iii
T
he State of the World’s Forests reports every two years on the status of forests,
recent major policy and institutional developments and key issues concerning the
forest sector. This is the fourth edition of the publication, the purpose of which is to
make current, reliable and policy-relevant information widely available to policy-
makers, foresters and other natural resource managers, academics, forest industry and
civil society. Our hope is that it will facilitate informed discussion and decision-
making with regard to the world’s forests.
As we approach the benchmark year of 2002, the tenth anniversary of the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), it is an opportune
moment to take stock of the progress made over the past decade. UNCED sparked a
decade of change, characterized by new thinking and fresh approaches to forest
management, as well as questioning as to what its objectives should be and who the
beneficiaries should be. A vision of sustainable forest management emerged,
commitment was strengthened and innovative alliances forged with the aim of
achieving common goals in forestry.
Over the past ten years, the sector has moved in two seemingly opposite directions
simultaneously, towards “localization”, on the one hand, and “globalization”, on the
other. At the national level, forest planning processes, policies, legislation and field
programmes have taken on new emphases, including increased decentralization and
participation. Internationally, it has been a time of intense debate, with discussions
over the past five years resulting in agreement on several proposals for action,
including – very recently – the establishment of an international arrangement to
promote the sustainable management, conservation and development of all types of
forest, to strengthen long-term political commitment and to promote the
implementation of the proposals for action. At the technical level, a wide variety of
international initiatives on forests have been launched through various mechanisms,
and regional cooperation in forest-related issues has been strengthened.
The State of the World’s Forests 2001 examines these developments, focusing mainly
on the past two years. Part I provides an overview, briefly highlighting some of the
recent key developments in the sector. Part II comprises four chapters, each focusing
on a selected topical issue that merits an in-depth review. The first reports on the
findings of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000, the most recent and
comprehensive assessment of the status and trends of forest resources worldwide; the
second chapter discusses climate change and forests, a topic of particular interest that
stems from concern about possible climate-induced changes and from the recent
negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol. The conservation of forest biological diversity in
protected areas – the topic of the third chapter – is an area that has developed and
Foreword
iv
evolved markedly over the past ten to twenty years. This, together with the
prominence of forests in upcoming discussions of the Convention on Biological
Diversity, makes forest protected areas a subject of current interest. The fourth
chapter of Part II addresses illegal activities and corruption in the forest sector,
which was considered a taboo subject until recently but is now openly discussed in
international fora. Part III provides an update on the international dialogue on
forests and global and regional initiatives for forests, and Part IV provides forest-
related information on major regional economic groups.
Advance copies of the State of the World’s Forests 2001 were made available to
the delegations attending the fifteenth session of the Committee on Forestry, FAO’s
highest policy forum on forests, held in March 2001. The final publication
incorporates feedback from countries and includes national forest resource data
provided to the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 after the Committee on
Forestry meeting was held.
The FAO Forestry Department trusts that the State of the World’s Forests 2001 will
succeed in increasing awareness of key issues in the forest sector today and in
providing valuable information that contributes to the achievement of sustainable
forest management. FAO would be pleased to hear from readers and welcomes
comments, ideas and information that may be useful for the next issue, the State of
the World’s Forests 2003.
M. Hosny El-Lakany
Assistant Director-General
FAO Forestry Department
v
Contents
Foreword iii
Acknowledgements vii
Executive summary viii
___________________________________ PART I __________________________________
THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR
Recent developments 1
The status of forest resources 1
Management, conservation and sustainable development of forest resources 6
Forest goods and services 13
The changing institutional framework for the forest sector 22
___________________________________ PART II __________________________________
KEY ISSUES IN THE FOREST SECTOR TODAY
The status of forests: the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 29
The assessment process 29
Global forest resources in 2000 33
Forest management in 2000 51
Conclusions 58
Climate change and forests 60
Global carbon cycle 60
The role of forests in the global carbon budget 61
Climate change and forests 65
Carbon management strategies 67
Conclusions and future issues 73
Forest biological diversity conservation: protected area management 74
The status of protected forest areas: what and how much should be protected 75
Effectiveness of protected area management 77
Current approaches to protected area management 79
Paying for protected area management 85
Conclusions 86
Illegal activities and corruption in the forest sector 88
Illegal activities affecting forest resources and industries 88
The magnitude and effect of illegal forest activities 91
What can be done about illegal and corrupt forest activities? 94
Conclusions 101
vi
___________________________________PART III__________________________________
INTERNATIONAL DIALOGUE AND INITIATIVES RELATED TO FORESTS
International dialogue and global, regional and national initiatives 103
The IFF and UNFF processes 104
International conventions and agreements related to forests 106
Recent initiatives of regional groups 110
Efforts at the ecoregional level 113
National-level efforts to support sustainable forest management 114
Other initiatives 118
___________________________________PART IV__________________________________
FORESTRY IN REGIONAL ECONOMIC GROUPS
Association of Southeast Asian Nations 123
Caribbean Community and Common Market 124
Commonwealth of Independent States 125
Economic Community of West African States 126
European Community 127
Latin American Economic System 128
League of Arab States 129
North American Free Trade Agreement 130
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation 131
South Pacific Forum 133
Southern African Development Community 134
ANNEXES
Annex 1: Definitions and acronyms 137
Annex 2: Data tables 143
BIBLIOGRAPHY 175
vii
T
he State of the World’s Forests 2001 would not exist without the contributions
and efforts of many people, both within and outside FAO.
Overall coordination and editing of the publication was carried out by S.M. Braatz.
The following FAO staff and consultants were involved in collecting data, drafting
sections or reviewing the document: G. Allard, J. Ball, E. Borzillo, J. Bourke,
C. Brown, C.M. Carneiro, F. Casta?eda, C. D’Ricco, R. Davis, A. del Lungo, P. Durst,
C. Eckelmann, M.H. El-Lakany, T. Frisk, S. Hald, S. Hirai, T. Hofer, P. Holmgren,
W. Killmann, D. Kneeland, P. Koné, M. Laverdière, A. Lengyel, L. Ljungman,
J. Lorbach, P. Lowe, M. Martin, D. McGuire, A. Mekouar, T. Michaelsen, C.T.S. Nair,
J. Nichols, F. Padovani, C. Palmberg-Lerche, M. Paveri, E. Pepke, D. Reeb, E.H. Sène,
O. Serrano, P. Sigaud, H. Simons, X. Soto, O. Souvannavong, D. Suparmo,
K. Thelen, P. Vantomme, K. Warner, A. Whiteman, M.L. Wilkie, D. Williamson and
A. Yanchuk. The members of the Internal Advisory Committee provided essential
technical oversight in planning and reviewing the document: J. Ball, J. Bourke,
S. Dembner, D. Kneeland, C.T.S. Nair, M. Paveri, P. Sigaud, P. Vantomme, K. Warner
and D. Williamson.
A number of outside collaborators contributed various pieces: R. Mutch (United
States) and J.G. Goldammer (Global Fire Monitoring Centre, Freiburg University,
Germany) provided the material on forest fires in Part I. J.-P. Lanly (Conseil Général
du Génie Rural des Eaux et des Forêts, French Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries) contributed Box 2, The impact of storms on the forests in France.
C. Prins (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Trade Division)
provided the material on the forest assessment of temperate and boreal forests in
the chapter on the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 in Part II. D. Peck
(Ramsar Convention Secretariat) contributed information related to the Ramsar
Convention. S. Johnson (International Tropical Timber Organization) contributed
the piece on the Year 2000 Objective in Part III. A. Hellier, W. McGhee, R. Tipper
and J. Mayhew (Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management) and Y. Malhi and
P. Meir (University of Edinburgh) contributed the piece on global climate change
and forestry in Part II. This piece is an output from a research
project partly funded by the United Kingdom Department for International
Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed
are not necessarily those of the DFID R7274 Forestry Research Programme.
A. Contreras-Hermosilla (consultant) provided the chapter on illegal activities and
corruption in the forest sector in Part II. C. Saint-Laurent (World Conservation
Union and World Wide Fund for Nature International) provided the section on
the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in the international discussion
and initiatives on forests in Part III.
Acknowledgements
viii
FAO wishes to express its gratitude for the strong and active guidance given by
the members of the External Advisory Committee (EAC) to the State of the World’s
Forests, namely: M. Colchester, M. Chipeta, M. Coulombe, M. Dourojeanni, F. Ekoko,
H. Gregersen, J. Griffiths, I. Klabin, J.-P. Lanly, M. de Montalembert, H.O.
Abdelnour, C. Prins, P. Sall, M.N. Salleh and M. Simula. In addition to these EAC
members, staff and associates of the Center for International Forestry Research
provided extremely helpful review comments on the draft materials.
S. Dembner, A. Perlis and the staff of the FAO Publishing and Multimedia
Service provided essential production and publication support. J. Saich and
R. Cardilli supplied secretarial assistance and F. Monti and A. Casponi assisted with
library services.
ix
A
lmost ten years ago in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
an international commitment was made at
the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) to work towards the
sustainable management, conservation and
development of all types of forests. UNCED, also
referred to as the Rio Conference, served to
catalyse debate and action on forests – redefining
for what, and for whom, forests are managed;
developing a vision of sustainable forest
management as well as strengthening
commitment to its implementation and practice;
and forging new and untraditional alliances as a
means of achieving common goals in forestry.
The State of the World’s Forests 2001 highlights
significant developments related to forests, many
of which can be traced back to UNCED or even
before, while others are driven by more recent
economic, social or political trends and events.
While the route to sustainable forest
management is challenging and progress is not as
rapid as some might wish, the path is now
clearer and we are indeed moving ahead.
FOREST RESOURCES: COVER AND
CONDITION
There are an estimated 3 870 million ha of forest
worldwide, of which almost 95 percent are natural
forests and 5 percent are forest plantations.
Tropical deforestation and degradation of forests
in many parts of the world are negatively
affecting the availability of forest goods and
services. While forest area in developed countries
has stabilized and is slightly increasing overall,
deforestation has continued in developing
countries. The estimated net annual change in
forest area worldwide during the past decade
(1990-2000) was -9.4 million ha, representing the
difference between the estimated annual rate of
deforestation of 14.6 million ha and the estimated
annual rate of forest area increase of 5.2 million ha.
The causes of forest degradation are varied.
Some, such as overexploitation of forest products,
Executive summary
can be avoided or minimized by sound forest
planning and management, whereas the effects of
others, such as natural disasters, can be mitigated
by contingency planning. The State of the World’s
Forests 2001 discusses two recent causes of forest
damage: severe wildfires in various parts of the
world and the December 1999 windstorms in
Europe. Commercial harvesting of bushmeat – a
threat to forest-based wildlife – is also discussed.
While wildfires in the 1999-2000 period were
not as widespread or devastating as those in
1997-1998, severe fires occurred in the western
United States, Ethiopia, the eastern Mediterranean
and Indonesia. The fires of the past four years
have raised public awareness and concern about
wildfires, catalysed national policy responses and
mobilized regional and international initiatives for
fire prevention, early warning, detection and
control. The links between fires and land use
policies and practices are now better understood.
Community-based fire management projects have
been launched in many countries and policies of
fire exclusion in fire-dependent ecosystems have
been reassessed in some countries.
Policies and practices for fire prevention
Continued emphasis on emergency response will not
prevent large and damaging fires in the future. The
way out of the emergency response trap is to couple
emergency preparedness and response programmes
with more sustainable land use policies and practices.
The storms that struck Europe in December
1999 caused massive damage to forests and trees
outside forests, seriously affected many people’s
livelihoods and disrupted forest industries and
markets. The total damage in Europe represented
six months of the region’s normal harvest while,
in some countries, the equivalent of several years’
harvest was blown down. Governments acted
x
quickly and effectively to lessen the negative
environmental, economic and social impacts.
Changes in forest establishment and management
measures have been proposed in many countries
to reduce the potential risk of storm damage in
the future.
The depletion of forest-based wildlife as a result
of the commercial harvesting of bushmeat is of
growing concern. Unsustainable bushmeat trade is
a serious problem in many regions, but it has
reached crisis dimensions in parts of tropical
Africa, where many species of primates and
antelopes, among others, are threatened. This
difficult problem is being tackled by non-
governmental organization (NGO) efforts as well
as government initiatives and is being addressed
at the international level by the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES).
MANAGEMENT, CONSERVATION
AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
OF FOREST RESOURCES
The State of the World’s Forests 2001 highlights some
of the recent technical, policy and institutional
measures to improve forest management and
conservation, reflecting the move to balance social,
economic and environmental objectives. These
include efforts to reduce timber harvesting in
natural forests and to develop alternative sources
of industrial wood, improved harvesting practices,
the reduction of illegal forest activities and
increased community-based forest management.
There is a global trend towards greater reliance
on plantations as a source of industrial wood.
The development of a significant global
plantation estate is quite recent; half of all
plantations in the world are less than 15 years
old. Asia has led plantation establishment
globally; as of 2000, about 62 percent of all forest
plantations were located in that region. Other
significant developments include: rising private
sector investment in plantations in developing
countries; increasing foreign investments in
plantations; and an expansion of outgrower
schemes – or arrangements whereby
communities or small landowners produce trees
for sale to private companies.
Plantation development:
planning for the future
Future increases in demand for wood are predicted to
be met largely by forest plantations. Proper planning
and management are needed to ensure that there are
no associated negative environmental and social
impacts.
Traditional biotechnologies have long been used
effectively to increase the productivity of forest
plantations. While many applications of
biotechnology in forestry are uncontroversial, the
debate on the use of genetically modified
organisms is now involving the forest sector.
Genetic modification of forest tree species has
been considered for such traits as virus and
insect resistance, reduced lignin content and
herbicide tolerance. There is no reported
commercial production of transgenic forest trees,
but field trials are under way in several
countries. The application of new biotechnologies
offers potential opportunities, but caution is
called for in their use in long-term conservation
and breeding programmes and plantations.
This issue of the State of the World’s Forests
discusses two recent and very different approaches
to improving forest management in production
forests: the adoption of environmentally sound
forest harvesting practices – or reduced impact
logging (RIL) – and restrictions or bans on
logging. RIL has proven environmental
advantages over traditional logging methods, and
there is evidence to suggest that the higher
operational costs of RIL are offset by financial
gains. Despite these promising findings, RIL is not
yet widely practised. Its widespread adoption will
depend on the demonstration of its financial
viability under a wide range of conditions and the
assurance that forest owners and/or managers
will be able to realize these benefits.
Many countries have recently imposed bans or
restrictions on timber harvesting, either in an
attempt to conserve their forest resources or as a
response to devastating natural calamities (e.g.
landslides and flooding) that are attributed, rightly
xi
or wrongly, to excessive commercial logging. The
impacts of the bans and restrictions have been
variable. In some countries, they have contributed
to the conservation of natural forests. In others,
they have negatively affected the forest sector and
local communities or have simply transferred the
problem of overharvesting to other countries.
Experience to date points to certain prerequisites
that appear to be necessary for success: clear
objectives, based on an understanding of the
causes of forest degradation; adequate policies;
strong political will; and sufficient resources to
cover the short- to medium-term costs involved.
The involvement of communities in forest
management is now a significant feature of
national forest policies and programmes
throughout the world. Many national forest
agencies are undergoing decentralization,
restructuring and downsizing – with mixed
results. Faced with inadequate financial and
human resources, governments are increasingly
turning to local communities for assistance in
protecting and managing state-owned forests. This
year’s issue highlights some features of
community-based management, comparing the
approach used in South Asia with a more recent
approach emerging in Africa.
FOREST GOODS AND SERVICES
One of the greatest challenges facing the forest
sector today is the need to reconcile the conflicting
demands of different stakeholders for the many
goods and services provided by forests. The State
of the World’s Forests 2001 focuses on one forest
product – industrial wood – and two
environmental services – the mitigation of climate
change and the conservation of biological diversity.
Considering the effects
of logging bans
The tendency has been for logging bans to be politi-
cally driven and impulsively imposed. The decision
to use bans should be based on a thorough analysis
of their potential effects and of alternative means of
achieving the same results.
Increasing attention is being paid to institutional
and governance issues, as technical measures alone
have proved insufficient to achieve sustainable
forest management. The State of the World’s Forests
2001 focuses on two of these: illegal forest activities
and community-based forest management.
Worldwide, there is a growing awareness of the
extent of illegal forest activities, including
corruption, and of the immense financial,
environmental and social costs that such activities
incur. Corruption, considered a taboo subject until
very recently, is now openly discussed in major
international fora and is being actively tackled by
governments, NGOs, the private sector and
international organizations. Elements in the fight
against crime and corruption include strengthened
monitoring and enforcement systems, increased
transparency in decision-making, simpler laws and
more severe punishment. Some governments, with
the support of NGOs and relevant private sector
institutions, have made significant efforts to
combat illegal activities and corruption in the
forest sector.
Major forest goods and services
Industrial wood
Woodfuel
Non-wood forest products
Soil and water conservation
Biological diversity conservation
Mitigation of climate change
Support to agricultural systems
Employment generation
Provision of recreational opportunities
Protection of natural and cultural heritage
The past two-year period was marked by the
generally good recovery of global demand for
industrial wood after the sharp drop in 1997-1998
caused by the Asian economic crisis. The effects of
the crisis, although disruptive, were less severe
and long-lasting than originally feared. Production
of tropical wood products, however, has remained
below earlier levels, and some Asian countries
xii
have experienced continued difficulties. Trade,
which had dropped in 1997-1998, largely recovered
in 1999-2000, but prices showed a mixed recovery,
depending on the specific product. A new
development has been the growing importance of
China as a major consumer of wood, together
with a dramatic increase in its wood imports in
recent years, owing in part to harvesting
restrictions for natural forests. This situation has
had significant impacts on production and trade
flows inside and outside the Asian region.
A number of trade trends have continued,
including an increased proportion of the total
production of wood products being exported,
increased domestic wood processing, increased
trade among developing countries (particularly in
Asia) and trade liberalization at a global level,
even as some countries are introducing export
restrictions. The certification of forest products,
although still somewhat controversial, has been
gaining acceptance. Interest has been greatest in
major importing countries (i.e. western Europe
and the United States) and in exporting countries
whose main markets are in those areas. The area
of certified forests continues to increase and is
now estimated to be roughly 90 million ha.
Nonetheless, this represents only about 2 percent
of the world’s forest area and, notably, most
certified forests are located in a limited number of
temperate countries, not in tropical countries
for which concern about unsustainable timber
harvesting practices is greatest. Recent
developments include the further elaboration of
national certification schemes, mutual recognition
of certification processes, the favouring of certified
wood products by major retail chains in Europe
and the United States as well as by various
buyers’ groups, and the certification of certain
pulp and paper products and non-wood forest
products.
Forest industries continue to adapt to changes in
raw materials, namely the increased supply of
plantation wood and of a wider range of species.
These trends are giving impetus to the production
of engineered wood products (particularly in
Europe and the United States), which are
capturing some of the market for plywood
produced by tropical countries. The reduced
availability of forest-based raw materials has
resulted in the emergence of innovative ways of
expanding wood supply and in a greater use of
residues and waste.
Recent negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol of the
Framework Convention on Climate Change
(FCCC) have focused considerable attention on
forests in the context of climate change. Forests
both influence and are influenced by climate
change: they play an important role in the global
carbon cycle, and their management or destruction
could significantly affect the course of global
warming in the twenty-first century. If predicted
climate changes materialize, the impacts on forests
are likely to be dramatic and long-lasting. Forests
can contribute towards emission reductions,
carbon storage and carbon sequestration. The
Kyoto Protocol, if ratified, may have a profound
effect on the forest sector, depending on which
forestry activities are included as eligible measures
for climate change mitigation, and on the rules
and standards applied.
Biological diversity conservation – within and
outside protected areas
Forest protected areas are a key to the conservation
of biological diversity globally. They alone, however,
are not sufficient to achieve biological diversity
conservation goals and must be complemented by
effective conservation measures outside protected
areas.
Over the past two decades, the conservation of
biological diversity has become a feature of
national forest policy and planning throughout the
world. It is a major issue on the international
agenda, an important component of development
assistance and the focus of many NGO-supported
activities. Protected areas have long been
considered the cornerstone of biological diversity
conservation. An estimated 12 percent of the
world’s forests are in protected areas. Major
developments that have occurred recently in the
management of protected areas include efforts to
integrate conservation and development needs,
xiii
The private sector is undergoing both structural
and functional changes. Large companies have
grown even larger and have tended to become
more vertically or horizontally integrated. Private
enterprises own or control significant forest areas
worldwide. Governments have increasingly given
up responsibility for many activities through the
privatization of state-owned enterprises or
modified concession agreements. Some companies
have voluntarily and proactively adopted
environmentally and socially acceptable practices.
Companies are increasingly collaborating with one
another as well as with communities and
environmental groups on activities related to
sustainable forest management.
INTERNATIONAL DIALOGUE AND
GLOBAL AND REGIONAL INITIATIVES
Countries were much divided on forest issues at
UNCED. In order to advance beyond the
agreements made at the Rio Conference,
intergovernmental deliberation continued, first
under the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests
(IPF) from 1995 to 1997 and then under the
Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) from
1997 to 2000. In October 2000, countries agreed to
an international arrangement on forests, including
the establishment of the United Nations Forum on
Forests (UNFF). UNFF’s mandate is to promote
the sustainable management, conservation and
development of all types of forest, to strengthen
long-term political commitment and to promote
the implementation of the proposals for action
agreed on by IPF and IFF.
The past few years have brought further
progress in the implementation of the three
conventions agreed on at UNCED – the
Convention on Biological Diversity, the
Framework Convention on Climate Change and
the Convention to Combat Desertification. Links
have been strengthened between these conventions
and with the IPF/IFF process as well as longer-
standing conventions and agreements (CITES, the
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and the
International Tropical Timber Agreement).
The recent trend of increased regional
cooperation in forestry issues has been continuing.
The State of the World’s Forests 2001 reports on
community-based conservation, a greater emphasis
on ecosystem management and the adoption of a
bioregional approach, whereby protected areas are
considered within a wider geographic and land
use context.
AN INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
FOR FORESTRY
Most countries are now carrying out a national
forest programme, which is an iterative forest
sector planning process leading to the
development of a comprehensive forest policy
framework. In many places, this has contributed to
the revision of forest policies and legislation and to
wider stakeholder participation in forest planning
and decision-making processes. Constraints on the
implementation of national forest programmes,
however, indicate the need for increased financial
resources, conflict management and strengthened
institutional and human capacity, among other
measures.
Two major and seemingly contradictory shifts
have been affecting forestry, among other sectors:
globalization on the one hand, and
decentralization on the other. Forest management
is being influenced by freer flows of labour,
capital, goods and information between countries.
It is also being affected by more pluralistic
institutional arrangements, the devolution of
responsibilities to a local level and the adoption of
participatory processes within countries. The roles
and responsibilities of government, the private
sector and civil society are being realigned and the
relationships between them are changing.
Changing roles in governance
Forest governance systems are evolving rapidly, to-
gether with the respective roles and responsibilities
of government, the private sector and civil society.
NGOs and other civil society groups have
become increasingly active in forest-related
advocacy, legal action and natural resource
management. NGOs have also become important
voices in international discussions.
xiv
regional intergovernmental initiatives related to
forests in central Africa, southern Africa, Central
America, the Amazon Basin, Asia and Europe. In
addition, increased cooperation is also occurring at
the ecoregional level, notable examples of which
are initiatives for countries with a low forest cover
and for mountain forests (in particular within the
framework of the International Year of Mountains
in 2002). This trend can also be seen on a technical
level, for example in regional cooperation with
regard to wildfires.
A number of regional and global initiatives
support countries’ efforts in sustainable forest
related costs and benefits. The groundwork has
been laid, but realizing the vision of sustainable
management, conservation and development of
the world’s forests will depend on a number of
factors. These include the ability to finance and
share equitably the costs and benefits of
sustainable forest management, continued and
strengthened political commitment, and the
translation of political commitment into effective
action on the ground. ◆
Strengthened international cooperation
The past few years have seen a strengthening of
intergovernmental deliberations on forests at the
international level as well as increasing regional
cooperation regarding trade and technical issues.
management. The development of criteria and
indicators for sustainable forest management has
helped to define sustainable forest management
better and to measure progress towards achieving it.
Model and demonstration forest programmes being
implemented in most regions of the world help to
illustrate sustainable forest management in practice.
Programmes of international development
assistance agencies over the past decade have
increasingly supported forest planning efforts and
national capacity building, encouraging
participatory approaches, community-based
management and equity and gender sensitivity.
Development agencies’ recent shift in emphasis
towards poverty alleviation, sustainable livelihoods
and food security is likely to encourage a greater
focus on the social objectives of forest management.
CONCLUSION
The 1990s have been instrumental in terms of
defining a common global vision for the future of
forests and their relation to people’s lives,
including reaching agreements on how to progress
towards that vision, developing technologies and
tools to facilitate the process, and clarifying the
