accelerated chilling 119–22
actin 23
additives in frozen storage 220
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 23, 25,
45–6
ageing see conditioning
air circulation 245–6
air curtains 234–5
air freezing 140–2
air temperature
and beef chilling 101–3, 105
and lamb chilling 111–12, 113–14
and pork chilling 116
air thawing 161, 164–5, 176–7
air transportation 191, 193
air velocity
and beef chilling 103–4, 105–6
and lamb chilling 111–12, 113–14
and pork chilling 116, 118
and weight loss 239
alpha-tocopherol 217–18
antioxidants 217–18
aroma scores 222
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 23, 25,
45–6
bacon 150–5, 221
bacteria 3–16
and bone taint 13–14
and colour 75
contamination in chilled storage
209–11
contamination during freezing 159
contamination during transportation
254–5
pathogenic organisms 3, 4, 8
spoilage organisms 5–6, 8–11
and thawing 159–60, 162–3, 174
batch freezing 141
beef
conditioning 50–1, 53, 56–7
drip loss 33
freezing 145–6
frozen storage life 219
hot boning 129–31
myosin denaturation 26–7
shelf-life 192
texture 43–4, 61, 63–4
thawing 172–3
beef chilling 100–10
accelerated systems 119–21
air temperature 101–3, 105
air velocity 103–4, 105–6
carcass weight 104, 106
cooling rates 100–5
energy consumption 108–10
fat cover 104–5, 106
product loads 107–8
relative humidity 104, 106
spray chilling 123–4
weight loss 105–7
blinds on display cabinets 246
bone taint 13–14
boning see deboning
Index
342 Index
bowl chopping 178, 179
brittleness of frozen meat 180
bulk storage rooms 224
burgers 147
calcium ions 47–9
calpain-tenderness model 51
carcass weight
and beef chilling 104, 106
and lamb chilling 112–13, 114
and pork chilling 116
castration 44
CFD (computational fluid dynamics)
236
chilled storage 208–15
bacterial contamination 209–11
colour of meat 75, 79–80
of cooked products 214–15
evaporative weight loss 90–1
storage temperature 209–10
unwrapped meat 209–11
wrapped meat 211–14
chilling
beef 100–10
and colour of meat 73–4
conditioning at chill temperatures
56–7
and drip loss 33–6
enthalpy values 276–7
evaporative weight loss 88–90
lamb, mutton and goat 110–15
muscle shortening 44–5
offal 118–19
pork 115–18
specific heats 274–6
spoilage organisms 9–11
and texture 59–61
thermal conductivity 274
chilling systems 119–32
accelerated chilling 119–22
combination systems 128
hot boning 129–32
ice bank chilling 127–8
immersion chilling 125–6, 128
product loads 107–8, 116–17
protective coatings 129
spray chilling 123–5
chopping 178, 179
coil display cabinets 238, 239
cold boning 14–15
cold shortening 45, 50, 89
colour 71–81
and bacterial activity 75
and chilled storage 75, 79–80
and chilling 73–4
and conditioning 74–5
and freezing 76
and frozen storage 76–8, 80–1
and light sources 71
live animal factors 73
measurement of 72
and retail displays 79–81, 238–9
and thawing 78–9
combination chilling 128
computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
236
conditioning 50–8
beef 50–1, 53, 56–7
and breed of animal 53
at chill temperatures 56–7
and colour 74–5
consumer assessments of 52–3
at frozen temperatures 57–8
lamb 53
and muscle type 53–4, 55
pork 53
rabbit 53
and retail displays 233
and temperature 56–8
veal 53
conduction thawing systems 163–6
consumers 252–67
assessments of conditioning 52–3
attitudes to food poisoning 252, 256
home refrigerated storage 255–68
shopping habits 252–5
contact freezers 142–4
continuous freezing systems 141–2
controlled atmosphere storage rooms
225
cooling rates
of beef sides 100–5
heat extraction 277–8
and hot boning 129–31
of lamb carcasses 111–13
of pig carcasses 116
COSTTHERM 280
crust freezing 149–55
cryogenic freezing 144–5, 148–9
cutting equipment 178–9
Dalton’s law 86
dark cutting 5, 26
dark, firm and dry (DFD) meat 26, 51,
73
deboning 14–15, 160
cold boning 14–15
and drip loss 35–6
Index 343
hot boning 15, 35–6, 129–32
warm boning 132
delicatessen products 237–41
delivery vehicles 197–212
door openings 200–1
infiltration 199–200
initial food temperature 201–2
insulation 199
length of journey 202
solar radiation 202
thermal mass of linings 200
weight of fittings 200
density of meat components 280
deoxymyoglobin 72
DFD (dark, firm and dry) meat 26, 51,
73
dicing 178, 179
diffusion rates 87
discolouration see colour
display cabinets see retail displays
domestic food storage 255–68
doors
of delivery vehicles 200–1
of display cabinets 246–7
of refrigerators 264
drip loss 21–40
from beef 33
and breed of animal 30–2
and chilling 33–6
and dark, firm and dry (DFD) meat
26
and deboning 35–6
and freezing 37–9, 138
measurement of 30
and muscle structure 22–7
and muscle type 32–3
from offal 36
from pigs 30–2
and rigor mortis 24, 25
and temperature 29, 33–40
and thawing 161–2
water relationships in meat 27–8
elastography 52
electrical stimulation (ES) treatments
50, 56
electrical thawing systems 166–8
energy consumption 108–10, 117–18
enthalpy values 273, 276–7
eutectic plate cooling systems 194–5
evaporative weight loss 85–94
and chilled storage 90–1
and chilling 88–90
diffusion rates 87
and freezing 85, 91–2
and frozen storage 91–2
and retail displays 92–3
see also weight loss
exhaustion before slaughter 26
exudate see drip loss
fan display cabinets 238, 239
fast freezing 137–9
see also rate of freezing
fat cover
and beef chilling 104–5, 106
and lamb chilling 112–13, 114
fat oxidation 78, 216–18, 244
Fick’s law 87
food poisoning 3, 8, 251, 252, 256
freezer-burn 76–7, 85
freezers, domestic 265–7
freezing 137–55
bacteria multiplication 159
beef quarters 145–6
brittleness of meat 180
and colour 76
conditioning at frozen temperatures
57–8
and drip loss 37–9
evaporative weight loss 85, 91–2
fast freezing 137–9
ice content 277
lamb carcasses 146
loins 149
meat blocks 145
meat cooked from frozen 137–8, 161
offal 146–7
post-rigor meat 29
pre-rigor meat 29
prefreezing treatments 218–20, 242
rate of freezing 137–41, 220, 266–7
and rigor mortis 29
slow freezing 137–9
small products 147–9
spoilage organisms 11
tensile strength 180
and texture 61–4
thermophysical properties of meat
277–80
freezing systems
air freezing 140–2
batch systems 141
contact freezers 142–4
continuous systems 141–2
crust freezing 149–55
cryogenic freezing 144–5, 148–9
impingement freezing 141, 145
344 Index
fridge-freezers 256–62
frozen storage 216–24
additives 220
of beef 219
and colour 76–8, 80–1
evaporative weight loss 91–2
freezer-burn 76–7, 85
and freezing methods 220
and freezing rates 220
heating prior to freezing 220
of lamb 219
and light 77–8
oxidation 78, 216–18, 244
and packaging 223–4
of pork 219
prefreezing treatment 218–20
and rigor mortis 219
species variation 218–19
storage temperature 38–9, 221–3
frozen transportation see
transportation
glucose 5
glycogen 5, 25, 49
goat 110–15
gravity display cabinets 238, 239
grinding 178, 179, 180, 181
haemoglobin 72
hams
slicing 150
thawing 168–71
heat extraction 277–8
high quality life (HQL) 208
high-pH meat 5, 26
home refrigerated storage 255–68
hot boning 15, 35–6, 129–32
and cooling rates 129–31
ice bank chilling 127–8
ice content 277
ice formation in muscle tissues 29
immersion chilling 125–6, 128
impingement freezing 141, 145
insulation of delivery vehicles 199
jacketed cold stores 225
lamb
conditioning 53
frozen storage 219
loin chopping 149
myosin denaturation 26–7
shelf-life 192
texture 59, 62–3, 114–15
thawing 171
lamb chilling 110–15
accelerated systems 121–2
air temperature 111–12, 113–14
air velocity 111–12, 113–14
carcass weight 112–13, 114
cooling rates 111–13
fat cover 112–13, 114
protective coatings 129
relative humidity 113–14
spray chilling 125
weight loss 112–15
lids of display cabinets 246–7
light
and colour 71
and fat oxidation 244
and frozen storage 77–8
and weight loss 241
liquid nitrogen cooling systems
194–5
listeria monocytogenes 231, 255
loin chopping 149
loin freezing 149
marbling 54
measurement
of colour 72
of drip loss 30
of performance of display cabinets
247–8
of tenderness 52
mechanical refrigeration units 194
metmyoglobin 73, 74–5, 243
microbiology of refrigerated meat
3–16
microwave tempering 182–4
microwave thawing 168
minced meat 220, 233
mitochondria 23
moisture loss 243
muscle shortening 44–50
and calcium ions 47–9
and chilling 44–5
preventing 49–50
muscle structure 22–7
changes after slaughter 25–7
ice formation in muscle tissues 29
structure 22–5
mutton 110–15, 146
see also lamb
myofibrils 22–3, 27
myoglobin 72
myosin 23, 26–7
Index 345
offal
chilling 118–19
drip loss 36
freezing 146–7
packaging 202–3
weight loss 118
oxidation 78, 216–18, 244
oxymyoglobin 72, 74
packaging 191–2, 243–4
and frozen storage 223–4
of offal 202–3
retail displays of unwrapped meat
237–41
retail displays of wrapped meat
231–7, 241–4
storage of unwrapped meat
209–11
storage of wrapped meat 211–14
pale, soft and exuding (PSE) meat
26–7, 73
pathogenic organisms 3, 4, 8
patties 147–8, 180–1, 214
peroxides 216
phospholipids 218
plate freezing 142–4
pork
conditioning 53
drip loss 30–2
frozen storage 219
hot boning 131–2
loin chopping 149
myosin denaturation 27
retail displays 214
texture 59–60, 63
thawing 168–71
weight loss 90, 122
pork chilling 115–18
accelerated systems 122
air temperature 116
air velocity 116, 118
carcass weight 116
combination systems 128
cooling rates 116
energy consumption 117–18
ice bank chilling 127–8
immersion chilling 125–6, 128
product loads 116–17
spray chilling 124
practical storage life (PSL) 208
prebreaking 179–82
prefreezing treatments 218–20, 242
product loads 107–8, 116–17
protective coatings 129
PSE (pale, soft and exuding) meat
26–7, 73
Quick Frozen Foodstuff Regulation
242
rabbit, conditioning 53
radiant heat 247
radio frequency thawing 167–8
rail transportation see road/rail
transportation
rancidity 216–18, 221, 224
rate of freezing 137–41, 220, 266–7
redox potential 5
refrigerators, domestic 256–62, 267–8
effect of door openings 264
loading with warm products 264
performance testing 262–5
star-rating system 260–2
relative humidity
and beef chilling 104, 106
and lamb chilling 113–14
and shelf-life 11–12
and weight loss 239–41
resistive thawing 167
retail displays 231–49
air circulation 245–6
air curtains 234–5
blinds 246
cabinet types 238, 239, 244–5
colour of meat 79–81, 238–9
computer modelling 236
and conditioning 233
delicatessen products 237–41
display life 232–3, 246–44
doors of cabinets 246–7
evaporative weight loss 92–3
layout of cabinets 233–4
lids of cabinets 246–7
measurement of performance 247–8
meat products 231–7
packaging materials 243–4
pork 214
radiant heat 247
store conditions 236–7
temperature control 231–2, 242–3,
245–6, 247
testing cabinets 235–6
uneven loading 232
unwrapped meat 237–41
weight loss 239–41
wrapped meat 231–7
frozen 241–4
see also shelf-life
346 Index
rigor mortis 25–6
and drip loss 24, 25
and freezing 29, 219
and shelf-life of meat 5
and water balance 28
road/rail transportation 193–202
eutectic plate cooling systems 194–5
journey times 197
liquid nitrogen cooling systems
194–5
mechanical refrigeration units 194
see also delivery vehicles
salmonella 231, 255
salt diffusion 131
sarcolemma 22
sausages 131, 148, 179, 211
sea transportation 191–3
shelf-life 4–12
of beef 192
of lamb 192
relative humidities 11–12
and rigor mortis 5
storage temperature 6–11
surface contamination 5–6
tissue sterility 4
see also retail displays
shopping habits 252–5
side weight see carcass weight
Siebel’s formula 276
slicing 150–5, 178, 179
slow freezing 137–9
see also rate of freezing
smoking 220
solar radiation 202
specific heat 273, 274–6
spoilage organisms 5–6, 8–11
spray chilling 123–4, 123–5
star-rating system 260–2
storage
high quality life (HQL) 208
home refrigerated storage 255–68
life terms 207–8, 255–6
practical storage life (PSL) 208
temperature 6–11, 209–10, 221–3
of wrapped meat 211–14
see also chilled storage; frozen
storage
storage rooms 224–5
store conditions 236–7
surface contamination 5–6
temperature
changes during transportation to the
home 253–5
and conditioning 56–8
and drip loss 29, 33–40
legislation 99, 251
and prebreaking 180–2
in retail displays 231–2, 242–3,
245–6, 247
and rigor mortis 25–6
slicing temperatures 150–1
storage temperature 6–11, 209–10,
221–3
in the home 256–61
and texture 59–64
see also air temperature; chilled
storage; frozen storage
tempering 149–55, 178–87
cutting equipment requirements
178–9
microwave tempering 182–4
prebreaking 179–82
single-stage 152
thermophysical properties of meat
277–80
two-stage 152–5
tensile strength 180
texture 43–65
of beef 43–4, 61, 63–4
calpain-tenderness model 51
and carcass grade 54
and castration 44
and chilling 59–61
and conditioning 50–8
electrical stimulation (ES)
treatments 50, 56
and freezing 61–4
of lamb 59, 62–3, 114–15
and marbling 54
measurement of 52
and muscle shortening 44–50
of pork 59–60, 63
and temperature 59–64
and thawing 64
thawing 39–40, 159–78
air thawing 161, 164–5, 176–7
bacteriological condition 159–60,
162–3, 174
beef 172–3
boned-out meat 173–6
and colour 78–9
conduction systems 163–6
and drip loss 161–2
electrical systems 166–8
hams 168–71
heat extraction 277–8
lamb 171
microwave thawing 168
Index 347
pork 168–71
quality considerations 161–3
radio frequency thawing
167–8
resistive thawing 167
and texture 64
thermal conductivity 160–1
thermophysical properties of meat
277–80
times taken to thaw 160–1
vacuum-heat thawing (VHT) 166,
175
water thawing 165, 177–8
thermal conductivity 160–1, 274,
278–80
tissue sterility 4
tough meat see texture
transportation 191–204
by air 191, 193
by road or rail 193–202
by sea 191–3
from retail store to the home
252–5
weight loss 203
see also delivery vehicles
unwrapped meat 209–11, 237–41
vacuum-heat thawing (VHT) 166, 175
vans see delivery vehicles
veal, conditioning 53
vitamin E 217
warm boning 132
Warner-Bratzler tests 44
water balance 28
water relationships 27–8
water thawing 165, 177–8
weight loss
and air velocity 239
and beef chilling 105–7
and lamb chilling 112–15
and light sources 241
and offal chilling 118
and pork chilling 90, 122
relative humidity 239–41
in retail displays 239–41
during transportation 203
see also evaporative weight loss
wrapped meat 211–14, 231–7
frozen 241–4
