Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.1
Value at Risk
Chapter 16
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.2
The Question Being Asked in
VaR
“What loss level is such that we are X%
confident it will not be exceeded in N
business days?”
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.3
VaR and Regulatory Capital
? Regulators base the capital they require
banks to keep on VaR
? The market-risk capital is k times the 10-
day 99% VaR where k is at least 3.0
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.4
VaR vs,C-VaR
(See Figures 16.1 and 16.2)
? VaR is the loss level that will not be
exceeded with a specified probability
? C-VaR is the expected loss given that
the loss is greater than the VaR level
? Although C-VaR is theoretically more
appealing,it is not widely used
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.5
Advantages of VaR
? It captures an important aspect of risk
in a single number
? It is easy to understand
? It asks the simple question:,How bad
can things get?”
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.6
Time Horizon
? Instead of calculating the 10-day,99% VaR
directly analysts usually calculate a 1-day
99% VaR and assume
? This is exactly true when portfolio changes on
successive days come from independent
identically distributed normal distributions
d a y V a R1-d a y V a R-10 ?? 10
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.7
Historical Simulation
(See Table 16.1 and 16.2)
? Create a database of the daily movements in
all market variables.
? The first simulation trial assumes that the
percentage changes in all market variables
are as on the first day
? The second simulation trial assumes that the
percentage changes in all market variables
are as on the second day
? and so on
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.8
Historical Simulation continued
? Suppose we use m days of historical data
? Let vi be the value of a variable on day i
? There are m-1 simulation trials
? The ith trial assumes that the value of the
market variable tomorrow (i.e.,on day m+1) is
1?i
i
m v
vv
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.9
The Model-Building Approach
? The main alternative to historical simulation is
to make assumptions about the probability
distributions of return on the market variables
and calculate the probability distribution of the
change in the value of the portfolio
analytically
? This is known as the model building approach
or the variance-covariance approach
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.10
Daily Volatilities
? In option pricing we express volatility as
volatility per year
? In VaR calculations we express volatility
as volatility per day
252
y e a r
d a y
???
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.11
Daily Volatility continued
? Strictly speaking we should define ?day
as the standard deviation of the
continuously compounded return in one
day
? In practice we assume that it is the
standard deviation of the percentage
change in one day
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.12
Microsoft Example
? We have a position worth $10 million in
Microsoft shares
? The volatility of Microsoft is 2% per day
(about 32% per year)
? We use N=10 and X=99
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.13
Microsoft Example continued
? The standard deviation of the change in
the portfolio in 1 day is $200,000
? The standard deviation of the change in
10 days is
200 000 10 456,$632,?
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.14
Microsoft Example continued
? We assume that the expected change in
the value of the portfolio is zero (This is
OK for short time periods)
? We assume that the change in the value
of the portfolio is normally distributed
? Since N(–2.33)=0.01,the VaR is
2 33 632 456 473 621.,$1,,? ?
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.15
AT&T Example
? Consider a position of $5 million in
AT&T
? The daily volatility of AT&T is 1%
(approx 16% per year)
? The S.D per 10 days is
? The VaR is
50 000 10 144,$158,?
158 114 2 33 405,,$368,? ?
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.16
Portfolio
? Now consider a portfolio consisting of
both Microsoft and AT&T
? Suppose that the correlation between
the returns is 0.3
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.17
S.D,of Portfolio
? A standard result in statistics states that
? In this case ?X = 200,000 and ?Y =
50,000 and r = 0.3,The standard
deviation of the change in the portfolio
value in one day is therefore 220,227
YXYXYX ?r??????? ? 2
22
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.18
VaR for Portfolio
? The 10-day 99% VaR for the portfolio is
? The benefits of diversification are
(1,473,621+368,405)–1,622,657=$219,369
? What is the incremental effect of the AT&T
holding on VaR?
657,622,1$33.2102 2 0,2 2 7 ???
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.19
The Linear Model
We assume
? The daily change in the value of a
portfolio is linearly related to the daily
returns from market variables
? The returns from the market variables
are normally distributed
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.20
The General Linear Model
continued (equations 16.1 and 16.2)
d e v i a t i o n s t a n d a r d sp o r t f o l i o ' t h e is and
v a r i a b l e of v o l a t i l i t y t h e is w h e r e
P
i
n
i
ijjiji
ji
iiP
n
i
n
j
ijjijiP
n
i
ii
i
xP
?
?
r?????????
r??????
????
? ?
? ?
?
? ?
? ?
?
1
222
1 1
2
1
2
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.21
Handling Interest Rates,Cash
Flow Mapping
? We choose as market variables bond
prices with standard maturities (1mm,
3mm,6mm,1yr,2yr,5yr,7yr,10yr,30yr)
? Suppose that the 5yr rate is 6% and the
7yr rate is 7% and we will receive a cash
flow of $10,000 in 6.5 years.
? The volatilities per day of the 5yr and 7yr
bonds are 0.50% and 0.58% respectively
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.22
Example continued
? We interpolate between the 5yr rate of
6% and the 7yr rate of 7% to get a 6.5yr
rate of 6.75%
? The PV of the $10,000 cash flow is
540,6
0675.1
000,10
5.6 ?
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.23
Example continued
? We interpolate between the 0.5%
volatility for the 5yr bond price and the
0.58% volatility for the 7yr bond price to
get 0.56% as the volatility for the 6.5yr
bond
? We allocate ? of the PV to the 5yr bond
and (1- ?) of the PV to the 7yr bond
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.24
Example continued
? Suppose that the correlation between
movement in the 5yr and 7yr bond
prices is 0.6
? To match variances
? This gives ?=0.074
)1(58.05.06.02)1(58.05.056.0 22222 ?????????????
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.25
Example continued
The value of 6,540 received in 6.5 years
in 5 years and by
in 7 years.
This cash flow mapping preserves value
and variance
4 8 4$0 7 4.05 4 0,6 ??
056,6$926.0540,6 ??
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.26
When Linear Model Can be
Used
? Portfolio of stocks
? Portfolio of bonds
? Forward contract on foreign currency
? Interest-rate swap
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.27
The Linear Model and Options
Consider a portfolio of options
dependent on a single stock price,S,
Define
and
S
P
?
???
S
Sx ???
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.28Linear Model and Options
continued (equations 16.3 and 16.4)
? As an approximation
? Similar when there are many underlying
market variables
where ?i is the delta of the portfolio with
respect to the ith asset
xSSP ???????
? ????
i
iii xSP
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.29
Example
? Consider an investment in options on
Microsoft and AT&T,Suppose the stock
prices are 120 and 30 respectively and the
deltas of the portfolio with respect to the two
stock prices are 1,000 and 20,000
respectively
? As an approximation
where ?x1 and ?x2 are the percentage
changes in the two stock prices
21 0 0 0,20300 0 0,11 2 0 xxP ???????
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.30
Skewness
(See Figures 16.3,16.4,and 16.5)
The linear model fails to capture
skewness in the probability distribution
of the portfolio value,
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.31
Quadratic Model
For a portfolio dependent on a single
stock price it is approximately true that
this becomes
2)(
2
1
SSP ???????
22 )(
2
1 xSxSP ???????
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.32Moments of ?P for one market
variable
6364243
4242222
22
8
15
2
9
)(
4
3
)(
2
1
)(
????????
???????
????
SSPE
SSPE
SPE
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.33
Quadratic Model continued
With many market variables and each
instrument dependent on only one
where ?i and ?i are the delta and
gamma of the portfolio with respect to
the ith variable
? ?
? ?
???????
n
i
n
i
iiiiii xSxSP
1 1
22 )(
2
1
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.34
Quadratic Model continued
When the change in the portfolio value
has the form
we can calculate the moments of ?P
analytically if the ?xi are assumed to be
normal
??
??
???????
n
i
ii
n
i
ii xxP
1
2
1
)(
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.35
Quadratic Model continued
Once we have done this we can use the
Cornish Fisher expansion to calculate
fractiles of the distribution of ?P
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.36
Monte Carlo Simulation
To calculate VaR using M.C,simulation we
? Value portfolio today
? Sample once from the multivariate
distributions of the ?xi
? Use the ?xi to determine market variables
at end of one day
? Revalue the portfolio at the end of day
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.37
Monte Carlo Simulation
? Calculate ?P
? Repeat many times to build up a
probability distribution for ?P
? VaR is the appropriate fractile of the
distribution times square root of N
? For example,with 1,000 trial the 1
percentile is the 10th worst case.
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.38
Speeding Up Monte Carlo
Use the quadratic approximation to
calculate ?P
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.39
Stress Testing
? This involves testing how well a portfolio
performs under some of the most
extreme market moves seen in the last
10 to 20 years
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.40
Back-Testing
? Tests how well VaR estimates would
have performed in the past
? We could ask the question,How often
was the actual 10-day loss greater than
the 99%/10 day VaR?
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.41
Principal Components Analysis
for Interest Rates
? The first factor is a roughly parallel shift
(83.1% of variation explained)
? The second factor is a twist (10% of
variation explained)
? The third factor is a bowing (2.8% of
variation explained)
16.1
Value at Risk
Chapter 16
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.2
The Question Being Asked in
VaR
“What loss level is such that we are X%
confident it will not be exceeded in N
business days?”
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.3
VaR and Regulatory Capital
? Regulators base the capital they require
banks to keep on VaR
? The market-risk capital is k times the 10-
day 99% VaR where k is at least 3.0
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.4
VaR vs,C-VaR
(See Figures 16.1 and 16.2)
? VaR is the loss level that will not be
exceeded with a specified probability
? C-VaR is the expected loss given that
the loss is greater than the VaR level
? Although C-VaR is theoretically more
appealing,it is not widely used
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.5
Advantages of VaR
? It captures an important aspect of risk
in a single number
? It is easy to understand
? It asks the simple question:,How bad
can things get?”
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.6
Time Horizon
? Instead of calculating the 10-day,99% VaR
directly analysts usually calculate a 1-day
99% VaR and assume
? This is exactly true when portfolio changes on
successive days come from independent
identically distributed normal distributions
d a y V a R1-d a y V a R-10 ?? 10
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.7
Historical Simulation
(See Table 16.1 and 16.2)
? Create a database of the daily movements in
all market variables.
? The first simulation trial assumes that the
percentage changes in all market variables
are as on the first day
? The second simulation trial assumes that the
percentage changes in all market variables
are as on the second day
? and so on
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.8
Historical Simulation continued
? Suppose we use m days of historical data
? Let vi be the value of a variable on day i
? There are m-1 simulation trials
? The ith trial assumes that the value of the
market variable tomorrow (i.e.,on day m+1) is
1?i
i
m v
vv
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.9
The Model-Building Approach
? The main alternative to historical simulation is
to make assumptions about the probability
distributions of return on the market variables
and calculate the probability distribution of the
change in the value of the portfolio
analytically
? This is known as the model building approach
or the variance-covariance approach
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.10
Daily Volatilities
? In option pricing we express volatility as
volatility per year
? In VaR calculations we express volatility
as volatility per day
252
y e a r
d a y
???
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.11
Daily Volatility continued
? Strictly speaking we should define ?day
as the standard deviation of the
continuously compounded return in one
day
? In practice we assume that it is the
standard deviation of the percentage
change in one day
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.12
Microsoft Example
? We have a position worth $10 million in
Microsoft shares
? The volatility of Microsoft is 2% per day
(about 32% per year)
? We use N=10 and X=99
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.13
Microsoft Example continued
? The standard deviation of the change in
the portfolio in 1 day is $200,000
? The standard deviation of the change in
10 days is
200 000 10 456,$632,?
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.14
Microsoft Example continued
? We assume that the expected change in
the value of the portfolio is zero (This is
OK for short time periods)
? We assume that the change in the value
of the portfolio is normally distributed
? Since N(–2.33)=0.01,the VaR is
2 33 632 456 473 621.,$1,,? ?
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.15
AT&T Example
? Consider a position of $5 million in
AT&T
? The daily volatility of AT&T is 1%
(approx 16% per year)
? The S.D per 10 days is
? The VaR is
50 000 10 144,$158,?
158 114 2 33 405,,$368,? ?
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.16
Portfolio
? Now consider a portfolio consisting of
both Microsoft and AT&T
? Suppose that the correlation between
the returns is 0.3
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.17
S.D,of Portfolio
? A standard result in statistics states that
? In this case ?X = 200,000 and ?Y =
50,000 and r = 0.3,The standard
deviation of the change in the portfolio
value in one day is therefore 220,227
YXYXYX ?r??????? ? 2
22
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.18
VaR for Portfolio
? The 10-day 99% VaR for the portfolio is
? The benefits of diversification are
(1,473,621+368,405)–1,622,657=$219,369
? What is the incremental effect of the AT&T
holding on VaR?
657,622,1$33.2102 2 0,2 2 7 ???
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.19
The Linear Model
We assume
? The daily change in the value of a
portfolio is linearly related to the daily
returns from market variables
? The returns from the market variables
are normally distributed
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.20
The General Linear Model
continued (equations 16.1 and 16.2)
d e v i a t i o n s t a n d a r d sp o r t f o l i o ' t h e is and
v a r i a b l e of v o l a t i l i t y t h e is w h e r e
P
i
n
i
ijjiji
ji
iiP
n
i
n
j
ijjijiP
n
i
ii
i
xP
?
?
r?????????
r??????
????
? ?
? ?
?
? ?
? ?
?
1
222
1 1
2
1
2
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.21
Handling Interest Rates,Cash
Flow Mapping
? We choose as market variables bond
prices with standard maturities (1mm,
3mm,6mm,1yr,2yr,5yr,7yr,10yr,30yr)
? Suppose that the 5yr rate is 6% and the
7yr rate is 7% and we will receive a cash
flow of $10,000 in 6.5 years.
? The volatilities per day of the 5yr and 7yr
bonds are 0.50% and 0.58% respectively
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.22
Example continued
? We interpolate between the 5yr rate of
6% and the 7yr rate of 7% to get a 6.5yr
rate of 6.75%
? The PV of the $10,000 cash flow is
540,6
0675.1
000,10
5.6 ?
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.23
Example continued
? We interpolate between the 0.5%
volatility for the 5yr bond price and the
0.58% volatility for the 7yr bond price to
get 0.56% as the volatility for the 6.5yr
bond
? We allocate ? of the PV to the 5yr bond
and (1- ?) of the PV to the 7yr bond
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.24
Example continued
? Suppose that the correlation between
movement in the 5yr and 7yr bond
prices is 0.6
? To match variances
? This gives ?=0.074
)1(58.05.06.02)1(58.05.056.0 22222 ?????????????
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.25
Example continued
The value of 6,540 received in 6.5 years
in 5 years and by
in 7 years.
This cash flow mapping preserves value
and variance
4 8 4$0 7 4.05 4 0,6 ??
056,6$926.0540,6 ??
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.26
When Linear Model Can be
Used
? Portfolio of stocks
? Portfolio of bonds
? Forward contract on foreign currency
? Interest-rate swap
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.27
The Linear Model and Options
Consider a portfolio of options
dependent on a single stock price,S,
Define
and
S
P
?
???
S
Sx ???
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.28Linear Model and Options
continued (equations 16.3 and 16.4)
? As an approximation
? Similar when there are many underlying
market variables
where ?i is the delta of the portfolio with
respect to the ith asset
xSSP ???????
? ????
i
iii xSP
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.29
Example
? Consider an investment in options on
Microsoft and AT&T,Suppose the stock
prices are 120 and 30 respectively and the
deltas of the portfolio with respect to the two
stock prices are 1,000 and 20,000
respectively
? As an approximation
where ?x1 and ?x2 are the percentage
changes in the two stock prices
21 0 0 0,20300 0 0,11 2 0 xxP ???????
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.30
Skewness
(See Figures 16.3,16.4,and 16.5)
The linear model fails to capture
skewness in the probability distribution
of the portfolio value,
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.31
Quadratic Model
For a portfolio dependent on a single
stock price it is approximately true that
this becomes
2)(
2
1
SSP ???????
22 )(
2
1 xSxSP ???????
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.32Moments of ?P for one market
variable
6364243
4242222
22
8
15
2
9
)(
4
3
)(
2
1
)(
????????
???????
????
SSPE
SSPE
SPE
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.33
Quadratic Model continued
With many market variables and each
instrument dependent on only one
where ?i and ?i are the delta and
gamma of the portfolio with respect to
the ith variable
? ?
? ?
???????
n
i
n
i
iiiiii xSxSP
1 1
22 )(
2
1
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.34
Quadratic Model continued
When the change in the portfolio value
has the form
we can calculate the moments of ?P
analytically if the ?xi are assumed to be
normal
??
??
???????
n
i
ii
n
i
ii xxP
1
2
1
)(
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.35
Quadratic Model continued
Once we have done this we can use the
Cornish Fisher expansion to calculate
fractiles of the distribution of ?P
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.36
Monte Carlo Simulation
To calculate VaR using M.C,simulation we
? Value portfolio today
? Sample once from the multivariate
distributions of the ?xi
? Use the ?xi to determine market variables
at end of one day
? Revalue the portfolio at the end of day
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.37
Monte Carlo Simulation
? Calculate ?P
? Repeat many times to build up a
probability distribution for ?P
? VaR is the appropriate fractile of the
distribution times square root of N
? For example,with 1,000 trial the 1
percentile is the 10th worst case.
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.38
Speeding Up Monte Carlo
Use the quadratic approximation to
calculate ?P
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.39
Stress Testing
? This involves testing how well a portfolio
performs under some of the most
extreme market moves seen in the last
10 to 20 years
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.40
Back-Testing
? Tests how well VaR estimates would
have performed in the past
? We could ask the question,How often
was the actual 10-day loss greater than
the 99%/10 day VaR?
Options,Futures,and Other Derivatives,5th edition ? 2002 by John C,Hull
16.41
Principal Components Analysis
for Interest Rates
? The first factor is a roughly parallel shift
(83.1% of variation explained)
? The second factor is a twist (10% of
variation explained)
? The third factor is a bowing (2.8% of
variation explained)
