Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11 C H
A
P
T
E
R
Leadership,
An Overview
?DEFINE the term leadership,
?DISCUSS the trait approach to leadership,
?DESCRIBE two major behavioral approaches
to leadership,
?EXPLAIN what situational approaches are and
describe several significant ones,
?IDENTIFY a number of substitutes for
leadership,
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-3
Three Important Variables
People
Who are being lead
Task
What people are performing
Environment
Which the people and task exist
Leadership Defined
The process of influencing other to facilitate the
attainment of organizationally relevant goals,
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-4
Leadership’s Importance
Empirical evidence of the magnitude of the
effects on performance is modest,
Why?
? Similarity across selected individuals
? Similar background,experience,qualifications
? No unilateral control over resources
? Major decisions require approval,review,and
modification by others
? Many uncontrollable factors
? External factors may be overwhelming and
uncontrollable
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-5
Trait Approach
Identifying intellectual,emotional,physical,and
other personal traits of effective leaders,
Intelligence
Personality Supervisory Ability
Physical
Characteristics
Effective
Leaders
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-6
Behavioral Approach,UM Studies
Job-Centered
? Focuses on completing
the task
? Uses close supervision
? Relies on reward,
legitimate,and
coercive power
? Concern for people
not a priority
Employee-Centered
? Focuses on the people
doing the work
? Uses delegation
? Creates a supportive
work environment to
satisfy needs
? Emphasizes individual
and group
development
Leadership Styles
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-7
Behavioral Approach,OSU Studies
Initiating Structure
? Leader organizes and
defines relationships
? Establishes well-defined
patterns and channels
of communication
? Spells out ways of
getting the job done
? Focuses on goals and
results
Consideration
? Leader emphasizes
? Friendship
? Mutual trust
? Respect
? Rapport
? Supports open
communication and
participation
Leadership Factors
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-8
Shortcomings of the Trait and
Behavioral Approaches
Trait and Behavioral Approaches
? Lack applicability across situations
? Fail to consider the interaction among,
? People
? Tasks
? Environment
Refinements
Situational Theories of Leadership
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-9
The Contingency Leadership Model
The performance of groups is dependent on the interaction
between leadership style and situational favorableness,
LEADERSHIP STYLE
? Least-Preferred Coworker Scale
(LPC)
? Assesses the degree of positive or
negative feelings
? Scores on the LPC
? Low - Task-oriented
? High - Relationship-oriented
SITUATIONAL
FAVORABLENESS
? Leader-member relations
? Degree of trust,respect
? Task Structure
? Specificity of tasks
? Position Power
? Power inherent in leader’s
position
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-10
The Contingency Leadership Model
Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
High High Low Low High High Low Low
Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
Task-Oriented Relationship-Oriented Task-Oriented
Very
Unfavorable
Situational Characteristics
I II III IV V VI VII VIII Situation Leader-
member
relations
Task
structure
Position
power
Preferred
leadership
style
Very
Favorable
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-11
Path-Goal Model
Focuses on how the leader influences the followers’
perceptions of work goals,self-development goals,
and paths to goal attainment,
Leadership styles
? Directive
? Supportive
? Participative
? Achievement-oriented
Situational Variables
? Personal characteristics of
followers/subordinates
? Environmental pressures
and demands
Subordinate attitudes
? Job satisfaction
? Acceptance of the leader
? Effort-performance-reward
expectations
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-12
Path-Goal Model
Leader Behavior/Styles
?Directive
?Supportive
?Participative
?Achievement-oriented
Followers/Subordinates
?Perceptions
?Motivation
Outcomes
?Satisfaction
?Performance
Follower/Subordinate
Characteristics
?Locus of control
?Experience
?Ability
Environmental Factors
?Tasks
?Formal authority system
?Work group
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-13
Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
Emphasis is on the followers and
their level of maturity,
Decide on a
Leadership Style
? Telling (S1)
? Selling (S2)
? Participating (S3)
? Delegating (S4)
Leaders Must Judge
Follower Readiness
? Job-related
? Knowledge and
ability to do the job
? Psychological
? Self-motivation and
willingness or desire
to do the job
THEN
See Exhibit 11.5
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-14
Leader-Member Exchange Approach
Emphasizes differing relationships that leaders
develop with different subordinates,
Subordinates Classified as,
? In-group members
? Those having a common
bond and value system
and interact with the
leader
? Likely receive
? More challenging
assignments
? More meaningful rewards
Subordinates Classified as,
? Out-group members
? Those having less in
common with the leader
and do not share much with
him/her
? Likely receive
? Less challenging
assignments
? Little positive reinforcement
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-15
Substitutes for Leadership
Task,organizational,or subordinate characteristics that render
relationship- an/or task-oriented leadership as not only
impossible but unnecessary,
Can influence which
leadership style to use to
affect follower
satisfaction or
performance
SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Can tend to negate
the leader’s ability to
affect follower
satisfaction or
performance,
SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIP
Individual,task,environmental,and
organizational characteristics
See
Exhibit 11.7
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-16
Comparing the Situational
Approaches
Similarities
? Focus on the dynamics
of leadership
? Have stimulated
research on leadership
? Remain controversial
because of,
? Measurement problems
? Limited research testing
? Contradictory results
Differences
? Situational variables
discussed in each
approach differ
somewhat
? Differing views of
outcome criteria
? Leader effectiveness
? Satisfaction
? Performance
? Acceptance
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11 C H
A
P
T
E
R
Leadership,
An Overview
?DEFINE the term leadership,
?DISCUSS the trait approach to leadership,
?DESCRIBE two major behavioral approaches
to leadership,
?EXPLAIN what situational approaches are and
describe several significant ones,
?IDENTIFY a number of substitutes for
leadership,
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-3
Three Important Variables
People
Who are being lead
Task
What people are performing
Environment
Which the people and task exist
Leadership Defined
The process of influencing other to facilitate the
attainment of organizationally relevant goals,
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-4
Leadership’s Importance
Empirical evidence of the magnitude of the
effects on performance is modest,
Why?
? Similarity across selected individuals
? Similar background,experience,qualifications
? No unilateral control over resources
? Major decisions require approval,review,and
modification by others
? Many uncontrollable factors
? External factors may be overwhelming and
uncontrollable
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-5
Trait Approach
Identifying intellectual,emotional,physical,and
other personal traits of effective leaders,
Intelligence
Personality Supervisory Ability
Physical
Characteristics
Effective
Leaders
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-6
Behavioral Approach,UM Studies
Job-Centered
? Focuses on completing
the task
? Uses close supervision
? Relies on reward,
legitimate,and
coercive power
? Concern for people
not a priority
Employee-Centered
? Focuses on the people
doing the work
? Uses delegation
? Creates a supportive
work environment to
satisfy needs
? Emphasizes individual
and group
development
Leadership Styles
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-7
Behavioral Approach,OSU Studies
Initiating Structure
? Leader organizes and
defines relationships
? Establishes well-defined
patterns and channels
of communication
? Spells out ways of
getting the job done
? Focuses on goals and
results
Consideration
? Leader emphasizes
? Friendship
? Mutual trust
? Respect
? Rapport
? Supports open
communication and
participation
Leadership Factors
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-8
Shortcomings of the Trait and
Behavioral Approaches
Trait and Behavioral Approaches
? Lack applicability across situations
? Fail to consider the interaction among,
? People
? Tasks
? Environment
Refinements
Situational Theories of Leadership
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-9
The Contingency Leadership Model
The performance of groups is dependent on the interaction
between leadership style and situational favorableness,
LEADERSHIP STYLE
? Least-Preferred Coworker Scale
(LPC)
? Assesses the degree of positive or
negative feelings
? Scores on the LPC
? Low - Task-oriented
? High - Relationship-oriented
SITUATIONAL
FAVORABLENESS
? Leader-member relations
? Degree of trust,respect
? Task Structure
? Specificity of tasks
? Position Power
? Power inherent in leader’s
position
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-10
The Contingency Leadership Model
Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
High High Low Low High High Low Low
Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
Task-Oriented Relationship-Oriented Task-Oriented
Very
Unfavorable
Situational Characteristics
I II III IV V VI VII VIII Situation Leader-
member
relations
Task
structure
Position
power
Preferred
leadership
style
Very
Favorable
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-11
Path-Goal Model
Focuses on how the leader influences the followers’
perceptions of work goals,self-development goals,
and paths to goal attainment,
Leadership styles
? Directive
? Supportive
? Participative
? Achievement-oriented
Situational Variables
? Personal characteristics of
followers/subordinates
? Environmental pressures
and demands
Subordinate attitudes
? Job satisfaction
? Acceptance of the leader
? Effort-performance-reward
expectations
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-12
Path-Goal Model
Leader Behavior/Styles
?Directive
?Supportive
?Participative
?Achievement-oriented
Followers/Subordinates
?Perceptions
?Motivation
Outcomes
?Satisfaction
?Performance
Follower/Subordinate
Characteristics
?Locus of control
?Experience
?Ability
Environmental Factors
?Tasks
?Formal authority system
?Work group
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-13
Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
Emphasis is on the followers and
their level of maturity,
Decide on a
Leadership Style
? Telling (S1)
? Selling (S2)
? Participating (S3)
? Delegating (S4)
Leaders Must Judge
Follower Readiness
? Job-related
? Knowledge and
ability to do the job
? Psychological
? Self-motivation and
willingness or desire
to do the job
THEN
See Exhibit 11.5
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-14
Leader-Member Exchange Approach
Emphasizes differing relationships that leaders
develop with different subordinates,
Subordinates Classified as,
? In-group members
? Those having a common
bond and value system
and interact with the
leader
? Likely receive
? More challenging
assignments
? More meaningful rewards
Subordinates Classified as,
? Out-group members
? Those having less in
common with the leader
and do not share much with
him/her
? Likely receive
? Less challenging
assignments
? Little positive reinforcement
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-15
Substitutes for Leadership
Task,organizational,or subordinate characteristics that render
relationship- an/or task-oriented leadership as not only
impossible but unnecessary,
Can influence which
leadership style to use to
affect follower
satisfaction or
performance
SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Can tend to negate
the leader’s ability to
affect follower
satisfaction or
performance,
SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIP
Individual,task,environmental,and
organizational characteristics
See
Exhibit 11.7
Copyright ? 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc,All rights reserved,McGraw-Hill/Irwin
11-16
Comparing the Situational
Approaches
Similarities
? Focus on the dynamics
of leadership
? Have stimulated
research on leadership
? Remain controversial
because of,
? Measurement problems
? Limited research testing
? Contradictory results
Differences
? Situational variables
discussed in each
approach differ
somewhat
? Differing views of
outcome criteria
? Leader effectiveness
? Satisfaction
? Performance
? Acceptance
