to postpone painting the house until the weather
improved.
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'- ING' FORM
GERUND OR INFINITIVE?
The two groups of verbs below can be followed either by the gerund or by
the infinitive,Usually this has no effect on the meaning,but with some verbs
there is a clear difference in meaning,Verbs marked * can also be followed
by a that-clause.
Example,to prefer
I prefer to live in an apartment.
I prefer living in an apartment,
A,Verbs where there is little or no difference in meaning,
allow
attempt
begin
bother
cease
continue
deserve
fear*
hate*
intend*
like
love
neglect
omit
permit
prefer*
recommend*
start
Notes,
1,Allow is used in these two patterns:
a,Allow + object + to-infinitive:
Her parents allowed her to go to the party.
b,Allow + gerund:
Her parents don't allow smoking in the house,
2,Deserve + gerund is not very common,but is mainly used with passive
constructions or where there is a passive meaning:
a,Your proposals deserve being considered in detail.
b,These ideas deserve discussing,(= to be discussed),
3,The verbs hate,love,like,prefer are usually followed by a gerund when
the meaning is general,and by a to-infinitive when they refer to a particular
time or situation,You must always use the to-infinitive with the expressions
'would love to','would hate to',etc.
Compare:
a71 I hate to tell you,but Uncle Jim is coming this weekend.
a71 I hate looking after elderly relatives!
a71 I love dancing.
a71 I would love to dance with you,
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irregular verbs introduction page
COMMON GROUP 2 ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS
Two of the three forms are the same.
Examples with 'catch':
a71 Mary catches the bus to work every day,
a71 Mary caught the bus to work yesterday,
a71 Mary has caught the bus to work since her car broke down,
Base Past Past Participle Group Note
beat beat beaten 2
become became become 2
behold beheld beheld 2
bend bent bent 2
beseech besought besought 2
bet bet,betted bet,betted 2
bind bound bound 2
bleed bled bled 2
breed bred bred 2
bring brought brought 2
build built built 2
burn burnt,burned burnt,burned 2 regular in AE
buy bought bought 2
catch caught caught 2
cling clung clung 2
come came come 2
creep crept crept 2
dare dared dared 2
deal dealt dealt 2
dig dug dug 2
dive dived dived 2
dream dreamt dreamt 2 regular in AE
dwell dwelt,dwelled dwelt,dwelled 2
feed fed fed 2
feel felt felt 2
fight fought fought 2
find found found 2
fit fit,fitted fit,fitted 2 regular in BE
flee fled fled 2
fling flung flung 2
get got got,gotten 2 'gotten' in AE
gild gilt,gilded gilt,gilded 2
gird girt,girded girt,girded 2
grind ground ground 2
hang hung hung 2
have had had 2
hear heard heard 2
hold held held 2
keep kept kept 2
kneel knelt knelt 2
lay laid laid 2
lead led led 2
leap leapt,leaped leapt,leaped 2
learn learnt learnt 2 regular in AE
leave left left 2
lend lent lent 2
light lit lit 2
lose lost lost 2
make made made 2
mean meant meant 2
meet met met 2
pay paid paid 2
plead pled,pleaded pled,pleaded 2
rend rent rent 2
run ran run 2
say said said 2
seek sought sought 2
sell sold sold 2
send sent sent 2
shine shone shone 2
sit sat sat 2
sleep slept slept 2
slide slid slid 2
sling slung slung 2
slink slunk slunk 2
smell smelt smelt 2 regular in AE
sneak snuck,sneaked snuck,sneaked 2
speed sped,speeded sped,speeded 2
spell spelt spelt 2 regular in AE
spend spent spent 2
spill spilt spilt 2 regular in AE
spin spun spun 2
spit spat spat 2
spoil spoilt,spoiled spoilt,spoiled 2
stand stood stood 2
stick stuck stuck 2
sting stung stung 2
strike struck struck 2
sweep swept swept 2
swing swung swung 2
teach taught taught 2
tell told told 2
think thought thought 2
understand understood understood 2
weep wept wept 2
wet wet,wetted wet,wetted 2 regular in BE
win won won 2
wind wound wound 2
withdraw withdrew withdraw 2
wring wrung wrung 2
AE=American English
BE=British English
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ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS
Irregular verbs are the bane of students whose mother tongue is not English and who are trying to
understand how these verbs are applied in various tenses,They even trip up native English speakers
who aren't always sure of the form of these verbs! It isn't made any easier by the fact that some
verbs are regular in American English and irregular in British English.
However,there are some general classifications that make it a little easier to remember how these
verbs are formed and to remember them when applying them in your sentences.
Irregular verbs in English fall into three categories:
1,GROUP 1,verbs where all three forms are the same - e.g,'hit,hit,hit'
2,GROUP 2,verbs where two of the three forms are the same - e.g,'become,
became,become'
3,GROUP 3,verbs where all three forms are different - e.g,'choose,chose,chosen'
Common irregular verbs that differ in American English and British English
a71 wake can be regular in American English but is irregular in British English
a71 dive is irregular in American English but regular in British English
a71 get in American English usually has a past particple of 'gotten' while in British English the
past participle is 'got'
a71 wet,quit,and fit are regular in British English but irregular in American English
a71 learn,lean,smell,burn,dream,spill and spoil are all regular in American English while in
British English they can be regular but is more common to see the past and past participles
with -t added (e.g,dreamt,spoilt,spilt,smelt)
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irregular verbs introduction page
COMMON GROUP 1 ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS
All three forms are the same.
Base Past Past Participle Group Note
bid bid bid 1
cut cut cut 1
hit hit hit 1
hurt hurt hurt 1
let let let 1
put put put 1
quit quit quit 1 regular in BE
read read read 1
rid rid rid 1
shut shut shut 1
split split split 1
spread spread spread 1
thrust thrust thrust 1
AE=American English
BE=British English
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irregular verbs introduction page
COMMON GROUP 3 ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS
All of the three forms are different.
Examples with 'begin':
a71 I begin my day with a glass of organge juice,
a71 I began to study French when I was living in Paris,
a71 I have begun to understand my parents since I have had children of my own,
Base Past Past Participle Group Note
arise arose arisen 3
awake awoke,awaked awoken 3
be was been 3
bear bore borne 3
befall befell befallen 3
beget begot begotten 3
begin began begun 3
bereave bereaved bereft 3
bestride bestrode bestridden 3
bid bade bidden 3
bite bit bitten 3
blow blew blown 3
blow blew blown 3
break broke broken 3
broadcast broadcast broadcast 3
burst burst burst 3
cast cast cast 3
choose chose chosen 3
cost cost cost 3
dive dove dived 3 regular in BE
do did done 3
draw drew drawn 3
drink drank drunk 3
drive drove driven 3
eat ate eaten 3
fall fell fallen 3
fly flew flown 3
forbear forbore forborne 3
forbid forbade forbidden 3
forget forgot forgotten 3
forgive forgave forgiven 3
forsake forsook forsaken 3
freeze froze frozen 3
give gave given 3
go went gone 3
grow grew grown 3
hide hid hidden 3
know knew known 3
lie lay lain 3
melt melted melted,molten 3
mow mowed mown,mowed 3
ride rode ridden 3
ring rang rung 3
rise rose risen 3
rise rose risen 3
see saw seen 3
sew sewed sewn 3
shake shook shaken 3
shear sheared shorn,sheared 3
shed shed shed 3
shoe shod,shoed shone 3
shoot shot shone 3
show showed shown 3
shrink shrank shrunk 3
sing sang sung 3
sink sank sunk 3
slit slit slit 3
smite smote smitten 3
speak spoke spoken 3
spring sprang sprung 3
steal stole stolen 3
stride strode stridden 3
swear swore sworn 3
swim swam swum 3
take took taken 3
tear tore torn 3
throw threw thrown 3
tread trod trodden 3
tread trod trodden 3
undergo underwent undergone 3
undertake undertook undertaken 3
wake woke woken 3 can be regular in AE
wear wore worn 3
weave wove woven 3
write wrote written 3
AE=American English
BE=British English
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ENGLISH IRREGULAR VERBS
Base Past Past Participle Group
arise arose arisen 3
awake awoke,awaked awoken 3
be was been 3
bear bore borne 3
beat beat beaten 2
become became become 2
befall befell befallen 3
beget begot begotten 3
begin began begun 3
behold beheld beheld 2
bend bent bent 2
bereave bereaved bereft 3
beseech besought besought 2
bestride bestrode bestridden 3
bet bet,betted bet,betted 2
bid bade bidden 3
bid bid bid 1
bind bound bound 2
bite bit bitten 3
bleed bled bled 2
blow blew blown 3
blow blew blown 3
break broke broken 3
breed bred bred 2
bring brought brought 2
broadcast broadcast broadcast 3
build built built 2
burn burnt,burned burnt,burned 2
burst burst burst 3
buy bought bought 2
cast cast cast 3
catch caught caught 2
choose chose chosen 3
cling clung clung 2
come came come 2
cost cost cost 3
creep crept crept 2
cut cut cut 1
dare dared dared 2
deal dealt dealt 2
dig dug dug 2
dive dove dived 3
dive dived dived 2
do did done 3
draw drew drawn 3
dream dreamt dreamt 2
drink drank drunk 3
drive drove driven 3
dwell dwelt,dwelled dwelt,dwelled 2
eat ate eaten 3
fall fell fallen 3
feed fed fed 2
feel felt felt 2
fight fought fought 2
find found found 2
fit fit,fitted fit,fitted 2
flee fled fled 2
fling flung flung 2
fly flew flown 3
forbear forbore forborne 3
forbid forbade forbidden 3
forget forgot forgotten 3
forgive forgave forgiven 3
forsake forsook forsaken 3
freeze froze frozen 3
get got got,gotten 2
gild gilt,gilded gilt,gilded 2
gird girt,girded girt,girded 2
give gave given 3
go went gone 3
grind ground ground 2
grow grew grown 3
hang hung hung 2
have had had 2
hear heard heard 2
hide hid hidden 3
hit hit hit 1
hold held held 2
hurt hurt hurt 1
keep kept kept 2
kneel knelt knelt 2
know knew known 3
lay laid laid 2
lead led led 2
leap leapt,leaped leapt,leaped 2
learn learnt learnt 2
leave left left 2
lend lent lent 2
let let let 1
lie lay lain 3
light lit lit 2
lose lost lost 2
make made made 2
mean meant meant 2
meet met met 2
melt melted melted,molten 3
mow mowed mown,mowed 3
pay paid paid 2
plead pled,pleaded pled,pleaded 2
put put put 1
quit quit quit 1
read read read 1
rend rent rent 2
rid rid rid 1
ride rode ridden 3
ring rang rung 3
rise rose risen 3
rise rose risen 3
run ran run 2
say said said 2
see saw seen 3
seek sought sought 2
sell sold sold 2
send sent sent 2
sew sewed sewn 3
shake shook shaken 3
shear sheared shorn,sheared 3
shed shed shed 3
shine shone shone 2
shoe shod,shoed shone 3
shoot shot shone 3
show showed shown 3
shrink shrank shrunk 3
shut shut shut 1
sing sang sung 3
sink sank sunk 3
sit sat sat 2
sleep slept slept 2
slide slid slid 2
sling slung slung 2
slink slunk slunk 2
slit slit slit 3
smell smelt smelt 2
smite smote smitten 3
sneak snuck,sneaked snuck,sneaked 2
speak spoke spoken 3
speed sped,speeded sped,speeded 2
spell spelt spelt 2
spend spent spent 2
spill spilt spilt 2
spin spun spun 2
spit spat spat 2
split split split 1
spoil spoilt,spoiled spoilt,spoiled 2
spread spread spread 1
spring sprang sprung 3
stand stood stood 2
steal stole stolen 3
stick stuck stuck 2
sting stung stung 2
stride strode stridden 3
strike struck struck 2
swear swore sworn 3
sweep swept swept 2
swim swam swum 3
swing swung swung 2
take took taken 3
teach taught taught 2
tear tore torn 3
tell told told 2
think thought thought 2
throw threw thrown 3
thrust thrust thrust 1
tread trod trodden 3
tread trod trodden 3
undergo underwent undergone 3
understand understood understood 2
undertake undertook undertaken 3
wake woke woken 3
wear wore worn 3
weave wove woven 3
weep wept wept 2
wet wet,wetted wet,wetted 2
win won won 2
wind wound wound 2
withdraw withdrew withdraw 2
wring wrung wrung 2
write wrote written 3
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THE INFINITIVE
VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
B,These are the most common of the verbs that are normally followed by a
noun + infinitive,The verbs marked * may also be followed by a 'that-
clause'.
Example:
VERB
NOUN
INFINITIVE
He reminded me to buy some eggs,
THAT-CLAUSE
He reminded me that I had to buy some eggs,
accustom
aid
appoint
assist
cause
challenge
command*
defy
direct*
drive
empower
enable
encourage
entice
entitle
entreat
force
get
implore*
incite
induce
inspire
instruct*
invite
lead
leave (make someone responsible)
oblige
order*
persuade*
press
prompt
provoke
remind*
require*
stimulate
summon
teach
tell
tempt
trust*
warn*
Notes:
command,direct,entreat,implore,order,require,trust:
there is no noun between these verbs and a 'that-clause':
a71 The general commanded his men to surrender.
a71 The general commanded that his men should surrender.
persuade and remind:
there is always a noun between these verbs and a 'that-clause':
a71 You can't persuade people to buy small cars.
a71 You can't persuade people that small cars are better.
instruct,teach,warn:
the noun is optional between these verbs and a 'that-clause':
a71 She taught her students to appreciate poetry.
a71 She taught her students that poetry was valuable.
a71 She taught that poetry was valuable.
Examples:
a71 The professor challenged his students to argue with his theory.
a71 This law empowers the government to charge more taxes.
a71 You can't force me to do something I don't agree with.
a71 You are obliged to drive on the left in England.
a71 I invited the new student to have dinner with me.
a71 What inspired you to write this poem?
a71 The elephant told the mouse to climb up his tail,
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THE INFINITIVE
VERBS NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE
A,The to-infinitive is used after the verbs in this group,without a
preceding noun,The verbs marked * can also be followed by a 'that-clause'
Example:
VERB TO-INFINITIVE
I hope..,to see you next week,
THAT- CLAUSE
I hope..,that I'll see you next week
afford
agree*
aim
appear?
arrange*
bother
care
claim*
condescend
consent
decide*
demand*
determine*
endeavour
fail
guarantee*
happen?
hasten
have (= be obliged)
hesitate
hope*
learn
long
manage
offer
prepare
pretend*
proceed
promise*
propose
prove (= turn out)
refuse resolve*
seek
seem?
strive
swear*
tend
threaten*
trouble
undertake
volunteer
vow*
These verbs can only be followed by a 'that-clause' when they have the
subject 'it',e.g,It appeared that no-one had locked the door.
Examples:
a71 He claimed to be an expert.
a71 I managed to reach the top of the hill.
a71 I know you're only pretending to love me!
a71 Don't pretend that you know the answer.
a71 She failed to explain the problem clearly.
a71 The customs man demanded to search our luggage.
a71 I can't afford to go out tonight.
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TENSES
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
1,Present continuous,form
The present continuous of any verb is composed of two parts - the present
tense of the verb to be + the present participle of the main verb.
(The form of the present participle is,base+ing,e.g,talking,playing,
moving,smiling)
Affirmative
Subject + to be + base+ing
she is talking
Negative
Subject + to be + not + base+ing
she is not (isn't) talking
Interrogative
to be + subject + base+ing
is she talking?
Example,to go,present continuous
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I am going I am not going Am I going?
You are going You aren't going,Are you going?
He,she,it is going He,she,it isn't going Is he,she,it going?
We are going We aren't going Are we going?
You are going You aren't going Are you going?
They are going They aren't going Are they going?
Note,alternative negative contractions,I'm not going,you're not going,he's
not going etc.
2,Present continuous,function
As with all tenses in English,the speaker's attitude is as important as the
time of the action or event,When someone uses the present continuous,
they are thinking about something that is unfinished or incomplete,
The present continuous is used:
a71 to describe an action that is going on at this moment e.g,You are using the
Internet,You are studying English grammar.
a71 to describe an action that is going on during this period of time or a trend,e.g.
Are you still working for the same company? More and more people are becoming
vegetarian.
a71 to describe an action or event in the future,which has already been planned or
prepared (See also 'Ways of expressing the future) e.g,We're going on holiday
tomorrow,I'm meeting my boyfriend tonight,Are they visiting you next winter?
a71 to describe a temporary event or situation,e.g,He usually plays the drums,but
he's playing bass guitar tonight,The weather forecast was good,but it's raining at
the moment.
a71 with 'always,forever,constantly',to describe and emphasise a continuing series of
repeated actions,e.g,Harry and Sally are always arguing! You're forever
complaining about your mother-in-law!
BE CAREFUL! Some verbs are not used in the continuous form - see below.
3,Verbs that are not normally used in the continuous form
The verbs in the list below are normally used in the simple form,because
they refer to states,rather than actions or processes:
List of common verbs normally used in simple form,
Senses / Perception
feel*,hear,see*,smell,taste
Opinion
assume,believe,consider,doubt,feel (= think),find (= consider),
suppose,think*
Mental states
forget,imagine,know,mean,notice,recognise,remember,understand
Emotions / desires
envy,fear,dislike,hate,hope,like,love,mind,prefer,regret,want,
wish
Measurement
contain,cost,hold,measure,weigh
Others
look (=resemble),seem,be (in most cases),have (when it means to
possess)*
Notes,
1,'Perception' verbs (see,hear,feel,taste,smell) are often used with 'can',
e.g,I can see...
2,* These verbs may be used in the continuous form but with a different
meaning,compare,
a,This coat feels nice and warm,(= your perception of the coat's qualities)
b,John's feeling much better now (= his health is improving)
a,She has three dogs and a cat,(=possession)
b,She's having supper,(= She's eating)
a,I can see Anthony in the garden (= perception)
b,I'm seeing Anthony later (= We are planning to meet)
Examples:
a71 I wish I was in Greece now.
a71 She wants to see him now.
a71 I don't understand why he is shouting.
a71 I feel we are making a mistake.
a71 This glass holds half a litre.
.
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TENSES
SIMPLE PAST
BE CAREFUL! The simple past in English may look like a tense in your own
language,but the meaning may be different.
1,Simple past,form
Regular verbs,base+ed
e.g,walked,showed,watched,played,smiled,stopped
Irregular verbs,see list in verbs
Simple past,be,have,do:
Subject
Verb
Be Have Do
I was had did
You were had did
He,she,it was had did
We were had did
You were had did
They were had did
Affirmative
a,I was in Japan last year
b,She had a headache yesterday.
c,We did our homework last night,
Negative and interrogative
Note,For the negative and interrogative simple past form of "do" as an
ordinary verb,use the auxiliary "do",e.g,We didn't do our homework last
night,The negative of "have" in the simple past is usually formed using the
auxiliary "do",but sometimes by simply adding not or the contraction "n't".
The interrogative form of "have" in the simple past normally uses the
auxiliary "do".
a71 They weren't in Rio last summer.
a71 We hadn't any money.
a71 We didn't have time to visit the Eiffel Tower.
a71 We didn't do our exercises this morning.
a71 Were they in Iceland last January?
a71 Did you have a bicycle when you were a boy?
a71 Did you do much climbing in Switzerland?
Simple past,regular verbs
Affirmative
Subject verb + ed
I washed
Negative
Subject did not infinitive without to
They didn't visit,.,
Interrogative
Did subject infinitive without to
Did she arrive...?
Interrogative negative
Did not subject infinitive without to
Didn't you like..?
Example,to walk,simple past.
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I walked I didn't walk Did I walk?
You walked You didn't walk Did you walk?
He,she,it walked He didn't walk Did he walk?
We walked We didn't walk Did we walk?
You walked You didn't walk Did you walk?
They walked They didn't walk Did they walk?
Note,For the negative and interrogative form of all verbs in the simple past,
always use the auxiliary 'did''.
Examples,Simple past,irregular verbs
to go
a,He went to a club last night.
b,Did he go to the cinema last night?
c,He didn't go to bed early last night.
to give
d,We gave her a doll for her birthday.
e,They didn't give John their new address.
f,Did Barry give you my passport?
to come
g,My parents came to visit me last July.
h,We didn't come because it was raining.
i,Did he come to your party last week?
2,Simple past,function
The simple past is used to talk about a completed action in a time before
now,Duration is not important,The time of the action can be in the recent
past or the distant past,
a71 John Cabot sailed to America in 1498.
a71 My father died last year.
a71 He lived in Fiji in 1976.
a71 We crossed the Channel yesterday,
You always use the simple past when you say when something happened,so
it is associated with certain past time expressions
Examples:
a71 frequency:
often,sometimes,always;
a71 a definite point in time:
last week,when I was a child,yesterday,six weeks ago.
a71 an indefinite point in time:
the other day,ages ago,a long time ago etc.
Note,the word ago is a useful way of expressing the distance into the past,
It is placed after the period of time e.g,a week ago,three years ago,a
minute ago.
Examples:
a,Yesterday,I arrived in Geneva.
b,She finished her work at seven o'clock.
c,We saw a good film last week.
d,I went to the theatre last night.
e,She played the piano when she was a child.
f,He sent me a letter six months ago.
g,Peter left five minutes ago.
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TENSES
FUTURE FORMS
Introduction
There are a number of different ways of referring to the future in English,It
is important to remember that we are expressing more than simply the time
of the action or event,Obviously,any 'future' tense will always refer to a
time 'later than now',but it may also express our attitude to the future
event.
All of the following ideas can be expressed using different tenses:
a,Simple prediction
b,Arrangements
c,Plans and intentions
d,Time-tabled events
e,Prediction based on present evidence
f,Willingness
g,An action in progress in the future
h,An action or event that is a matter of routine
i,Obligation
j,An action or event that will take place immediately or very
soon
k,Projecting ourselves into the future and looking back at a
completed action.
The example sentences below correspond to the ideas above:
a,There will be snow in many areas tomorrow.
b,I'm meeting Jim at the airport.
c,We're going to spend the summer abroad.
d,The plane takes off at 3 a.m.
e,I think it's going to rain!
f,We'll give you a lift to the cinema.
g,This time next week I'll be sun-bathing.
h,You'll be seeing John in the office tomorrow,won't you?
i,You are to travel directly to London.
j,The train is about to leave.
k,A month from now he will have finished all his exams.
It is clear from these examples that several tenses are used to express the
future,The sections that follow show the form and function of each of these
tenses.
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TENSES
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Past perfect continuous,form
The past perfect continuous is composed of two elements - the past perfect
of the verb to be (=had been) + the present participle (base+ing).
Examples:
Subject had been verb-ing
I had been walking
Affirmative
She had been trying
Negative
We hadn't been sleeping
Interrogative
Had you been eating
Interrogative negative
Hadn't they been living
Example,to buy,past perfect continuous
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I had been buying I hadn't been buying Had I been buying?
You had been buying You hadn't been buying Had you been buying
He,she,it had been buying He hadn't been buying Had she been buying?
We had been buying We hadn't been buying Had we been buying?
You had been buying You hadn't been buying Had you been buying
They had been buying They hadn't been buying Had they been buying
Past perfect continuous,function
The past perfect continuous corresponds to the present perfect continuous,
but with reference to a time earlier than 'before now',Again,we are more
interested in the process.
Examples:
a,Had you been waiting long before the taxi arrived?
b,We had been trying to open the door for five minutes when Jane found
her key.
c,It had been raining hard for several hours and the streets were very wet.
d,Her friends had been thinking of calling the police when she walked in.
This form is also used in reported speech,It is the equivalent of the past
continuous and the present perfect continuous in direct speech:
Jane said "I have been gardening all afternoon." Jane said she had been
gardening all afternoon.
When the police questioned him,John said "I was working late in the office
that night." When the police questioned him,John told them he had
been working late in the office that night.
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TENSES
PAST PERFECT
Past perfect,form
The Past Perfect tense in English is composed of two parts,the past tense of
the verb to have (had) + the past participle of the main verb.
Subject had past participle
We had decided..,
Affirmative
She had given,
Negative
We hadn't asked.
Interrogative
Had they arrived?
Interrogative negative
Hadn't you finished?
Example,to decide,Past perfect
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I had decided I hadn't decided Had I decided?
You had decided You hadn't decided Had you decided?
He,she,it had decided He hadn't decided Had she decided?
We had decided We hadn't decided Had we decided?
You had decided You hadn't decided Had you decided?
They had decided They hadn't decided Had they decided?
Past perfect,function
The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now,It is used to make
it clear that one event happened before another in the past,It does not
matter which event is mentioned first - the tense makes it clear which one
happened first.
In these examples,Event A is the first or earliest event,Event B is the
second or latest event:
a.
John had gone out when I arrived in the office,
Event A Event B
b.
I had saved my document before the computer crashed,
Event A Event B
c.
When they arrived we had already started cooking
Event B Event A
d.
He was very tired because he hadn't slept well.
Event B Event A
Past perfect + just
'Just' is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short
time earlier than before now,e.g.
a,The train had just left when I arrived at the station.
b,She had just left the room when the police arrived.
c,I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.
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TENSES
SIMPLE FUTURE
Simple future,form
The 'simple' future is composed of two parts,will / shall + the infinitive
without 'to'
Subject will infinitive without to
He will leave...
Affirmative
I will go
I shall go
Negative
They will not see
They won't see
Interrogative
Will she ask?
Interrogative
negative
Won't she take?
Contractions,
I will I'll We will we'll
You will you'll You will you'll
He,she,will he'll,she'll They will they'll
NOTE,The form 'it will' is not normally shortened.
Example,to see,simple future
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I'll see I won't see/ Will I see?/
*I will/shall see I shan't see Shall I see?
You'll see You won't see Will you see?
He,she,it will see He won't see Will she see?
We'll see We won't see/ Will we see?/
*We will/shall see We shan't see Shall we see?
You will see You won't see Will you see?
They'll see They won't see Will they see?
*NOTE,shall is slightly dated but can be used instead of will with I / we.
Simple future,function
The simple future refers to a time later than now,and expresses facts or
certainty,In this case there is no 'attitude'.
The simple future is used:
a,to predict a future event,It will rain tomorrow.
b,(with I/we) to express a spontaneous decision,I'll pay for the tickets by
credit card.
c,to express willingness,I'll do the washing-up,He'll carry your bag for
you.
d,(in the negative form) to express unwillingness,The baby won't eat his
soup,I won't leave until I've seen the manager!
e,(with I in the interrogative form) to make an offer,Shall I open the
window?
f,(with we in the interrogative form) to make a suggestion,Shall we go to
the cinema tonight?
g,(with I in the interrogative form) to ask for advice or instructions,What
shall I tell the boss about this money?
h,(with you) to give orders,You will do exactly as I say.
i,(with you) to give an invitation,Will you come to the dance with me?
Will you marry me?
NOTE,In modern English will is preferred to shall.
Shall is mainly used with I and we to make an offer or suggestion (see
examples (e) and (f) above,or to ask for advice (example (g) above).
With the other persons (you,he,she,they) shall is only used in literary or
poetic situations,e.g.
"With rings on her fingers and bells on her toes,She shall have music
wherever she goes."
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TENSES
PAST CONTINUOUS
1,Past continuous - form.
The past continuous of any verb is composed of two parts,the past tense of
the verb to be (was/were),and the base of the main verb +ing.
Subject was/were base-ing
They were watching
Affirmative
She was reading
Negative
She wasn't reading
Interrogative
Was she reading?
Interrogative negative
Wasn't she reading?
Example,to play,past continuous
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I was playing I was not playing Was I playing?
You were playing You were not playing Were you playing?
He,she,it was playing She wasn't playing Was she playing?
We were playing We weren't playing Were we playing?
You were playing You weren't playing Were you playing?
They were playing They weren't playing Were they playing?
2,Past continuous,function
The past continuous describes actions or events in a time before now,which
began in the past and was still going on at the time of speaking,In other
words,it expresses an unfinished or incomplete action in the past.
It is used:
a71 often,to describe the background in a story written in the past tense,
e.g,"The sun was shining and the birds were singing as the elephant
came out of the jungle,The other animals were relaxing in the
shade of the trees,but the elephant moved very quickly,She was
looking for her baby,and she didn't notice the hunter who was
watching her through his binoculars,When the shot rang out,she was
running towards the river..."
a71 to describe an unfinished action that was interrupted by another
event or action,"I was having a beautiful dream when the alarm
clock rang."
a71 to express a change of mind,e.g,"I was going to spend the day at
the beach but I've decided to go on an excursion instead."
a71 with 'wonder',to make a very polite request,e.g,"I was wondering if
you could baby-sit for me tonight."
More examples:
a,They were waiting for the bus when the accident
happened.
b,Caroline was skiing when she broke her leg.
c,When we arrived he was having a bath.
d,When the fire started I was watching television.
Note,with verbs not normally used in the continuous form,the simple past is
used,See list in Present continuous
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TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Present perfect continuous,form
The present perfect continuous is made up of two elements,(a) the present
perfect of the verb 'to be' (have/has been),and (b) the present participle of
the main verb (base+ing).
Subject has/have been base+ing
She has been swimming
Affirmative
She has been / She's been running
Negative
She hasn't been running
Interrogative
Has she been running?
Interrogative negative
Hasn't she been running?
Example,to live,present perfect continuous
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I have been living I haven't been living Have I been living?
You have been living You haven't been living Have you been living?
He,she,it has been living He hasn't been living Has she been living?
We have been living We haven't been living Have we been living?
You have been living You haven't been living Have you been living?
They have been living They haven't been living Have they been living?
Present perfect continuous,function
The present perfect continuous refers to an unspecified time between
'before now' and 'now',The speaker is thinking about something that started
but perhaps did not finish in that period of time,He/she is interested in the
process as well as the result,and this process may still be going on,or may
have just finished.
Examples,
1,Actions that started in the past and continue in the present.
a,She has been waiting for you all day (=and she's still waiting now).
b,I've been working on this report since eight o'clock this morning (=and I
still haven't finished it).
c,They have been travelling since last October (=and they're not home
yet).
2,Actions that have just finished,but we are interested in the results:
a,She has been cooking since last night (=and the food on the table looks
delicious).
b,It's been raining (= and the streets are still wet).
c,Someone's been eating my chips (= half of them have gone).
Note:
Verbs without continuous forms
With verbs not normally used in the continuous form,use the present perfect
simple,See list of these verbs under 'Present Continuous':
a71 I've wanted to visit China for years.
a71 She's known Robert since she was a child.
a71 I've hated that music since I first heard it.
a71 I've heard a lot about you recently.
a71 We've understood everything we've heard this morning.
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TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT + for,since
Using the present perfect,we can define a period of time before now by
considering its duration,with for + a period of time,or by considering its
starting point,with since + a point in time.
For + a period of time:
for six years,for a week,for a month,for hours,for two
hours.
I have worked here for five years.
Since + a point in time:
since this morning,since last week,since yesterday,
since I was a child,since Wednesday,since 2 o'clock.
I have worked here since 1990.
More examples,
present perfect with for:
a,She has lived here for twenty years.
b,We have taught at this school for a long time.
c,Alice has been married for three months.
d,They have been at the hotel for a week.
present perfect with since:
a,She has lived here since 1980.
b,We have taught at this school since 1965.
c,Alice has been married since March 2nd.
d,They have been at the hotel since last Tuesday.
Note:
1,For and since can both be used with the past perfect.
2,Since can only be used with perfect tenses,for can also be used with the
simple past.
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TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT OR SIMPLE PAST?
Always use the present perfect when the time is not important,or not
specified,
Always use the simple past when details about the time or place are
specified or asked for.
Compare:
Present perfect Simple past
I have lived in Lyon,I lived in Lyon in 1989,
They have eaten Thai food,They ate Thai food last night,
Have you seen 'Othello'?,Where did you see 'Othello'?
We have been to Ireland,When did you go to Ireland?
There is also a difference of attitude that is often more important than the
time factor.
"What did you do at school today?" is a question about activities,and
considers the school day as finished.
"What have you done at school today?" is a question about results - "show
me",and regards the time of speaking as a continuation of the school day.
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TENSES
PRESENT CONTINUOUS FOR FUTURE EVENTS
1,Present continuous for the future,form
See notes on form in section on Present Continuous.
Subject + to be + base-ing
She is meeting
2,Future,Present continuous for the future,function
The present continuous is used to talk about arrangements for events at a
time later than now,
There is a suggestion that more than one person is aware of the event,and
that some preparation has already happened,e.g.
a,I'm meeting Jim at the airport = and both Jim and I have discussed this.
b,I am leaving tomorrow,= and I've already bought my train ticket.
c,We're having a staff meeting next Monday = and all members of staff have
been told about it,
More examples:
a,Is she seeing him tomorrow?
b,He isn't working next week.
c,They aren't leaving until the end of next year.
d,We are staying with friends when we get to Boston.
Note,in example (a),seeing is used in a continuous form because it means
meeting.
BE CAREFUL! The simple present is used when a future event is part of a
programme or time-table,Notice the difference between:
a,We're having a staff meeting next Monday,
b,We have a staff meeting next Monday.(= we have a meeting every
Monday,it's on the time-table.)
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TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT
1,Present perfect - form
The present perfect of any verb is composed of two elements,the
appropriate form of the auxiliary verb to have (present tense),plus the past
participle of the main verb,The past participle of a regular verb is base+ed,
e.g,played,arrived,looked,For irregular verbs,see the Table of irregular
verbs in the section called 'Verbs'.
Affirmative
Subject to have past participle
She has visited
Negative
Subject to have + not past participle
She hasn't visited
Interrogative
to have subject past participle
Has she visited..?
Interrogative negative
to have + not subject past participle
Hasn't she visited...?
Example,to walk,present perfect
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I have walked I haven't walked Have I walked?
You have walked You haven't walked Have you walked?
He,she,it has walked He,she,it hasn't walked Has he,she,it walked
We have walked We haven't walked Have we walked?
You have walked You haven't walked Have you walked?
They have walked They haven't walked Have they walked?
2,Present perfect,function
The Present Perfect is used to indicate a link between the present and the
past,The time of the action is before now but not specified,and we are
often more interested in the result than in the action itself.
BE CAREFUL! There may be a verb tense in your language with a similar
form,but the meaning is probably NOT the same.
The present perfect is used to describe:
1.An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present,
Example,I have lived in Bristol since 1984 (= and I still do.)
2,An action performed during a period that has not yet finished,Example,
She has been to the cinema twice this week (= and the week isn't over yet.)
3,A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past and now,
Example,We have visited Portugal several times.
4,An action that was completed in the very recent past,(expressed by
'just'),Example,I have just finished my work.
5,An action when the time is not important,Example,He has read 'War and
Peace',(the result of his reading is important)
Note,When we want to give or ask details about when,where,who,we use
the simple past,Example,He read 'War and Peace' last week,
Examples,
1,Actions started in the past and continuing in the present.
a,They haven't lived here for years.
b,She has worked in the bank for five years.
c,We have had the same car for ten years.
d,Have you played the piano since you were a child?
2,When the time period referred to has not finished.
a,I have worked hard this week.
b,It has rained a lot this year.
c,We haven't seen her today.
3,Actions repeated in an unspecified period between the past and now.
a,They have seen that film six times.
b,It has happened several times already.
c,She has visited them frequently.
d,We have eaten at that restaurant many times.
4,Actions completed in the very recent past (+just).
a,Have you just finished work?
b,I have just eaten.
c,We have just seen her.
d,Has he just left?
5,When the precise time of the action is not important or not known.
a,Someone has eaten my soup!
b,Have you seen 'Gone with the Wind'?
c,She's studied Japanese,Russian and English.
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'IF' SENTENCES AND THE 'UNREAL' PAST
In this section you will find information on sentences containing the word 'if',
the use of conditional tenses,and the 'unreal past',that is,when we use a
past tense but we are not actually referring to past time.
IF AND THE CONDITIONAL
There are four main types of 'if' sentences in English:
1,The 'zero' conditional,where the tense in both parts of the sentence is
the simple present:
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple present
If you heat ice
If it rains
simple present
it melts.
you get wet
In these sentences,the time is now or always and the situation is real and
possible,They are often used to refer to general truths.
2,The Type 1 conditional,where the tense in the 'if clause is the simple
present,and the tense in the main clause is the simple future
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple present
If it rains
If you don't hurry
Simple future
you will get wet
we will miss the train,
In these sentences,the time is the present or future and the situation is
real,They refer to a possible condition and its probable result.
3,The Type 2 conditional,where the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple
past,and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past
If it rained
If you went to bed earlier
Present conditional
you would get wet
you wouldn't be so tired,
In these sentences,the time is now or any time,and the situation is unreal,
They are not based on fact,and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical
condition and its probable result.
4,The Type 3 conditional,where the tense in the 'if' clause is the past
perfect,and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect
If it had rained
If you had worked harder
Perfect conditional
you would have got wet
you would have passed the exam,
In these sentences,the time is past,and the situation is contrary to reality,
The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed,and they
refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result.
A further type if 'if' sentence exists,where Type 2 and Type 3 are mixed,The
tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect,and the tense in the main clause is
the present conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect
If I had worked harder at
school
If we had looked at the map
Present conditional
I would have a better job now.
we wouldn't be lost,
In these sentences,the time is past in the 'if' clause,and present in the
main clause,They refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result
in the present.
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TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL
1,Form
In a Type 1 conditional sentence,the tense in the 'if clause is the simple
present,and the tense in the main clause is the simple future
'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION) MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT)
If + simple present
If it rains
If you don't hurry
Simple future
you will get wet
we will miss the train,
2,Function
In these sentences,the time is the present or future and the situation is
real,They refer to a possible condition and its probable result,They are
based on facts,and they are used to make statements about the real world,
and about particular situations,We often use such sentences to give
warnings:
a71 If you don't leave,I'll call the police.
a71 If you don't drop the gun,I'll shoot!
Examples:
a71 If you drop that glass,it will break.
a71 Nobody will notice if you make a mistake.
a71 If I have time,I'll finish that letter.
a71 What will you do if you miss the plane?
NOTE,We can use modals to express the degree of certainty of the result:
a71 If you drop that glass,it might break.
a71 I may finish that letter if I have time.
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TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
1,Form
In a Type 2 conditional sentence,the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple
past,and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past
If it rained
If you went to bed earlier
Present conditional
you would get wet
you wouldn't be so tired,
Present conditional,form
The present conditional of any verb is composed of two parts - the modal
auxiliary would + the infinitive of the main verb (without 'to'.)
Subject would infinitive without to
She would learn
Affirmative
I would go
Negative
I wouldn't ask
Interrogative
Would she come?
Interrogative negative
Wouldn't they accept?
Would,Contractions of would
In spoken English,would is contracted to 'd.
I'd We'd
you'd you'd
he'd,she'd they'd
The negative contraction = wouldn't.
Example,to accept,Present conditional
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I would accept I wouldn't accept Would I accept?
You would accept You wouldn't
accept
Would you accept?
He would accept She wouldn't
accept
Would he accept?
We would accept We wouldn't
accept
Would we accept?
You would accept You wouldn't
accept
Would you accept?
They would accept They wouldn't
accept
Would they accept?
2,Function
In these sentences,the time is now or any time,and the situation is unreal,
They are not based on fact,and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical
condition and its probable result,The use of the past tense after 'if'
indicates unreality,We can nearly always add a phrase starting with "but",
that expresses the real situation:
a71 If the weather wasn't so bad,we would go to the park (...but it is
bad,so we can't go)
a71 If I was the Queen of England,I would give everyone ￡100,(...but
I'm not,so I won't)
Examples of use:
1,To make a statement about something that is not real at present,but is
possible:
I would visit her if I had time,(= I haven't got time but I might have some
time)
2,To make a statement about a situation that is not real now and never
could be real:
If I were you,I'd give up smoking (but I could never be you)
Examples:
a,If I was a plant,I would love the rain.
b,If you really loved me,you would buy me a diamond ring.
c,If I knew where she lived,I would go and see her.
d,You wouldn't need to read this if you understood English grammar.
e,Would he go to the concert if I gave him a ticket?
f,They wouldn't invite her if they didn't like her
g,We would be able to buy a larger house if we had more money
NOTE,It is correct,and very common,to say "If I were" instead of "If I was".
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TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
1,Form
In a Type 3 conditional sentence,the tense in the 'if' clause is the past
perfect,and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect
If it had rained
If you had worked harder
Perfect conditional
you would have got wet
you would have passed the
exam,
Perfect conditional - form
The perfect conditional of any verb is composed of two elements,would +
the perfect infinitive of the main verb (=have + past participle):
Subject would perfect infinitive
He
They
would
would
have gone...
have stayed..,
Affirmative
I would have believed,.,
Negative
She wouldn't have given..,
Interrogative
Would you have left...?
Interrogative
negative
Wouldn't he have been...?
Example,to go,Past conditional
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I would have gone I wouldn't have gone Would I have gone?
You would have gone You wouldn't have gone Would you have gone?
He would have gone She wouldn't have gone Would it have gone?
We would have gone We wouldn't have gone Would we have gone?
You would have gone You wouldn't have gone Would you have gone?
They would have gone They wouldn't have gone Would they have gone?
In these sentences,the time is past,and the situation is contrary to
reality,The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed.
Type 3 conditional sentences,are truly hypothetical or unreal,because it is
now too late for the condition or its result to exist,There is always an
unspoken "but..." phrase:
a71 If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam
(but I didn't work hard,and I didn't pass the exam).
a71 If I'd known you were coming I'd have baked a cake
(but I didn't know,and I haven't baked a cake).
NOTE,Both would and had can be contracted to 'd,which can be confusing,
Remember that you NEVER use would in the IF-clause,so in the example
above,"If I'd known" must be "If I had known",and "I'd have baked" must be "I
would have baked.."
Examples:
a,If I'd known you were in hospital,I would have visited you.
b,I would have bought you a present if I'd known it was your birthday.
c,If they'd had a better goalkeeper they wouldn't have lost the game.
d,If you had told me you were on the Internet,I'd have sent you an e-mail.
e,Would you have bought an elephant if you'd known how much they eat?
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TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT
(See also Verbs -'Regular verbs in the simple present')
Simple present,third person singular
Note:
1,he,she,it,in the third person singular the verb always ends in -s:
he wants,she needs,he gives,she thinks.
2,Negative and question forms use DOES (=the third person of the
auxiliary'DO') + the infinitive of the verb.
He wants,Does he want? He does not want.
3,Verbs ending in -y,the third person changes the -y to -ies:
fly flies,cry cries
Exception,if there is a vowel before the -y:
play plays,pray prays
4,Add -es to verbs ending in:-ss,-x,-sh,-ch:
he passes,she catches,he fixes,it pushes
See also Verbs -'Regular verbs in the simple present',and 'Be,do & have'
Examples:
1,Third person singular with s or -es
a,He goes to school every morning.
b,She understands English.
c,It mixes the sand and the water.
d,He tries very hard.
e,She enjoys playing the piano,
2,Simple present,form
Example,to think,present simple
Affirmative Interrogative Negative
I think Do I think? I do not think,
You think Do you think? You don't think,
he,she,it thinks Does he,she,it think? He,she,it doesn't think,
we think Do we think? We don't think,
you think Do you think? You don't think,
The simple present is used:
1,to express habits,general truths,repeated actions or unchanging
situations,emotions and wishes:
I smoke (habit); I work in London (unchanging situation); London is a
large city (general truth)
2,to give instructions or directions:
You walk for two hundred metres,then you turn left.
3,to express fixed arrangements,present or future:
Your exam starts at 09.00
4,to express future time,after some conjunctions,after,when,
before,as soon as,until:
He'll give it to you when you come next Saturday.
BE CAREFUL! The simple present is not used to express actions happening
now,See Present Continuous,
Examples:
1,For habits
He drinks tea at breakfast.
She only eats fish.
They watch television regularly.
2,For repeated actions or events
We catch the bus every morning.
It rains every afternoon in the hot season.
They drive to Monaco every summer.
3,For general truths
Water freezes at zero degrees.
The Earth revolves around the Sun.
Her mother is Peruvian.
4,For instructions or directions
Open the packet and pour the contents into hot water.
You take the No.6 bus to Watney and then the No.10 to Bedford.
5,For fixed arrangements
His mother arrives tomorrow.
Our holiday starts on the 26th March
6,With future constructions
She'll see you before she leaves.
We'll give it to her when she arrives.
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TENSES
SUMMARY OF VERB TENSES
Present tenses
Simple present,She wants a drink.
Present continuous,They are walking home.
Past tenses
Simple past,Peter lived in China in 1965.
Past continuous,I was reading when she arrived.
Perfect tenses
Present Perfect,I have lived here since 1987.
Present perfect continuous,I have been living here for years.
Past perfect,We had been to see her several times before she visited us.
Past perfect continuous,He had been watching her for some time when she
turned and smiled.
Future perfect,We will have arrived in the States by the time you get this
letter.
Future perfect continuous,By the end of your course,you will have been
studying for five years.
Future tenses
Simple future,They will go to Italy next week.
Future continuous,I will be travelling by train.
Conditional tenses
Present conditional,If he had the money he would go
Present continuous conditional,He would be getting up now if he was in
Australia.
Perfect conditional,She would have visited me if she had had time.
Perfect continuous conditional,I would have been playing tennis if I hadn't
broken my arm.
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TENSES
FUTURE PERFECT
Future perfect,form
The future perfect is composed of two elements,the simple future of the
verb to have (will have) + the past participle of the main verb:
Subject will have past participle
He will have finished
Affirmative
I will have left
Negative
They won't have gone
Interrogative
Will we have seen?
Interrogative negative
Won't he have arrived?
Example,to arrive,future perfect
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I'll have arrived I won't have arrived Will I have arrived?
You'll have arrived You won't have arrived Will you have arrived?
He'll have arrived She won't have arrived Will it have arrived?
We'll have arrived We won't have arrived Will we have arrived?
You'll have arrived You won't have arrived Will you have arrived?
They'll have arrived They won't have arrived Will they have arrived?
Future perfect,function
The future perfect refers to a completed action in the future,When we use
this tense we are projecting ourselves forward into the future and looking
back at an action that will be completed some time later than now.
It is often used with a time expression using by + a point in future time.
Examples:
a,I'll have been here for six months on June 23rd.
b,By the time you read this I'll have left.
c,You will have finished your work by this time next week.
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TENSES
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Future perfect continuous,form
This form is composed of two elements,the future perfect of the verb to be
(will have been) + the present participle of the main verb (base+ing):
Subject will have been base+ing
We will have been living
Affirmative
I will have been working
Negative
I won't have been working
Interrogative
Will I have been working?
Interrogative negative
Won't I have been working?
Example,to live,Future Perfect continuous
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I'll have been living I won't have been living Will I have been living?
You'll have been
living
You won't have been living Will you have been
living?
He'll have been living He won't have been living Will she have been
living?
We'll have been
living
We won't have been living Will we have been
living?
You'll have been
living
You won't have been living Will you have been
living?
They'll have been
living
They won't have been
living
Will they have been
living?
Future perfect continuous,function
Like the future perfect simple,this form is used to project ourselves forward
in time and to look back,It refers to events or actions in a time between
now and some future time,that may be unfinished.
Examples:
a,I will have been waiting here for three hours by six o'clock.
b,By 2001 I will have been living here for sixteen years.
c,By the time I finish this course,I will have been learning English for twenty
years.
d,Next year I will have been working here for four years,
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TENSES
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
Future continuous,form
The future continuous is made up of two elements,the simple future of the
verb 'to be' + the present participle (base+ing)
Subject simple future,'to be' base+ing
You will be watching
Affirmative
I will be asking
Negative
She won't be leaving
Interrogative
Will they be retiring?
Interrogative negative
Won't we be staying?
Example,to stay,future continuous
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I will be staying I won't be staying Will I be staying?
You will be staying You won't be staying Will you be staying?
He,she,it will be staying He won't be staying Will she be staying?
We will be staying We won't be staying Will we be staying?
You will be staying You won't be staying Will you be staying?
They will be staying They won't be staying Will they be staying?
Future continuous,function
The future continuous refers to an unfinished action or event that will be in
progress at a time later than now,It is used:
a,to project ourselves into the future and see something happening,This
time next week I will be sun-bathing in Bali.
b,to refer to actions/events that will happen in the normal course of events,
I'll be seeing Jim at the conference next week.
c,in the interrogative form,especially with 'you',to distinguish between a
simple request for information and an invitation,Will you be coming to the
party tonight? (= request for information) Will you come to the party? (=
invitation)
d,to predict or guess about someone's actions or feelings,now or in the
future,You'll be feeling tired after that long walk,I expect.
More examples:
a,events in progress in the future:
When you are in Australia will you be staying with friends?
This time next week you will be working in your new job.
At four thirty on Tuesday afternoon I will be signing the
contract.
b,events/actions in normal course of events:
I'll be going into town this afternoon,is there anything you
want from the shops?
Will you be using the car tomorrow? - No,you can take it.
I'll be seeing Jane this evening - I'll give her the message.
c,asking for information:
Will you be bringing your friend to the pub tonight?
Will Jim be coming with us?
d,predicting or guessing:
You'll be feeling thirsty after working in the sun.
He'll be coming to the meeting,I expect.
You'll be missing the sunshine now you're back in England.
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TENSES
PRESENT PERFECT + ever,never,already,yet
The adverbs ever and never express the idea of an unidentified time before
now e.g,Have you ever visited Berlin?
'Ever' is used
a,in questions,e.g,
Have you ever been to England?
Has she ever met the Prime Minister?
b,in negative questions e.g.
Haven't they ever been to Europe?
Haven't you ever eaten Chinese food?
c,and in negative statements using the pattern
nothing.......ever,nobody.......ever e.g.
Nobody has ever said that to me before.
Nothing like this has ever happened to us,
d,'Ever' is also used with 'The first time...,e.g.
It's the first time (that) I've ever eaten snails,
This is the first time I've ever been to England,
'Never' means at no time before now,and is the same as not,...,ever:
I have never visited Berlin
BE CAREFUL!
You must not use never and not together:
I haven't never been to Italy.
I have never been to Italy.
Position,'Ever' and 'never' are always placed before the
main verb (past participle).
Already and yet:
Already refers to an action that has happened at an unspecified time before
now,It suggests that there is no need for repetition,e.g.
a,I've already drunk three coffees this morning,(and you're offering me
another one!)
b,Don't write to John,I've already done it.
It is also used in questions:
a,Have you already written to John?
b,Has she finished her homework already?
Position,already can be placed before the main verb (past
participle) or at the end of the sentence:
a,I have already been to Tokyo.
b,I have been to Tokyo already.
yet is used in negative statements and questions,to mean (not) in the period
of time between before now and now,(not) up to and including the present,
e.g.
a,Have you met Judy yet?
b,I haven't visited the Tate Gallery yet.
c,Has he arrived yet?
d,They haven't eaten yet.
Position,Yet is usually placed at the end of the sentence.
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TENSES
Introduction
It is important to understand the meaning and use of tenses in English,The
form may be like that of a tense in your own language,but the meaning may
be different,so be very careful!
Summary of Verb Tenses
Present tenses
Simple present
Present continuous
Past tenses
Simple past
Past continuous
Perfect tenses
Present Perfect
Present perfect continuous
Past perfect
Past perfect continuous
Future perfect
Future perfect continuous
Future tenses
Simple future
Future continuous
Conditional tenses
Present conditional
Present continuous conditional
Perfect conditional
Perfect continuous conditional
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UNREAL PAST
The past tense is sometimes used in English to refer to an 'unreal' situation,
So,although the tense is the past,we are usually talking about the present,
e.g,in a Type 2 conditional sentence:
If an elephant and a mouse fell in love,they would have many problems.
Although fell is in the past tense,we are talking about a hypothetical
situation that might exist now or at any time,but we are not referring to the
past,We call this use the unreal past.
Other situations where this occurs are:
a71 after other words and expressions like 'if' (supposing,if only,what
if);
a71 after the verb 'to wish';
a71 after the expression 'I'd rather..'
Expressions like 'if'
The following expressions can be used to introduce hypothetical situations:
- supposing,if only,what if,They are followed by a past tense to indicate
that the condition they introduce is unreal:
a71 Supposing an elephant and a mouse fell in love? (= but we know this is unlikely or
impossible)
a71 What if we painted the room purple? (= that would be very surprising)
a71 If only I had more money,(= but I haven't).
These expressions can also introduce hypothetical situations in the past and
then they are followed by the past perfect.
Examples:
a71 If only I hadn't kissed the frog (= I did and it was a mistake because
he turned into a horrible prince,but I can't change it now.)
a71 What if the elephant had trodden on the mouse? (She didn't,but we
can imagine the result!)
a71 Supposing I had given that man my money! (I didn't,so I've still got
my money now.)
The verb to wish
The verb to wish is followed by an 'unreal' past tense when we want to talk
about situations in the present that we are not happy about but cannot
change:
a71 I wish I had more money (=but I haven't)
a71 She wishes she was beautiful (= but she's not)
a71 We wish we could come to your party (but we can't)
When we want to talk about situations in the past that we are not happy
about or actions that we regret,we use the verb to wish followed by the
past perfect,
a71 I wish I hadn't said that (= but I did)
a71 He wishes he hadn't bought the car (= but he did buy it.)
a71 I wish I had taken that job in New York (= but I didn't,so I'm stuck in
Bristol)
NOTE,When we want to talk about situations we are not happy about and
where we want someone else to change them,we use to wish followed by
would + infinitive:
a71 I wish he would stop smoking,(= I don't like it,I want him to change
it)
a71 I wish you would go away,(= I don't want you here,I want you to
take some action)
a71 I wish you wouldn't squeeze the toothpaste from the middle! (= I
want you to change your habits.)
I'd rather and it's time...
These two expressions are also followed by an unreal past,The verb is in the
past tense,but the situation is in the present.
When we want to talk about a course of action we would prefer someone
else to take,we use I'd rather + past tense:
a71 I'd rather you went
a71 He'd rather you called the police
a71 I'd rather you didn't hunt elephants.
NOTE,the stress can be important in these sentences,to show what our
preference is:
a71 I'd rather you went = not me,
a71 I'd rather you went = don't stay
a71 He'd rather you called the police = he doesn't want to
a71 He'd rather you called the police = not the ambulance service
Similarly,when we want to say that now is a suitable moment to do
something,either for ourselves or for someone else,we use it's time + past
tense:
a71 It's (high) time I went.
a71 It's time you paid that bill.
a71 Don't you think it's time you had a haircut?
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UNLESS
Unless means the same as if...not,Like if,it is followed by a present tense,a
past tense or a past perfect (never by 'would'),It is used instead of if + not
in conditional sentences of all types:
Type 1,(Unless + present)
a,You'll be sick unless you stop eating,(= You will be sick if you
don't stop eating)
b,I won't pay unless you provide the goods immediately,(= If
you don't provide them I won't pay)
c,You'll never understand English unless you study this grammar
carefully,(= You'll never understand if you don't study...)
Type 2,(Unless + past)
a,Unless he was very ill,he would be at work.
b,I wouldn't eat that food unless I was really hungry.
c,She would be here by now unless she was stuck in the traffic.
Type 3,(Unless + past perfect)
a,The elephant wouldn't have seen the mouse unless she'd had
perfect eyesight.
b,I wouldn't have phoned him unless you'd suggested it.
c,They would have shot her unless she'd given them the
money.
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MIXED CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
It is possible for the two parts of a conditional sentence to refer to different
times,and the resulting sentence is a "mixed conditional" sentence,There
are two types of mixed conditional sentence:
A,Present result of past condition:
1,Form
The tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect,and the tense in the main
clause is the present conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + past perfect
If I had worked harder at
school
If we had looked at the map
Present conditional
I would have a better job now.
we wouldn't be lost,
2,Function
In these sentences,the time is past in the 'if' clause,and present in the
main clause,They refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result
in the present,They express a situation which is contrary to reality both in
the past and in the present:
'If I had worked harder at school' is contrary to past fact - I didn't work hard
at school,and 'I would have a better job now' is contrary to present fact - I
haven't got a good job.
If we had looked at the map (we didn't),we wouldn't be lost (we are lost).
Examples:
a71 I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job.
a71 If you'd caught that plane you'd be dead now.
a71 If you hadn't spent all your money on CDs,you wouldn't be broke.
B,Past result of present or continuing condition.
1,Form
The tense in the If-clause is the simple past,and the tense in the main
clause is the perfect conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past
If I wasn't afraid of
spiders
If we didn't trust him
Perfect conditional
I would have picked it up.
we would have sacked him months
ago,
2,Function
In these sentences the time in the If-clause is now or always,and the time
in the main clause is before now,They refer to an unreal present situation
and its probable (but unreal) past result:
'If I wasn't afraid of spiders' is contrary to present reality - I am afraid of spiders,
and 'I would have picked it up' is contrary to past reality - I didn't pick it up.
a71
'If we didn't trust him' is contrary to present reality - we do trust him,and 'we
would have sacked him' is contrary to past reality - we haven't sacked him,
Examples:
a,If she wasn't afraid of flying she wouldn't have travelled by boat.
b,I'd have been able to translate the letter if my Italian was better.
c,If I was a good cook,I'd have invited them to lunch.
d,If the elephant wasn't in love with the mouse,she'd have trodden on him
by now.
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PERFECT CONDITIONAL,CONTINUOUS
1,Perfect conditional,continuous - Form
This tense is composed of two elements,the perfect condtional of the verb
'to be' (would have been) + the present participle (base+ing).
Subject would have been base+ing
I
We
would have been
would have been
sitting
swimming
Affirmative
I would have been studying,
Negative
You wouldn't have been living,
Interrogative
Would we have been travelling?
Interrogative negative
Wouldn't it have been working?
Examples,to work,Past continuous conditional
Affirmative Negative
I would have been working I wouldn't have been working
You would have been working You wouldn't have been working,
He would have been working She wouldn't have been working
We would have been working We wouldn't have been working
You would have been working You wouldn't have been working
They would have been working They wouldn't have been working
Interrogative Interrogative negative
Would I have been working? Wouldn't I have been working?
Would you have been working? Wouldn't you have been working?
Would he have been working? Wouldn't she have been working?
Would we have been working? Wouldn't we have been working?
Would you have been working? Wouldn't you have been working?
Would they have been working? Wouldn't they have been working?
2,Function
This tense can be used in Type 3 conditional sentences,It refers to the
unfulfilled result of the action in the if-clause,and expresses this result as
an unfinished or continuous action,Again,there is always an unspoken
"but.." phrase:
a71 If the weather had been better (but it wasn't),I'd have been sitting
in the garden when he arrived (but I wasn't and so I didn't see him).
a71 If she hadn't got a job in London (but she did),she would have been
working in Paris (but she wasn't).
Examples:
a71 If I'd had a ball I would have been playing football.
a71 If I'd had any money I'd have been drinking with my friends in the
pub that night.
a71 If I had known it was dangerous I wouldn't have been climbing that
cliff.
a71 She wouldn't have been wearing a seat-belt if her father hadn't told
her to.
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PRESENT CONTINUOUS
CONDITIONAL
In type 2 conditional sentences,the
continuous form of the present
conditional may be used:
If I were a millionaire,I wouldn't be
doing this job!
1,Present continuous conditional -
form.
This form is composed of two elements,
the present conditional of the verb 'to be'
(would be) + the present participle of the
main verb (base+ing).
Subject would be base+ing
He
They
would be
would be
going
living
Affirmative
We would be coming
Negative
You wouldn't
be
working
Interrogative
Would you be sharing?
Interrogative negative
Wouldn't they be playing?
Example,to live,Present continuous
conditional.
Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I would be
living
I wouldn't be
living
Would I be
living?
You would
be living
You wouldn't
be living
Would you be
living?
He would be
living
She wouldn't
be living
Would he be
living?
We would
be living
We wouldn't
be living
Would we be
living?
You would
be living
You wouldn't
be living
Would you be
living?
They would
be living
They
wouldn't be
living
Would they
be living?
2,Present continuous conditional -
function
This form is common in Type 2 conditional
sentences,It expresses an unfinished or
continuing action or situation,which is
the probable result of an unreal
condition,
a71 I would be working in Italy if I
spoke Italian,
(but I don't speak Italian,so I am
not working in Italy.
a71 She would be living with Jack if
she wasn't living with her parents.
(but she is living with her parents
so she's not living with Jack).
More examples:
a71 I wouldn't be eating this if I
wasn't extremely hungry.
a71 If I had an exam tomorrow,I'd be
revising now.
a71 You wouldn't be smiling if you
knew the truth.
NOTE,This form is also found in,mixed
conditional sentences (See section on
Mixed Conditional Sentences); in indirect
speech,
She said "I'll be working in the garden."
She said she would be working in
the garden,(See section on Indirect
Speech)
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TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT FOR FUTURE EVENTS
1,Form - see Simple Present section.
2,Simple present for future events - function
The simple present is used to make statements about events at a time later
than now,when the statements are based on present facts,and when these
facts are something fixed like a time-table,schedule,calendar,
Examples,
a,The plane arrives at 18.00 tomorrow.
b,She has a yoga class tomorrow morning.
c,The restaurant opens at 19.30 tonight.
d,Next Thursday at 14.00 there is an English exam.
Note the difference between,
a,The plane leaves in ten minutes (= statement of fact)
b,The plane's going to leave in ten minutes (= prediction
based on present situation,meaning "...and if you don't hurry
up you're going to miss it!")
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TENSES
OTHER WAYS OF TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE
1,IS TO + INFINITIVE
Form:
This form is composed of two elements,the appropriate form of the verb to
be + to (am to,are to,is to),and the infinitive of the main verb without
'to'.,
Subject to be to infinitive without to
We are to leave
Affirmative
She is to travel
Negative
You are not (aren't) to travel
Interrogative
Am I to travel?
Interrogative negative
Aren't they to travel?
Function:
This form refers to an obligation to do something at a time later than now,
It is similar to 'must',but there is a suggestion that something has been
arranged or organised for us,It is not normally used in spoken English,but
might be found in spy stories,e.g.
"You are to leave this room at once,and you are to travel by
train to London,In London you are to pick up your ticket
from Mr Smith,and you are to fly to your destination alone,
When you arrive,you are to meet our agent,Mr X,who will
give you further information,You are to destroy this message
now."
2,BE + ABOUT TO + INFINITIVE
Form,
This form is composed of three elements,the appropriate form of the verb
to be,present tense,+ 'about to' + the infinitive of the main verb without
'to':
Subject be about to infinitive without to
I am about to leave
She is about to arrive
Function:
This form refers to a time immediately after the moment of speaking,and
emphasises that the event or action will happen very soon,
Examples:
a,She is about to leave.
b,You are about to see something very unusual.
c,I am about to go to a meeting - can I talk to you later?
It is often used with the word 'just',which emphasises the immediacy of the
action,
We are just about to go to sleep.
Sally is just about to take an exam.
This form can also be used in the simple past tense to refer to an action that
was imminent,but was interrupted,In such cases it is often followed by a
'when - clause':
She was about to leave when he arrived.
I was just about to telephone her when she walked into the house.
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TENSES
FUTURE WITH GOING TO
1,Future with Going to - form
This form is composed of three elements,the appropriate form of the verb
'to be' + going to + the infinitive of the main verb:
Subject 'to be' going to infinitive
She is going to leave
2,Future with Going to - function
The use of 'going to' to refer to future events suggests a very strong
association with the present,The time is not important - it is later than now,
but the attitude is that the event depends on a present situation,that we
know about,So it is used:
a) to refer to our plans and intentions:
We're going to move to London next year,(= the plan is in our minds now.)
b) to make predictions based on present evidence:
Look at those clouds - it's going to pour with rain! (= It's clear from what I
can see now.)
Note,In everyday speech,'going to' is often shortened to 'gonna',especially
in American English.
More examples:
Plans and intentions:
a,Is Freddy going to buy a new car soon?
b,Are John and Pam going to visit Milan when they are in Italy?
c,I think Nigel and Mary are going to have a party next week.
Predictions based on present evidence:
a,There's going to be a terrible accident!
b,He's going to be a brilliant politician.
c,I'm going to have terrible indigestion.
NOTE,It is unusual to say 'I'm going to go to...'
Instead,we use 'going to' + a place or event:
Examples:
We are going to the beach tomorrow.
She is going to the ballet tonight.
Are you going to the party tomorrow night?
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NOUNS
USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS WITH NOUNS
Capital letters are used with:
Names and titles of people
a,Winston Churchill
b,Marilyn Monroe
c,the Queen of England
d,the President of the United States
e,the Headmaster of Eton
f,Doctor Mathews
g,Professor Samuels,
Note,The personal pronoun 'I' is always written with a
capital letter,
Titles of works,books etc.
a,War and Peace
b,The Merchant of Venice
c,Crime and Punishment
d,Tristan and Isolde
Months of the year
January July
February August
March September
April October
May November
June December
Days of the week
Monday Friday
Tuesday Saturday
Wednesday Sunday
Thursday
Seasons
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Holidays
Christmas Easter New Year's Day
Boxing Day May Day Thanksgiving Day
Geographical names..,
names of countries and continents
America England Scotland
China Peru Albania
Africa Europe Asia
names of regions,states,districts etc.
Sussex California Queensland
Provence Tuscany Vaud
Florida Costa Brava Tyrol
names of cities,towns,villages etc.
London Cape Town Rome
Florence Bath Wagga Wagga
Vancouver Wellington Peking
names of rivers,oceans,seas,lakes etc.
the Atlantic the Dead Sea the Pacific
Lake Leman Lake Victoria Lake Michigan
the Rhine the Thames the Nile
names of geographical formations
the Himalayas the Alps the Sahara
Adjectives relating to nationality nouns
France - French music
Australia - Australian animals
Germany - German literature
Arabia - Arabic writing
Indonesia - Indonesian poetry
China - Chinese food
Names of streets,buildings,parks etc.
Park Lane Central Avenue Pall Mall
George Street Sydney Opera House Central Park
Hyde Park the Empire State Building Wall Street
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NOUNS
COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Countable nouns are for things we can count
Example,dog,horse,man,shop,idea.
They usually have a singular and plural form.
Example,two dogs,ten horses,a man,six men,the shops,a few ideas.
Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count
Example,tea,sugar,water,air,rice.
They are often the names for abstract ideas or qualities.
Example,knowledge,beauty,anger,fear,love.
They are used with a singular verb,They usually do not have a plural form,
We cannot say sugars,angers,knowledges.
Examples of common uncountable nouns:
money,furniture,happiness,sadness,research,evidence,safety,
beauty,knowledge.
We cannot use a/an with these nouns,To express a quantity of one of these
nouns,use a word or expression like:
some,a lot of,a piece of,a bit of,a great deal of...
Examples:
a71 There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease.
a71 He gave me a great deal of advice before my interview.
a71 They've got a lot of furniture.
a71 Can you give me some information about uncountable nouns?
Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in English,
Some of the most common of these are:
accommodation
advice
baggage
behaviour
bread
furniture
information
luggage
news
progress
traffic
travel
trouble
weather
work
BE CAREFUL with the noun 'hair' which is normally uncountable in English:
She has long blonde hair
It can also be countable when referring to individual hairs:
My father's getting a few grey hairs now
See also Adjectives - Comparisons of quantity
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REPORTED SPEECH
CHANGE OF TIME AND PLACE REFERENCE
Time/place references are also changed in reported speech
Examples:
"I will see you here tomorrow",she said,She said that she would see
me there the next day.
The most common of these changes are shown below:
Today that day
"I saw him today",she said,She said that she had seen him that day,
Yesterday the day before
"I saw him yesterday",she said,
She said that she had seen him the day
before,
The day before yesterday two days before
"I met her the day before yesterday",he
said,
He said that he had met her two days
before,
Tomorrow the next/following day
"I'll see you tomorrow",he said He said that he would see me the next day,
The day after tomorrow in two days time/ two days later
"We'll come the day after tomorrow",
they said,
They said that they would come in two days
time/ two days later,
Next week/month/year the following week/month/year
"I have an appointment next week",she
said,
She said that she had an appointment the
following week,
Last week/month/year the previous/week/month/year
"I was on holiday last week",he told us,
He told us that he had been on holiday the
previous week,
ago before
"I saw her a week ago," he said,He said he had seen her a week before,
this (for time) that
"I'm getting a new car this week",she
said,
She said she was getting a new car that
week,
this/that (adjectives) the
"Do you like this shirt?" he asked He asked if I liked the shirt,
here there
He said,"I live here",
He told me he lived there,
Other changes,
In general,personal pronouns change to the third person singular or plural,
except when the speaker reports his own words:
I/me/my/mine,you/your/yours him/his/her/hers
we/us/our/ours,you/your/yours they/their/theirs:
He said,"I like your new car." He told her that he liked her new car.
I said,"I'm going to my friend's house." I said that I was going to my
friend's house.
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REPORTED SPEECH
TENSE CHANGES
Normally,the tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the
tense in direct speech:
She said,"I am tired." She said that she was tired.
The changes are shown below:
Simple present Simple past
"I always drink coffee",she said She said that she always drank coffee,
Present continuous Past continuous
"I am reading a book",he explained,
He explained that he was reading a
book
Simple past Past perfect
"Bill arrived on Saturday",he said,
He said that Bill had arrived on
Saturday
Present perfect Past perfect
"I have been to Spain",he told me,He told me that he had been to Spain
Past perfect Past perfect
"I had just turned out the light," he
explained,
He explained that he had just turned
out the light,
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
They complained,"We have been waiting
for hours",
They complained that they had been
waiting for hours,
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
"We were living in Paris",they told me,
They told me that they had been living
in Paris,
Future Present conditional
"I will be in Geneva on Monday",he said
He said that he would be in Geneva on
Monday,
Future continuous Conditional continuous
She said,"I'll be using the car next
Friday",
She said that she would be using the car
next Friday,
NOTE:
1,You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the
present,or if the original statement was about something that is still true,
e.g.
He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one.
We explained that it is very difficult to find our house.
2,These modal verbs do not change in reported speech:
might,could,would,should,ought to,e.g.
We explained that it could be difficult to find our house.
She said that she might bring a friend to the party.
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THE INFINITIVE
INFINITIVE AFTER QUESTION WORDS
These verbs,ask,decide,explain,forget,know,show,tell,understand,
can be followed by a question word such as where,how,what,who,when
or 'whether' + the 'to-infinitive'.
Examples:
a71 She asked me how to use the washing machine.
a71 Do you understand what to do?
a71 Tell me when to press the button,
a71 I've forgotten where to put this little screw.
a71 I can't decide whether to wear the red dress or the black one,
The question word Why is followed by the zero infinitive in suggestions:
Examples:
a71 Why wait until tomorrow?
a71 Why not ask him now?
a71 Why walk when we can go in the car?
a71 Why not buy a new bed for your bedroom?
a71 Why leave before the end of the game?
a71 Why not spend a week in Beirut and a week in Baghdad?
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THE INFINITIVE
NEGATIVE INFINITIVE
To form the negative infinitive,place not before the to- or zero infinitive:
e.g,not to worry,
It's hard not to worry about exams.
Examples:
a71 I decided not to go to London.
a71 He asked me not to be late.
a71 Elephants ought not to marry mice.
a71 You'd better not smile at the crocodile.
a71 I'd rather not eat meat.
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THE INFINITIVE
OTHER FORMS
The infinitive can have the following forms,
a71 The perfect infinitive
a71 The continuous infinitive
a71 The perfect continuous infinitive
a71 The passive infinitive
NOTE,as with the present infinitive,there are situations where the to is
omitted,e.g,after most modal auxiliaries.
The perfect infinitive:
to have + past participle,e.g,to have broken,to have
seen,to have saved.
This form is most commonly found in Type 3 conditional
sentences,using the conditional perfect,e.g,If I had known
you were coming I would have baked a cake.
Examples,
a71 Someone must have broken the window and climbed
in.
a71 I would like to have seen the Taj Mahal when I was in
India.
a71 He pretended to have seen the film.
a71 If I'd seen the ball I would have caught it.
The continuous infinitive:
to be + present participle,e.g.to be swimming,to be
joking,to be waiting
Examples:
a71 I'd really like to be swimming in a nice cool pool right
now.
a71 You must be joking!
a71 I happened to be waiting for the bus when the
accident happened.
The perfect continuous infinitive:
to have been + present participle
Examples:
to have been crying
to have been waiting
to have been painting
a71 The woman seemed to have been crying.
a71 You must have been waiting for hours!
a71 He pretended to have been painting all day.
The passive infinitive:
to be + past participle,e.g,to be given,to be shut,to be
opened
Examples:
a71 I am expecting to be given a pay-rise next month.
a71 These doors should be shut.
a71 This window ought to be opened.
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THE INFINITIVE
FUNCTION
The most common uses of the infinitive are:
To indicate the purpose or intention of an action
(where the 'to' has the same meaning as 'in order to' or
'so as to'):
a71 She's gone to collect her pay cheque.
a71 The three bears went into the forest to find
firewood.
As the subject of the sentence:
a71 To be or not to be,that is the question.
a71 To know her is to love her.
(Note,this is more common in written English than
spoken)
With nouns or pronouns,to indicate what something
can be used for,or what is to be done with it:
a71 Would you like something to drink?
a71 I haven't anything to wear.
a71 The children need a garden to play in.
After adjectives in these patterns:
a71 It is + adjective +to-infinitive
It is good to talk
a71 It is + adjective + infinitive + for someone + to-
infinitive.
It is hard for elephants to see mice
a71 It is + adjective + infintive + of someone + to-
infinitive.
It is unkind of her to say that.
After an adjective + noun when a comment or
judgement is being made:
a71 It was a stupid place to park the car.
a71 This is the right thing to do.
a71 It was an astonishing way to behave,
With too and enough in these patterns:
too much/many (+ noun) + to-infinitive
There's too much sugar to put in this bowl.
I had too many books to carry.
too + adjective + to-infinitive
This soup is too hot to eat.
She was too tired to work,
too + adverb + to-infinitive
He arrived too late to see the actors.
enough (+ noun) + to-infinitive
I've had enough (food) to eat.
adjective + enough + to-infinitive
She's old enough to make up her own mind.
not enough (+noun) + to-infinitive
There isn't enough snow to ski on.
not + adjective + enough + to-infinitive
You're not old enough to have grand-
children!
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TO GET
TO GET + direct object = to obtain,to receive,to buy:
To obtain
a71 She got her driving license last week.
a71 They got permission to live in Switzerland.
To receive
a71 I got a letter from my friend in Nigeria.
a71 He gets ￡1,000 a year from his father.
To buy
a71 She got a new coat from Zappaloni in Rome.
a71 We got a new television for the sitting room.
TO GET + place expression = reach,arrive at a place:
a71 We got to London around 6 p.m,
a71 What time will we get there?
a71 When did you get back from New York?
TO GET + adjective = to become,show a change of state:
a71 It's getting hotter.
a71 By the time they reached the house they were getting hungry.
a71 I'm getting tired of all this nonsense.
a71 My mother's getting old and needs looking after.
a71 It gets dark very early in the winter.
a71 Don't touch the stove until is gets cool.
TO GET + preposition / adverb is used in many phrasal verbs,Here are some
of the most common ones:
Phrasal Verb Meaning
get at try to express
get away with escape punishment for a crime or bad action
get by manage (financially)
get down descend; depress
get off leave a form of transport
(train,bus,bicycle,plane)
get on enter/sit on a form of transport
(train,bus,bicycle,plane);
have a relationship with someone;
manage
get out of avoid doing something,especially a duty
get over recover (from an illness,a surprise)
get through use or finish the supply of something
get up leave your bed
get up to do - usually something bad
Examples:
a,He got on his bicycle and rode down the street.
b,He gets up at 6.00 a.m,every morning.
c,She got out of the washing-up every day,even when it was her turn.
d,We got off the train just before the bomb exploded.
e,We've got through all the sugar - can you buy some more?
f,The children are very quiet - I wonder what they're getting up to.
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TO GET
'To get' can be used in a number of patterns and has a number of meanings.
TO GET + direct object = obtain,receive,buy.
Example,I got my passport last week.
More Examples
TO GET + place expression = reach,arrive at a place,
Example,How are you getting home tonight?
More Examples
TO GET + adjective = become,show a change of state.
Example,I am getting old.
More Examples
TO GET + preposition/adverb is used in many phrasal verbs.
Example,This rain is really getting me down.
More Examples
TO GET has a number of other meanings:
a,Do you get it? (= understand)
b,He's getting dinner tonight,(= prepare a meal)
c,I'll get the bill,(= pay)
d,That really gets me! (= irritate,annoy)
Other expressions with GET:
a71 To get rid of something means to throw it away.
Example,I'm going to get rid of all these old newspapers.
a71 To get out of be on the wrong side means to be in a bad mood.
Example,He got out of the wrong side of the bed this morning and
he's been horrible all day.
a71 To get your own back means to have your revenge or punish someone.
Example,She's getting her own back for all those rude things you
said at the party last night.
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DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH
You can answer the question "What did he/she say?" in two ways:
a71 by repeating the words spoken (direct speech)
a71 by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech).
Direct Speech
Direct speech repeats,or quotes,the exact words spoken,When we use
direct speech in writing,we place the words spoken between inverted
commas ("....") and there is no change in these words,We may be reporting
something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation),or
telling someone later about a previous conversation
Examples:
She says "What time will you be home?"
She said "What time will you be home?"
and I said "I don't know! "
"There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.
John said,"There's an elephant outside the window."
Reported Speech
Reported speech is usually used to talk about the past,so we normally
change the tense of the words spoken,We use reporting verbs like 'say','tell',
'ask',and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words,
Inverted commas are not used.
She said,"I saw him." She said that she had seen him.
a,'That' may be omitted:
She told him that she was happy.
She told him she was happy.
b,'Say' and 'tell':
Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:
He said that he was tired.
Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e,with an
indirect object):
He told me that he was tired.
'Talk' and 'speak' are used:
- to describe the action of communicating:
He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.
- with 'about' to refer to what was said:
He talked (to us) about his parents,
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REPORTED SPEECH
HOPES,INTENTIONS,PROMISES
When we report an intention,hope or promise,we use an appropriate
reporting verb followed by a that-clause or a to-infinitive:
"I'll pay you the money tomorrow."
He promised to pay me the money the next day.
He promised that he would pay me the money the next day.
Other verbs used in this pattern include:
hope,propose,threaten,guarantee,swear.
Examples:
a,"I'll be back by lunchtime."
He promised to be back by lunchtime.
He promised that he would be back by lunchtime.
b,"We should arrive in London before nightfall."
They hoped to arrive in London before nightfall.
They hoped they would arrive in London before nightfall.
c,"Give me the keys to the safe or I'll shoot you!"
He threatened to shoot me if I didn't give him the keys to the safe.
He threatened that he would shoot me if I didn't give him the keys
to the safe.
Note,see also Summary of Reporting Verbs.
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REPORTED SPEECH
ORDERS,REQUESTS,SUGGESTIONS
1,When we want to report an order or request,we can use a verb like 'tell'
with a to-clause.
Examples:
He told me to go away.
The pattern is verb + indirect object + to-clause.
(The indirect object is the person spoken to.)
Other verbs used to report orders and requests in this way are,command,
order,warn,ask,advise,invite,beg,teach,forbid.
Examples:
a,The doctor said to me,"Stop smoking!",
The doctor told me to stop smoking.
b,"Get out of the car!" said the policeman,
The policeman ordered him to get out of the car.
c,"Could you please be quiet," she said,
She asked me to be quiet.
d,The man with the gun said to us,"Don't move!"
The man with the gun warned us not to move.
(See also section on Verbs followed by infinitive and Verbs followed by
gerund)
2,Requests for objects are reported using the pattern
ask + for + object,Examples:
a,"Can I have an apple?",she asked,She asked for an apple.
b,"Can I have the newspaper,please?"
He asked for the newspaper,
c,"May I have a glass of water?" he said,
He asked for a glass of water.
d,"Sugar,please."
She asked for the sugar.
e,"Could I have three kilos of onions?"
He asked for three kilos of onions.
3,Suggestions are usually reported with a that-clause,'That' and 'should' are
optional in these clauses:
She said,"Why don't you get a mechanic to look at the car?" She
suggested that I should get a mechanic to look at the car,OR She suggested I
get a mechanic to look at the car.
Other reporting verbs used in this way are,insist,recommend,demand,
request,propose.
Examples:
a,"It would be a good idea to see the dentist",said my mother,My
mother suggested I see the dentist.
b,The dentist said,"I think you should use a different toothbrush",The
dentist recommended that I should use a different toothbrush.
c,My manager said,"I think we should examine the budget carefully at this
meeting." My manager proposed that we examine the budget carefully
at the meeting.
d,"Why don't you sleep overnight at my house?" she said,She suggested
that I sleep overnight at her house.
Notes:
Suggest can also be followed by a gerund,I suggested postponing the visit to
the dentist.
See also Summary of Reporting Verbs.
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'- ING' FORM
VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE GERUND
The gerund is used after certain verbs.
Example:
miss,I miss living in England.
The most important of these verbs are shown below.
Those marked * can also be followed by a that-clause
Example:
VERB GERUND
She admitted..,breaking the window
THAT-CLAUSE
She admitted..,that she had broken the window,
acknowledge,*
admit,*
anticipate,* appreciate,*
avoid,
celebrate,
consider,contemplate,
defer,
delay,
deny,*
detest,
dislike,
dread,
enjoy,
entail,
escape,
excuse,
fancy (=imagine)*,
finish,
forgive,
imagine,*
involve,
keep,
loathe,
mean,(=have as result)*
mention,*
mind,
miss,
pardon,
postpone,
prevent,
propose,*
recall,*
recollect,*
remember,
report,*
resent,
resist,
risk,
save (=prevent the wasted
effort)
stop,
suggest,*
understand,*
Notes,
Appreciate is followed by a possessive adjective and the gerund when the
gerund does not refer to the subject,Compare,
I appreciate having some time off work,(I'm having the time...)
I appreciate your giving me some time off work,(You're giving me the
time...)
Excuse,forgive,pardon can be followed by an object and the gerund or for
+ object and the gerund (both common in spoken English),or a possessive
adjective + gerund (more formal and less likely to be said):
Excuse me interrupting.
Excuse me for interrupting.
Excuse my interrupting.
Suggest can be used in a number of ways,but BE CAREFUL,It is important
not to confuse these patterns:
suggest/suggested (+ possessive adjective) + gerund:
He suggests going to Glastonbury
He suggested going to Glastonbury
He suggested/suggests my going to Glastonbury
suggest/suggested + that-clause (where both that and should
may be omitted):
He suggests that I should go to Glastonbury
He suggested that I should go to Glastonbury
He suggested/suggests I should go to Glastonbury
He suggested/suggests I go to Glastonbury
He suggested I went to Glastonbury,
suggest/suggested + question word + infinitive:
He suggested where to go.
Propose is followed by the gerund when it means 'suggest':
John proposed going to the debate
but by the infinitive when it means 'intend':
The Government proposes bringing in new laws..
Stop can be followed by a gerund or infinitive,but there is a change of
meaning - see GERUND / INFINITIVE? section,
Dread is followed by the infinitive when used with 'think',in the expression 'I
dread to think':
I dread to think what she'll do next,
Prevent is followed
EITHER by a possessive adjective + gerund,
You can't prevent my leaving.
OR by an object + from + gerund:
You can't prevent me from leaving.
Examples:
a71 Normally,a mouse wouldn't contemplate marrying an elephant.
a71 Most mice dread meeting elephants.
a71 We can't risk getting wet - we haven't got any dry clothes.
a71 If you take that job it will mean getting home late every night.
a71 I can't imagine living in that big house.
a71 If you buy some petrol now,it will save you stopping on the way to
London.
a71 She couldn't resist eating the plum she found in the fridge.
a71 They decided to postpone painting the house until the weather
improved.
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REPORTED SPEECH
QUESTIONS
1,Normal word order is used in reported questions,that is,the subject
comes before the verb,and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did':
"Where does Peter live?" She asked him where Peter
lived,
2,Yes / no questions,This type of question is reported by using 'ask' + 'if /
whether + clause:
a,"Do you speak English?" He asked me if I spoke English.
b,"Are you British or American?" He asked me whether I
was British or American.
c,"Is it raining?" She asked if it was raining.
d,"Have you got a computer?" He wanted to know
whether I had a computer.
e,"Can you type?" She asked if I could type.
f,"Did you come by train?" He enquired whether I had
come by train.
g,"Have you been to Bristol before?" She asked if I had
been to Bristol before.
3,Question words:
This type of question is reported by using 'ask' (or another verb like 'ask') +
question word + clause,The clause contains the question,in normal word
order and with the necessary tense change.
Examples:
a,"What is your name?" he asked me,He asked me what
my name was.
b,"How old is your mother?",he asked,He asked how old
her mother was.
c,The mouse said to the elephant,"Where do you live?"
The mouse asked the elephant where she lived.
d,"What time does the train arrive?" she asked,She
asked what time the train arrived.
e,"When can we have dinner?" she asked,She asked
when they could have dinner.
f,The elephant said to the mouse,"Why are you so small?"
The elephant asked the mouse why she was so small.
Note,See also Summary of Reporting Verbs
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RELATIVE CLAUSES
NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
The information in these clauses is not essential,It tells us more about
someone or something,but it does not help us to identify them or it,
Compare:
1,Elephants that love mice are very unusual,(This tells us which elephants
we are talking about).
2,Elephants,which are large and grey,can sometimes be found in zoos,
(This gives us some extra information about elephants - we are talking about
all elephants,not just one type or group).
3,John's mother,who lives in Scotland,has 6 grandchildren,(We know who
John's mother is,and he only has one,The important information is the
number of grandchildren,but the fact that she lives in Scotland might be
followed with the words "by the way" - it is additional information),
Punctuation
Non-defining relative clauses are always separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas,The commas have a similar function to brackets:
My friend John has just written a best-selling novel,(He went to the same
school as me) > My friend John,who went to the same school as me,has
just written a best-selling novel,
Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses
Person Thing Place
Subject who which
Object who/whom which where
Possessive whose
Notes,
1,In non-defining clauses,you cannot use ‘that’ instead of who,whom or
which.
2,You cannot leave out the relative pronoun,even when it is the object of
the verb in the relative clause:
He gave me the letter,which was in a blue envelope.
He gave me the letter,which I read immediately
3,The preposition in these clauses can go at the end of the clause,e.g,This
is Stratford-on-Avon,which you have all heard about.
This pattern is often used in spoken English,but in written or formal English
you can also put the preposition before the pronoun,e.g,Stratford-on-Avon,
about which many people have written is Shakespeare’s birthplace.
4,Non-defining clauses can be introduced by expressions like all of,many of
+ relative pronoun,
Person Thing
all of + whom + which
any of + whom + which
(a) few of + whom + which
both of + whom + which
each of + whom + which
either of + whom + which
half of + whom + which
many of + whom + which
most of + whom + which
much of + whom + which
none of + whom + which
one of + whom + which
two of etc… + whom + which
Examples:
a,There were a lot of people at the party,many of whom I had known for
years.
b,He was carrying his belongings,many of which were broken,
5,The relative pronoun which at the beginning of a non-defining relative
clause,can refer to all the information contained in the previous part of the
sentence,rather than to just one word.
a,Chris did really well in his exams,which was a big surprise,(= the fact
that he did well in his exams was a big surprise).
b,An elephant and a mouse fell in love,which is most unusual,(= the fact
that they fell in love is unusual).
Examples,
a,My grandmother,who is dead now,came from the North of England.
b,I spoke to Fred,who explained the problem.
c,The elephant looked at the tree,under which she had often sat.
d,We stopped at the museum,which we’d never been into.
e,She’s studying maths,which many people hate.
f,I’ve just met Susan,whose husband works in London.
g,He had thousands of books,most of which he had read.
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RELATIVE CLAUSE
WHERE TO PUT THE PREPOSTITION IN A RELATIVE CLAUSE
There are often prepositions in relative clauses,and the relative pronoun is
the object of the preposition,This means that the preposition can sometimes
be omitted.
1,The preposition is normally placed at the end of the relative clause:
Is that the man (who) you arrived with?
Do you know the girl (that) John is talking to?
2,In formal or written English,the preposition is often placed before
the relative pronoun,and in this case the pronoun cannot be omitted:
The person with whom he is negotiating is the Chairman of a
large company.
It is a society to which many important people belong.
However,this is unusual in spoken English.
Examples:
a71 The jungle the elephant lived in was full of strange and unusual
animals.
a71 He was very fond of the mouse that he lived with.
a71 The tree under which they had their home was the largest and
oldest in the jungle.
a71 In the middle of the jungle was a river that all the animals went to
every day.
a71 It was the stream in which the elephant and the mouse preferred
to swim.
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RELATIVE CLAUSES
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
As the name suggests,these clauses give essential information to define or
identify the person or thing we are talking about,Obviously,this is only
necessary if there is more than one person or thing involved.
Example:
Elephants who marry mice are very unusual.
In this sentence we understand that there are many elephants,but it is clear
that we are only talking the ones who marry mice.
Punctuation
Commas are not used in defining relative clauses.
Relative pronouns
The following relative pronouns are used in defining relative clauses,
Person Thing Place Time Reason
Subject who/that which/that
Object who/whom/that/? which/that/? where when why
Possessive whose whose
Notes:
1,The relative pronoun stands in place of a noun.
This noun usually appears earlier in the sentence:
The woman who/that spoke at the meeting was very knowledgeable,
Noun,
subject of
main clause
relative
pronoun
referring to
'the woman',
subject of
'spoke'
verb + rest of relative
clause
verb + rest of main clause
2,Who,whom and which can be replaced by that,This is very common in
spoken English.
3,The relative pronoun can be omitted (?) when it is the object of the
clause:
The mouse that the elephant loved was very beautiful.
OR The mouse the elephant loved was very beautiful.
Both of these sentences are correct,though the second one is more common
in spoken English.
The mouse that/? the elephant loved was very beautiful,
Noun,subject of
main clause
relative
pronoun,
referring to
'the mouse,
object of
'loved'
verb + rest of
relative clause
verb + rest of main
clause,
(You can usually decide whether a relative pronoun is an object because it is
normally followed by another subject + verb.)
4,Whose is used for things as well as for people.
Examples:
The man whose car was stolen.
A tree whose leaves have fallen.
5,Whom is very formal and is only used in written English,You can use
who/that,or omit the pronoun completely,
The doctor whom/who/that/? I was hoping to see wasn't on duty.
6,That normally follows words like something,anything,everything,
nothing,all,and superlatives.
Examples:
a71 There's something that you should know.
a71 It was the best film that I've ever seen.
Examples:
a71 A clown is someone who makes you laugh.
a71 An elephant is an animal that lives in hot countries.
a71 The plums that were in the fridge were delicious,I have eaten them.
a71 Where are the plums (that) I put in the fridge?
a71 Has anyone seen the book I was reading?
a71 Nothing that anyone does can replace my lost bag.
a71 Let's go to a country where the sun always shines.
a71 They live in the house whose roof is full of holes.
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RELATIVE CLAUSES
See also Pronouns.
There are two different types of relative clause:
1,A "defining" or identifying clause,which tells us which person or thing
we are talking about.
2,A "non-defining" or non-essential clause,which gives us more
information about the person or thing we are talking about,This kind
of clause could often be information included in brackets (...)
Example:
The farmer (his name was Fred) sold us some potatoes,
The farmer,whose name was Fred,sold us some potatoes,
It is important to see the difference between the two types of clause,as it
affects:
a,the choice of pronoun used to introduce the clause,
b,the punctuation - you must use commas with a non-defining clause.
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'- ING' FORM
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE
The present participle of most verbs has the form base+ing and is used in the
following ways:
a,as part of the continuous form of a verb
(See continuous tenses in VERB TENSES)
Example,
I am working,
he was singing,
they have been walking,
b,after verbs of movement/position in the pattern,verb +
present participle
Example:
a71 She went shopping
a71 He lay looking up at the clouds
a71 She came running towards me
This construction is particularly useful with the verb 'to go',as in these
common expressions,
to go shopping
to go ski-ing
to go fishing
to go surfing
to go walking
to go swimming
to go running
to go dancing
c,after verbs of perception in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle
Example:
I heard someone singing.
He saw his friend walking along the road.
I can smell something burning!
NOTE,There is a difference in meaning when such a sentence contains a
zero-infinitive rather than a participle,The infinitive refers to a complete
action,but the participle refers to an incomplete action,or part of an
action.
Compare:
a71 I heard Joanna singing (= she had started before I heard her,and
probably went on afterwards)
a71 I heard Joanna sing (= I heard her complete performance)
d,as an adjective
Examples:
amazing,worrying,exciting,boring.
a71 It was an amazing film.
a71 It's a bit worrying when the police stop you
a71 Dark billowing clouds often precede a storm.
a71 Racing cars can go as fast as 400kph.
a71 He was trapped inside the burning house.
a71 Many of his paintings depict the setting sun.
e,with the verbs spend and waste,in the pattern:
verb + time/money expression + present participle
Example:
a71 My boss spends two hours a day travelling to work.
a71 Don't waste time playing computer games!
a71 They've spent the whole day shopping.
f,with the verbs catch and find,in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle:
With catch,the participle always refers to an action which causes annoyance
or anger:
a71 If I catch you stealing my apples again,there'll be trouble!
a71 Don't let him catch you reading his letters.
This is not the case with find,which is unemotional:
a71 We found some money lying on the ground.
a71 They found their mother sitting in the garden.
g,to replace a sentence or part of a sentence:
When two actions occur at the same time,and are done by the same person
or thing,we can use a present participle to describe one of them:
a71 They went out into the snow,They laughed as they went,They
went laughing out into the snow.
a71 He whistled to himself,He walked down the road,Whistling to
himself,he walked down the road.
When one action follows very quickly after another done by the same person
or thing,we can express the first action with a present participle:
a71 He put on his coat and left the house,Putting on his coat,he
left the house.
a71 She dropped the gun and put her hands in the air,Dropping the
gun,she put her hands in the air.
The present participle can be used instead of a phrase starting as,since,
because,and it explains the cause or reason for an action:
a71 Feeling hungry,he went into the kitchen and opened the fridge.
(= because he felt hungry...)
a71 Being poor,he didn't spend much on clothes.
a71 Knowing that his mother was coming,he cleaned the flat.
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'- ING' FORM
INTRODUCTION
The '-ing' form of the verb may be a present participle or a gerund.
The form is identical,the difference is in the function,or the job the word
does in the sentence.
The present participle:
This is most commonly used:
a71 as part of the continuous form of a verb,
he is painting; she has been waiting
a71 after verbs of movement/position in the pattern:
verb + present participle,
She sat looking at the sea
a71 after verbs of perception in the pattern:
verb + object + present participle,
We saw him swimming
a71 as an adjective,e.g,amazing,worrying,exciting,boring
The gerund:
This always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb),so
it can be used:
a71 as the subject of the sentence:
Eating people is wrong.
a71 after prepositions:
Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
She is good at painting
a71 after certain verbs,
e.g,like,hate,admit,imagine
a71 in compound nouns,
e.g,a driving lesson,a swimming pool,bird-watching,train-
spotting
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NOUNS
THE PLURAL OF NOUNS
Most nouns form the plural by adding -s or -es.
Singular Plural
boat boats
hat hats
house houses
river rivers
A noun ending in -y preceded by a consonant makes the plural with -ies.
Singular Plural
a cry cries
a fly flies
a nappy nappies
a poppy poppies
a city cities
a lady ladies
a baby babies
There are some irregular formations for noun plurals,Some of the most
common ones are listed below.
Examples of irregular plurals:
Singular Plural
woman women
man men
child children
tooth teeth
foot feet
person people
leaf leaves
half halves
knife knives
wife wives
life lives
loaf loaves
potato potatoes
cactus cacti
focus foci
fungus fungi
nucleus nuclei
syllabus syllabi/syllabuses
analysis analyses
diagnosis diagnoses
oasis oases
thesis theses
crisis crises
phenomenon phenomena
criterion criteria
datum data
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.
Examples:
Singular Plural
sheep sheep
fish fish
species species
aircraft aircraft
Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.
Examples:
news The news is on at 6.30 p.m.
athletics Athletics is good for young people.
linguistics Linguistics is the study of language.
darts Darts is a popular game in England.
billiards Billiards is played all over the world,
Some nouns have a plural form and take a plural verb.
Examples:
trousers My trousers are too tight.
jeans Her jeans are black.
glasses Those glasses are his.
others include,
savings,thanks,steps,stair,customs,congratulations,tropics,wages,
spectacles,outskirts,goods,wits
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THE PASSIVE VOICE
PASSIVE,FORM
The passive voice in English is composed of two elements,the appropriate
form of the verb 'to be' + the past participle of the verb in question,
Subject verb 'to be' past participle
The house was built,.,
Example,to clean
Subject verb 'to be' past participle
Simple present,
The house is cleaned every day,
Present continuous,
The house is being cleaned at the moment,
Simple past,
The house was cleaned yesterday,
Past continuous,
The house was being cleaned last week,
Present perfect,
The house has been cleaned since you left,
Past perfect,
The house had been cleaned before their arrival,
Future,
The house will be cleaned next week,
Future continuous,
The house will be being cleaned tomorrow,
Present conditional,
The house would be cleaned if they had visitors,
Past conditional,
The house would have been cleaned if it had been dirty,
NOTE,'to be born' is a passive form and is most commonly used in the past
tense:
I was born in 1976,When were you born?
BUT,Around 100 babies are born in this hospital every week.
Infinitive form,infinitive of 'to be' + past participle,(to) be cleaned
This form is used after modal verbs and other verbs normally followed by an
infinitive,e.g.
You have to be tested on your English grammar
John might be promoted next year.
She wants to be invited to the party.
Gerund or -ing form,being + past participle,being cleaned
This form is used after prepositions and verbs normally followed by a gerund
Examples:
a,Most film stars hate being interviewed.
b,I remember being taught to drive.
c,The children are excited about being taken to the zoo.
NOTE,Sometimes the passive is formed using the verb to get instead of the
verb to be:
a,He got arrested for dangerous driving.
b,They're getting married later this year.
c,I'm not sure how the window got broken.
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THE PASSIVE VOICE
PASSIVE,FUNCTION
The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that
experiences an action rather than the person or object that performs the
action,e.g.
a71 The passive is used,..:
We are interested in the passive,not who uses it,
a71 The house was built in 1654:
We are interested in the house,not the builder.
a71 The road is being repaired:
We are interested in the road,not the people repairing it.
In other words,the most important thing or person becomes the subject of
the sentence.
Sometimes we use the passive voice because we don't know or cannot
express who or what performed the action:
a71 I noticed that a window had been left open
a71 Every year people are killed on our roads.
If we want to say who or what performs the action,we use the preposition
by:
a71 "A Hard Day's Night" was written by the Beatles
a71 ET was directed by Spielberg
The passive voice is often used in formal or scientific texts:
a71 A great deal of meaning is conveyed by a few well-chosen words.
a71 Our planet is wrapped in a mass of gases.
a71 Waste materials are disposed of in a variety of ways.
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THE PASSIVE VOICE
GET / HAVE SOMETHING DONE
This construction is passive in meaning,It may describe situations where we
want someone else to do something for us.
Examples:
a,I must get / have my hair cut.
b,When are you going to get that window mended?
c,We're having the house painted.
If the verb refers to something negative or unwanted,it has the same
meaning as a passive sentence:
d,Jim had his car stolen last night,(= Jim's car was stolen)
e,They had their roof blown off in the storm,(= Their roof
was blown off in the storm)
The construction can refer to the completion of an activity,especially if a
time expression is used:
f,We'll get the work done as soon as possible.
g,I'll get those letters typed before lunchtime.
In all these sentences,we are more interested in the result of the activity
than in the person or object that performs the activity.
'X' NEEDS DOING
In the same way,this construction has a passive meaning,The important
thing in our minds is the person or thing that will experience the action,e.g.
a,The ceiling needs painting (= the ceiling needs to be
painted)
b,My hair needs cutting (= my hair needs to be cut)
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THE PASSIVE VOICE
PASSIVE TENSES AND ACTIVE EQUIVALENTS
Notice that the tense of the verb to be in the passive voice is the same as the
tense of the main verb in the active voice.
Example,to keep
TENSE / VERB FORM ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
Simple present keeps is kept
Present continuous is keeping is being kept
Simple past kept was kept
Past continuous was keeping was being kept
Present perfect have kept have been kept
Past perfect had kept had been kept
future will keep will be kept
Conditional present would keep would be kept
Conditional past would have kept would have been kept
present infinitive to keep to be kept
perfect infinitive to have kept to have been kept
present participle/gerund keeping being kept
perfect participle having kept having been kept
Example sentences:
Active,I keep the butter in the fridge.
Passive,The butter is kept in the fridge.
Active,They stole the painting.
Passive,The painting was stolen.
Active,They are repairing the road.
Passive,The road is being repaired.
Active,Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
Passive,Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Active,A dog bit him.
Passive,He was bitten by a dog.
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NOUNS
COMPOUND NOUNS
Formation
Words can be combined to form compound nouns,These are very common,
and new combinations are invented almost daily,They normally have two
parts,The second part identifies the object or person in question (man,
friend,tank,table,room),The first part tells us what kind of object or
person it is,or what its purpose is (police,boy,water,dining,bed):
What type / what purpose What or who
police man
boy friend
water tank
dining table
bed room
The two parts may be written in a number of ways,
1,as one word.
Example,policeman,boyfriend
2,as two words joined with a hyphen.
Example,dining-table
3,as two separate words.
Example,fish tank.
There are no clear rules about this - so write the common compounds that
you know well as one word,and the others as two words,
The two parts may be:
Examples:
noun + noun
bedroom
water tank
motorcycle
printer cartridge
noun + verb
rainfall
haircut
train-spotting
noun + adverb
hanger-on
passer-by
verb + noun
washing machine
driving licence
swimming pool
verb + adverb*
lookout
take-off
drawback
adjective + noun
greenhouse
software
redhead
adjective + verb
dry-cleaning
public speaking
adverb + noun
onlooker
bystander
adverb + verb*
output
overthrow
upturn
input
Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different from the two
separate words.
Stress is important in pronunciation,as it distinguishes between a compound
noun (e.g,greenhouse) and an adjective with a noun (e.g,green house).
In compound nouns,the stress usually falls on the first syllable,
a 'greenhouse = place where we grow plants (compound noun)
a green 'house = house painted green (adjective and noun)
a 'bluebird = type of bird (compound noun)
a blue 'bird = any bird with blue feathers (adjective and noun)
* Many common compound nouns are formed from phrasal verbs (verb +
adverb or adverb + verb).
Examples,breakdown,outbreak,outcome,cutback,drive-in,drop-out,
feedback,flyover,hold-up,hangover,outlay,outlet,inlet,makeup,
output,set-back,stand-in,takeaway,walkover.
.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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NOUNS
Nouns answer the questions "What is it?" and "Who is it?" They give names to
things,people and qualities.
Examples,dog,bicycle,man,girl,beauty,truth,world.
NOUN GENDER
In general there is no distinction between masculine,feminine and neuter in
English nouns,However,gender is sometimes shown by different forms or
different words.
Examples:
Different words:
Masculine Feminine
man
father
uncle
boy
husband
woman
mother
aunt
girl
wife
Different forms,
Masculine Feminine
actor
prince
hero
waiter
widower
actress
princess
heroine
waitress
widow
Some nouns can be used for either a masculine or a feminine subject:
Examples:
cousin teenager teacher doctor
cook student parent friend
relation colleague partner leader
a71 Mary is a doctor,She is a doctor
a71 Peter is a doctor,He is a doctor.
a71 Arthur is my cousin,He is my cousin.
a71 Jane is my cousin,She is my cousin.
It is possible to make the distinction by adding the words 'male' or 'female'.
Example,a female student; a male cousin
For professions,we can add the word 'woman'
Example,a woman doctor; a woman journalist.
In some cases nouns describing things are given gender.
Examples:
a71 I love my car,She (the car) is my greatest passion.
a71 France is popular with her (France's) neighbours at the moment.
a71 I travelled from England to New York on the Queen Elizabeth,she
(the Queen Elizabeth) is a great ship.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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NOUNS
SECTION MENU:
Noun Gender
The Plural of Nouns
Countable and Uncountable nouns
Compound Nouns
Proper Nouns
Nationalities
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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'- ING' FORM
THE GERUND
This looks exactly the same as a present participle,and for this reason it is
now common to call both forms 'the -ing form',However it is useful to
understand the difference between the two,The gerund always has the same
function as a noun (although it looks like a verb),so it can be used:
a,as the subject of the sentence:
a71 Eating people is wrong.
a71 Hunting elephants is dangerous.
a71 Flying makes me nervous.
b,as the complement of the verb 'to be':
a71 One of his duties is attending meetings.
a71 The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the
gerund.
a71 One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed.
c,after prepositions,The gerund must be used when a verb
comes after a preposition:
a71 Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
a71 She is good at painting.
a71 They're keen on windsurfing.
a71 She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road.
a71 We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.
a71 My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary.
This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition,e.g,in spite
of,there's no point in..:
a71 There's no point in waiting.
a71 In spite of missing the train,we arrived on time.
d,after a number of 'phrasal verbs' which are composed of a
verb + preposition/adverb
Example:
to look forward to,to give up,to be for/against,to take to,to put off,to
keep on:
a71 I look forward to hearing from you soon,(at the end of a letter)
a71 When are you going to give up smoking?
a71 She always puts off going to the dentist.
a71 He kept on asking for money.
NOTE,There are some phrasal verbs and other expressions that include the
word 'to' as a preposition,not as part of a to-infinitive,- to look forward
to,to take to,to be accustomed to,to be used to,It is important to
recognise that 'to' is a preposition in these cases,as it must be followed by a
gerund:
a71 We are looking forward to seeing you.
a71 I am used to waiting for buses.
a71 She didn't really take to studying English.
It is possible to check whether 'to’ is a preposition or part of a to-infinitive,
if you can put a noun or the pronoun 'it' after it,then it is a preposition and
must be followed by a gerund:
a71 I am accustomed to it (the cold).
a71 I am accustomed to being cold.
e,in compound nouns
Example:
a71 a driving lesson,a swimming pool,bird-watching,train-spotting
It is clear that the meaning is that of a noun,not of a continuous verb.
Example:
a71 the pool is not swimming,it is a pool for swimming in,
f,after the expressions:
can't help,can't stand,it's no use/good,and the adjective worth:
a71 The elephant couldn't help falling in love with the mouse.
a71 I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.
a71 It's no use/good trying to escape.
a71 It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train,
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'- ING' FORM
GERUND OR INFINITIVE?
B,Verbs where there is a clear difference in meaning:
Verbs marked with an asterisk* can also be followed by a that-clause,
come
forget*
go on
mean*
regret*
remember*
stop
try
NOTES:
Come:
Come + gerund is like other verbs of movement followed by
the gerund,and means that the subject is doing something
as they move:
a71 She came running across the field,
Come + to-infinitive means that something happens or
develops,perhaps outside the subject's control:
a71 At first I thought he was crazy,but I've come to
appreciate his sense of humour,
a71 How did you come to be outside the wrong house?
a71 This word has come to mean something quite
different,
Forget,regret and remember:
When these verbs are followed by a gerund,the gerund
refers to an action that happened earlier:
a71 I remember locking the door (= I remember now,I
locked the door earlier)
a71 He regretted speaking so rudely,(= he regretted at
some time in the past,he had spoken rudely at some
earlier time in the past.)
Forget is frequently used with 'never' in the simple future
form:
a71 I'll never forget meeting the Queen.
When these verbs are followed by a to-infinitive,the
infinitive refers to an action happening at the same time,or
later:
a71 I remembered to lock the door (= I thought about it,
then I did it.)
a71 Don't forget to buy some eggs! (= Please think about
it and then do it.)
a71 We regret to announce the late arrival of the 12.45
from Paddington,(= We feel sorry before we tell you
this bad news.)
Go on:
Go on + gerund means to continue with an action:
a71 He went on speaking for two hours.
a71 I can't go on working like this - I'm exhausted.
Go on + to-infinitive means to do the next action,which is
often the next stage in a process:
a71 After introducing her proposal,she went on to
explain the benefits for the company.
a71 John Smith worked in local government for five
years,then went on to become a Member of
Parliament.
Mean:
Mean + gerund expresses what the result of an action will
be,or what will be necessary:
a71 If you take that job in London it will mean travelling
for two hours every day.
a71 We could take the ferry to France,but that will
mean spending a night in a hotel.
Mean + to-infinitive expresses an intention or a plan:
a71 Did you mean to dial this number?
a71 I mean to finish this job by the end of the week!
a71 Sorry - I didn't mean to hurt you.
Stop:
Stop + gerund means to finish an action in progress:
a71 I stopped working for them because the wages were
so low.
Stop tickling me!
Stop + to-infinitive means to interrupt an activity in order
to do something else,so the infinitive is used to express a
purpose:
a71 I stopped to have lunch,(= I was working,or
travelling,and I interrupted what I was doing in order
to eat.)
a71 It's difficult to concentrate on what you are doing if
you have to stop to answer the phone every five
minutes.
Try:
Try + gerund means to experiment with an action that might
be a solution to your problem.
a71 If you have problems sleeping,you could try doing
some yoga before you go to bed,or you could try
drinking some warm milk.
a71 'I can't get in touch with Carl.' 'Have you tried e-
mailing him?'
Try + to-infinitive means to make an effort to do something,
It may be something very difficult or even impossible:
a71 The surgeons tried to save his life but he died on the
operating table.
a71 We'll try to phone at 6 o'clock,but it might be hard
to find a public telephone.
a71 Elephants and mice have to try to live together in
harmony.
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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ABOUT ANTHONY HUGHES
Author of the Online English Grammar
Anthony Hughes has been involved in education for the past twenty years,He spent his
formative years in Australia and attended the Universities of Sydney (B.A.),New England
(M.Litt) and the University of New South Wales (Cert,TESOL)
After receiving a Masters in English Literature and Language he went on to teach English in
several countries including Australia,Switzerland and France,While in Switzerland he wrote
and directed a six part audio-visual course for English language learners and was the
director of the international education fair 'Mondolingua'.
In 1995 he moved to Bristol in the UK and formed the Digital Education Network Ltd with
David Blackie.
The Digital Education Network (DEN) is now a world leader in the provision of educational
information on the Internet and counts amongst its clients many of the world's top
educational organisations.
Charged with the development of the DEN websites and content and with the development
of educational websites for clients around the world,he has become an expert in the
development and design of high-end,database driven and interactive sites for education,
Along with the technical expertise he has developed content in the form of the Online
English Grammar which currently attracts over 180,000 monthly user sessions on DEN and of
interactive games in the DEN test centre,He is currently working on a number of
multimedia and DV video based projects for primary and secondary schools as well as a
series on the use of English.
In 1999 he formed ZEP Media Ltd to provide an online educational software shop and
resource centre for schools and to act as a 'laboratory' for the development of educational
applications using the new technologies.
Apart from his business activities he has contributed articles and photographs to a number
of magazines,written a screenplay on the life of Friedrich Nietzsche and maintains a strong
interest in the development of creative learning applications using the new technologies.
Professional,publishing and Online Grammar licensing enquiries can be sent to
akh@zepmedia.com
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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WHICH ENGLISH?
Trash or Rubbish? - Sorting out our English
Colour or color? Socks or sox? Organisations or Organizations?
Underground or subway? Gas or petrol? Fall or Autumn? Candy or
sweets? Cookie or biscuit? Centre or Center,Trash or rubbish?
I often get emails from users berating me for my terrible spelling,
While I admit to a few glaring typos from time to time the emails
are often concerned with spellings that have more to do with
geography than with poor literacy skills.
Just to confuse the issue a little more,I was born in England,went
to Australia when I was five,was entirely educated in Australia,
spent several years in the USA and Canada and then ten years in
France,and now live in England married to a Colombian wife where
the common language at home is French,where my wife speaks
Spanish to the children,I speak English to them and they spend
undue amounts of time listening to American TV shows like Sesame
Street,Buffy the Vampire Killer and the Simpsons or listening to
American rappers,English Spice Girls or,when forced,heroes from
the seventies such as Van Morrison and James Taylor,And they
suck vocabulary,expressions,idioms and grammar out of all of this
and plonk it into their own English,In my home,as in many others
around the world,English isn't something that you can pin down as
you would a prize butterfly and say 'There it is! That is English'.
There is no longer,if there ever was,a standard English to which
all speakers should pay homage,Now we recognise as legitimate
variations American English,Australian English,British English,
Indian English,there is even a variety called Singlish from
Singapore,You only have to have used an electronic spell checker
to know that you can select from some of these English varieties
when correcting your spelling in a word processor.
Although it is true that we have a wonderfully rich global mapping
of English which makes it possible for English speakers to almost
immediately fix a fellow English speaker to a geographical area,it
is also true that there is more that is similar among these English
varieties than is dissimilar,If there wasn't,English speakers from
different parts of the world would have absolutely no hope of
understanding each other! In most cases it is pronunciation and not
usage,vocabulary or grammar that makes a fellow English speaker
from another part of the world,or sometimes even another part of
the country,difficult to understand,
In the Online English Grammar I try to remain open to the
international and evolving character of English and,at the risk of
falling into the sea,try to keep one foot each in British and
American English - if I had more feet I would attempt to cover
some of the other main English variations as well,but a shortage of
feet is one of the many drawbacks of being a lowly biped,What this
means is that I try to point out grammatical rules that may vary
slightly depending on where you are,the same with spelling,As far
as spelling goes for the actual explanations and examples I tend to
use the Australian/British spellings,For example I use
'organisation' rather than 'organization' and 'colour' rather than
'color' and prefer 'program' to 'programme',Australia has always
had the great advantage of being able to choose to follow the
American or British ways or invent things for itself,However,if you
look under the bonnet of these pages you will see that we are
forced to use American English in the HTML which we use to code
the pages - 'colour' is always 'color' and 'centre','center' there!
The important thing to remember is that while spelling 'remember'
as 'rember' is definately wrong,spelling 'socks' as 'sox' is not!
That saying 'She speak English really well' is definately wrong (the
verb 'speak' must be third person 'speaks' or used in another tense
such as 'spoke'),saying 'She speaks English real well' may not be
wrong (it is acceptable to use 'real' rather than 'really' in informal
American English.)
When visualising English always think of it as a writhing,many-
headed,sensual,changing and wonderful creature and not some
dry,changeless,inanimate measuring stick.
That should avoid the urge to condemn other people's use of
English before carefully thinking about what they have said and
where they come from - perhaps they are even contributing
something new,unique and colourful to the language.
This may also slow the flow of emails arriving in my in-tray from
angry users who think it is a disgrace that I consistently spell
'center' as 'centre' - am I dyslexic?
Anthony Hughes
Author of the Online English Grammar
The Full PDF Online English Grammar V1.1? copyright - all rights reserved 1995-2001,Anthony Hughes
The English4Today Members' Website
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ASK A QUESTION
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To ask you question complete the form below while you are connected to the
Internet and then hit the 'ask now!' button,Make sure that you have
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If you have purchased the PDF VERSION OF THE ONLINE ENGLISH GRAMMAR as
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课件名称：	The Online English Grammar
课件分类：	外语
课件类型：	电子图书
文件大小：	749.75KB
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