“Without grammar very little can be conveyed,without vocabulary
nothing can be conveyed.”
English Lexicology (II)
English Lexicology(II) 2
Contents
? 5,Word-Formation I,the Major Processes
? 6,Word-Formation II,the Minor Processes
? 7,Motivation
To be continued
Chapter 5 Word-Formation I,
The Major Processes
5.1 General Remarks
5.2 Prefixation
5.3 Suffixation
5.4 Conversion
5.5 Compounding
English Lexicology(II) 4
5.1 General Remarks
? The three major processes
? affixation or derivation (17.5%)
? Prefixation
? suffixation
? conversion (10.5%)
? composition or compounding (27%)
English Lexicology(II) 5
5.2 Prefixation
? The definition of prefixation
? Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding
prefixes to stems,Prefixes do not generally change the
word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning,
However,there is an insignificant number of class-
changing prefixes
? Non-class-changing prefixes,natural-unnatural,like-dislike,fair-
unfair
? Class-changing prefixes,force-enforce,danger-endanger,form-
deform,little-belittle,war-postwar,college-intercollege
English Lexicology(II) 6
5.2 Prefixation
? The classification of prefixes
? In some reference books,prefixes (and suffixes)
are classified according to their source,but this
does not seem to help from a practical point of
view,It seems more helpful to classify the most
important productive prefixes by their meaning
into the following ten categories,
English Lexicology(II) 7
5.2 Prefixation
? 1) Negative prefixes
a-/an- amoral,asexual,atheism,anacid,anarchy,
dis- dishonest,discontent,discover,disobey,disagree
in- Incomplete,inconsistent,incorrect,invulnerable,
illogical,illegal,impolite,immoral,imbalance,
irrational,irregular
non- nonviolent,non-cooperation,nonautomatic,
nonadjustable,nonalcoholic
un- uninformative,unexpected,unease,unrest
English Lexicology(II) 8
5.2 Prefixation
? Order
? Literate
? Symmetry
? Governmental
? Relevant
? Productive
? Believable
? Vulnerable
? Sane
? Related
? Aligned
? Mature
? Disorder
? Illiterate
? Asymmetry
? Nongovernmental
? Irrelevant
? Unproductive
? Unbelievable
? Invulnerable
? Insane
? Unrelated
? Nonaligned
? Immature
English Lexicology(II) 9
5.2 Prefixation
? 2) Reversative or privative
de- defrost,deregulation,degeneration,deformed,
denationalize
un- undo,unpack,untie,unwrap,unmask
dis- disconnect,dishearten,disinterested
English Lexicology(II) 10
5.2 Prefixation
? Centralize
? Plane
? Infect
? Zip
? Regulate
? Possess
? Pollute
? Decentralize
? Deplane
? Disinfect
? Unzip
? Deregulate
? Dispossess
? Depollute
English Lexicology(II) 11
5.2 Prefixation
? 3) Pejorative prefixes
mis- misguide,misapplication,misbehavior,mischoice,
misgiving
mal- maladjustment,maldigestion,malfunction,
maldevelopment
pseudo- pseudonym,pseudoscience,pseudoclassic,
pseudo-friend
English Lexicology(II) 12
5.2 Prefixation
? 4) Prefixes of degree or size
hyper- hyperactive,hypercritical,hyperaggressive,hypercautious
ultra- ultramodern,ultrasecret,ultraclean,ultrasonic,ultraconservative
mini- minibus,minicamera,miniskirt
out- outdo,outgrown,outlive
over- overwork,overestimate,overemphasize,overabundance,overburden
under- underdeveloped,underpopulation,undergraduate
super- supermarket,superpower,superstar
sub- subadult,subtitle,subbreed,subatom
English Lexicology(II) 13
5.2 Prefixation
? Computer
? Critical
? Conscious
? Natural
? Sensitive
? Simple
? Number
? Statement
? culture
? Minicomputer
? Ultracritic /hypercritic
? Subconscious
? Supernatural
? Hypersensitive/ultrasensitive
? Oversimple
? Outnumber
? Understatement
? Subculture
English Lexicology(II) 14
5.2 Prefixation
? 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude
co- Co-author,co-star,co-prosperity,cooperation
counter- Counterexample,counterclaim,counteractive,
counterattack,counterculture,countermeasure
anti- anti-abortion,anti-art,antiwar,antibacterial,antisocial,
anticancer,antibody
pro- pro-American,pro-revolutionary,pro-Fascism,pro-
student,proslavery
English Lexicology(II) 15
5.2 Prefixation
? 6) Locative prefixes
fore- forearm,foreleg,forename,foreword
inter- international,intergovernmental,intertwine,
interdisciplinary,intercollege
trans- transatlantic,transoceanic,transform,transplant
tele- telephone,telegram,telecommunication
English Lexicology(II) 16
5.2 Prefixation
? View
? Conference
? Continental
? Ground
? Cast
? Specific
? Racial
? Shore
? Interview
? teleconference
? Intercontinental
? Foreground
? Telecast
? Transpacific
? Transracial
? Foreshore
English Lexicology(II) 17
5.2 Prefixation
? 7) Prefixes of time and order
ex- ex-husband,ex-president,ex-colony,ex-convict
fore- foresee,foretell,forefather,forewarn
pre- premature,prewar,prehistoric,prepay,premarital
post- post-election,postwar,postgraduate,postdoctoral
English Lexicology(II) 18
5.2 Prefixation
? 8) Number prefixes
uni-/mono- unilateral,unicell,unicircuit,unicolor,unicycle,unidimensional,uniform,unipolar,monoxide,monocrystal,
monogamy,monologue
bi-/di- bicycle,bilingual,bimonthly,dioxide,dialogue,dichotomy,
disyllable
tri- triangular,triatomic,trimonthly,trilateral,trilingual
multi-/poly- multipurpose,multipolar,multiangular,multilingual,
polyatomic,polycrystal,polygamy
semi- semicircle,semiliterate,semivowel,semiannual,
semicolony,semiautomatic
English Lexicology(II) 19
5.2 Prefixation
? Lingual
? Lateral
? Polar
? Dimensional
? Unilingual,bilingual,
trilingual,multilingual
? Unilateral,bilateral,
trilateral,multilateral
? Unipolar,bipolar,tripolar,
multipolar
? Unidimensional,
bidimensional,
tridimensional (three-
dimensional),
multidimensional
English Lexicology(II) 20
5.2 Prefixation
? 9) Conversion prefixes
a- aloud,asleep,aglow,awash
be- belittle,bestir,befriend,bewitch
en- endanger,enforce,enable,embody,embitter,empower
English Lexicology(II) 21
5.2 Prefixation
? 10) Miscellaneous prefixes
Extra- Extralinguistic,extraordinary,extraterrestrial
Neo- Neo-classicism,neo-colonialism,neo-fascism,
Neolithic
Pan- Pan-Pacific,Pan-Arabism,Pan-Africanism
…… ……….,
English Lexicology(II) 22
5.3 Suffixation
? The definition of suffixation
? Suffixation is the formation of new words by
adding suffixes to stems,Unlike prefixes which
primarily change the meaning of the stem,
suffixes have only a small semantic role,their
primary function being to change the
grammatical function of stems,In other words,
they mainly change the word class,However,
they may also add attached meaning to the stem,
English Lexicology(II) 23
5.3 Suffixation
? The classification of suffixes
? Since suffixes mainly change the word class,we
shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into
? 1) noun suffixes
? 2) adjective suffixes
? 3) adverb suffixes
? 4) verb suffixes
English Lexicology(II) 24
5.3 Suffixation
? 1) Noun suffixes
? Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the
following five kinds,
? Denominal nouns (concrete or abstract)
? Deverbal nouns
? De-adjectival nouns
? Noun and adjective suffixes
English Lexicology(II) 25
5.3 Suffixation
? 1) Noun suffixes
Denominal nouns (concrete)
-eer auctioneer,engineer,mountaineer,pamphleteer,
profiteer,racketeer
-er Londoner,teenager,villager
-ess actress,waitress,stewardess,hostess,lioness
-let booklet,leaflet,piglet,starlet
English Lexicology(II) 26
5.3 Suffixation
? 1) Noun suffixes
Denominal nouns (abstract)
-age baggage,luggage,mileage,percentage
-dom freedom,kingdom,stardom,officialdom
-ery/-ry drudgery,slavery,nunnery,nursery,machinery
-ism idealism,optimism,individualism,consumerism
-ship dictatorship,scholarship,friendship,sportsmanship
-ocrasy aristocracy,democracy,meritocracy
-hood boyhood,brotherhood,neighborhood,adulthood
-ful handful,mouthful,plateful,tubful
English Lexicology(II) 27
5.3 Suffixation
? 1) Noun suffixes
Deverbal nouns
-ant contestant,inhabitant,assistant,informant
-ee interviewee,addressee,appointee,nominee,employee
-er/-or driver,employer,interviewer,computer,silencer,accelerator,
supervisor,actor,window-shopper
-ation foundation,exploration,nomination,starvation
-ing building,dwelling,earnings,savings,clothing,stuffing
-al refusal,revival,survival,arrival,dismissal
-ment amazement,arrangement,movement,government
-age breakage,coverage,shrinkage,drainage
English Lexicology(II) 28
5.3 Suffixation
? 1) Noun suffixes
De-adjectival nouns
-ity diversity,equality,rapidity,verbosity,responsibility,
actuality,regularity,popularity,respectability
-ness accurateness,falseness,kindness,selfishness,
happiness,largeness,frankness,unexpectedness,
thickness,goodness
English Lexicology(II) 29
5.3 Suffixation
? 1) Noun suffixes
Nouns and adjective suffixes
-ese Burmese,Chinese,Cantonese,officialese,journalese
-(i)an Darwinian,republican,Elizabethan,Shakespearean,
Indonesian,Russian
-ist communist,pianist,specialist,socialist
English Lexicology(II) 30
5.3 Suffixation
? 2) Adjective Suffixes
Denominal suffixes
-ed dogged,rugged,pointed,chocolate-flavored
-ful delightful,successful,faithful,meaningful
-ish childish,foolish,snobbish,Irish,Turkish
-less homeless,hopeless,merciless,harmless
-like childlike,ladylike,statesmanlike
-ly friendly,cowardly,motherly,daily,weekly
-y milky,sandy,hairy,meaty
English Lexicology(II) 31
5.3 Suffixation
? 2) Adjective Suffixes
Denominal suffixes
-ic (-atic) ethnic,economic,historic,problematic
-ous (-ious,
-eous)
ambitious,desirous,marvelous,courageous,
erroneous,courteous
-al (-ial,-ical) accidental,professional,residential,musical,
philosophical
English Lexicology(II) 32
5.3 Suffixation
? 2) Adjective Suffixes
Deverbal suffixes
-able (-ible,
-uble)
debatable,drinkable,changeable,perishable,
permissible,visible,dissoluble,soluble
-ive (-ative,
-sive)
attractive,reflective,productive,negative,
decorative,talkative,affirmative,expansive,
explosive,decisive
English Lexicology(II) 33
5.3 Suffixation
? 3) Adverb Suffixes
-ly smoothly,personally,extremely,publicly,naturally
-ward(s) downward,eastward,homeward,forward
-wise clockwise,lengthwise,weatherwise,educationwise,
taxwise,moneywise
English Lexicology(II) 34
5.3 Suffixation
? 4) Verb suffixes
-ate Originate,hyphenate
-en Deepen,harden,strengthen,hasten
-ify Solidify,modify,beautify,classify,identify
-ize(-ise) Symbolize,computerize,legalize,publicize,
specialize
English Lexicology(II) 35
5.3 Suffixation
? False
? Sterile
? Intense
? Fat
? Horror
? Memory
? Apology
? Falsify
? Sterilize
? Intensify
? Fatten
? Horrify
? Memorize
? Apologize
English Lexicology(II) 36
5.4 Conversion
? The definition of conversion
? Conversion is a word-formation whereby a word
of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of
another without the addition of an affix,It is also
called zero derivation(零位派生 ),
English Lexicology(II) 37
5.4 Conversion
? Major types of conversion
? Noun-verb conversion
? Verb-noun conversion
? Adjective-noun conversion
English Lexicology(II) 38
5.4 Conversion
? Noun-verb conversion
? He elbowed his way through the crowd,
? Problems snowballed by the hour,
? The newspaper headlined his long record of
accomplishments,
? Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to
Camp David,
English Lexicology(II) 39
5.4 Conversion
? Abuse
? Advice
? House
? Use
? Belief
? Grief
? Shelf
? mouth
? Abuse
? Advise
? House
? Use
? Believe
? Grieve
? Shelve
? Mouth
Changes of pronunciation and spelling
English Lexicology(II) 40
5.4 Conversion
? Verb-noun conversion
? He was admitted to the university after a three-
year wait,
? This little restaurant is quite a find,
? It is a good buy,
? He took a close look at the machine,
? doubt,smell,desire,want,attempt,hit,reply,
divide
English Lexicology(II) 41
5.4 Conversion
? Verb-noun conversion
? Phrasal verb-noun conversion
Right branching Left branching
Break down Breakdown Break out Outbreak
Pick up Pick-up Spill over Overspill
Take over Take-over Start up Upstart
Get together Get-together Put in Input
Break through Breakthrough Keep up upkeep
English Lexicology(II) 42
5.4 Conversion
? Conflict
? Abstract
? Contrast
? Decrease
? Discount
? Export
? Rebel
? Permit
? Progress
? Protest
? Transfer
? Transplant
? Survey
? Torment
Shift of stress
English Lexicology(II) 43
5.4 Conversion
? Adjective-noun conversion
? Partial conversion
? Complete conversion
English Lexicology(II) 44
5.4 Conversion
? Adjective-noun conversion
? Partial conversion
? Denoting a quality or a state common to a group of person,the
deaf,the blind,the poor,the wounded
? Denoting peoples of a nation (ending in –sh,-se,-ch),the
English,the Chinese,the Danish,the Scotch
? Denoting a quality in the abstract,a strong dislike for the
sentimental,to distinguish the false and the true,from the
sublime to the ridiculous
? Denoting a single person (converted from participles),the
accused,the deceased,the deserted,the condemned
English Lexicology(II) 45
5.4 Conversion
? Adjective-noun conversion
? Complete conversion
? A native,two natives,a returned native
? He is a natural for the job,
? Tom is one of our regulars,he comes in for a drink
about this time every night,
? To them she is not a brusque crazy,but appropriately
passionate,
? They are the creatives in the advertising department,
English Lexicology(II) 46
5.5 Compounding
? The definition of compounding
? Composition or compounding is a word-
formation process consisting of joining two or
more bases to form a new unit,a compound
word,It is a common device which has been
productive at every period of the English
language,Today the largest number of new
words are formed by compounding,
English Lexicology(II) 47
5.5 Compounding
? Forms of compounds
? Solid,bedtime,honeymoon
? Hyphenated,above-mentioned,town-planning
? Open,reading material,hot line
English Lexicology(II) 48
5.5 Compounding
? Types of compounds
? Noun compounds
? Adjective compounds
? Verb compounds
English Lexicology(II) 49
5.5 Compounding
? Noun compounds
? Headache,housekeeping,hot line,swimming
pool,raindrop,breakdown,biological clock,
identity crisis
English Lexicology(II) 50
5.5 Compounding
? Adjective compounds
? Weather-beaten rocks,peaceloving people,
everlasting friendship,a difficult-to-operate
machine,a made-up story,an on the spot
inspection,taxfree products,fire-proof dress
English Lexicology(II) 51
5.5 Compounding
? Verb compounds
? Formed by back-formation
? house-keep from housekeeper
? windowshop from window-shopping
? mass produce from mass production
? hen-peck from hen-pecked
? spoon-feed from spoon-fed,
English Lexicology(II) 52
5.5 Compounding
? Verb compounds
? Formed by conversion
? to blue-print,to cold-shoulder,to outline,to
honeymoon,to snowball,to chain-smoke,to sweet-
talk,to job-hop,
Chapter 6 Word-Formation II,
The Minor Processes
6.1 Blending
6.2 Backformation
6.3 Shortening
6.4 Analogy
English Lexicology(II) 54
6.1 Blending
? The definition of blending
? Blending（ 拼缀法 ） is a process of word-
formation in which a new word is formed by
combining parts of two words,The result of such
a process is called a blend or telescopic word or
portmanteau word,Blending is thus a process of
both compounding and abbreviation,Structurally
blends may be divided into four types (see page
45-46),
English Lexicology(II) 55
6.1 Blending
? Examples
? newscast (news＋ broadcast)
? brunch (breakfast＋ lunch)
? smog (smoke＋ fog)
? talkathon (talk＋ marathon)
? slimnastics (slim＋ gymnastics)
? videophone ( video ＋ telephone)
English Lexicology(II) 56
6.1 Blending
? sci-fi
? hi-fi
? workaholic
? stagflation
? Unicom
? sitcom
? motel
? dawk
? science＋ fiction
? high＋ fidelity
? work＋ alcoholic
? stagnation＋ inflation
? United ＋ Communications
? situation＋ comedy
? motor＋ hotel
? dove＋ hawk
English Lexicology(II) 57
6.2 Backformation
? The definition of backformation
? Back-formation（ 逆成法） is a process of
word-formation by which a word is created by
the deletion of a supposed suffix,It is also
known as a reverse derivation,
English Lexicology(II) 58
6.2 Backformation
? Examples
? edit from editor
? automate from automation
? enthuse from enthusiasm
? gloom from gloomy
? donate from donation
? brainwash from brainwashing
? sleep-walk from sleep-walking
English Lexicology(II) 59
6.3 Shortening
? Types of shortening or abbreviation
（ 缩略法）
? 1) clipped words（ 剪切词）, those created by
clipping part of the word (usually a noun),
leaving only a piece of the old word,The clipped
form is normally regarded as informal,
English Lexicology(II) 60
6.3 Shortening
? Types of shortening or abbreviation
（ 缩略法）
? 2) initialisms（ 首字母连写词）, a type of
shortening,using the first letters of words to
form a proper name,a technical term,or a phrase;
an initialism is pronounced letter by letter,
English Lexicology(II) 61
6.3 Shortening
? Types of shortening or abbreviation
（ 缩略法）
? 3) acronyms（ 首字母拼音词）, words formed
from the initial letters of words and pronounced
as words,Acronyms differ from initialisms in that
they are pronounced as words rather than as
sequences of letters,
English Lexicology(II) 62
6.3 Shortening
? 1) Clipped words
? ad=advertisement
? expo=exposition
? phone=telephone
? pro=professional
? memo=memorandum
? tec=detective
? heli or copter=helicopter
? comfy=comfortable
English Lexicology(II) 63
6.3 Shortening
? gymnasium
? dormitory
? handkerchief
? gasoline
? kilogram
? influenza
? business
? parachute
? refrigerator
? taxicab
? gym
? dorm
? hanky
? Gas
? kilo
? flu
? biz
? chute
? fridge
? taxi or cab
Give clippings for the following words
English Lexicology(II) 64
6.3 Shortening
? 2) Initialisms
? IOC=International Olympic Committee
? BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation
? ISBN=International Standard Book Number
? CAD=computer assisted design
? cm=centimeter
? TB=tuberculosis
English Lexicology(II) 65
6.3 Shortening
? CPU
? DIY
? CEO
? IT
? AI
? SOS
? IDD
? GMT
? VIP
? P.S,
? a.m,
? p.m,
? central processing unit
? Do it yourself
? Chief Executive Officer
? Information technology
? artificial intelligence
? Save our ship
? international direct dial
? Greenwich Mean Time
? very important person
? postscript
? ante meridiem
? post meridiem
Write out in full the following initialisms
English Lexicology(II) 66
6.3 Shortening
? 3) Acronyms
? Basic=Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction
? TEFL=teaching English as a foreign language
? UNESCO=the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
? Sars=Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
English Lexicology(II) 67
6.3 Shortening
? Tofel
? ROM
? NATO
? FIFA
? Aids
? radar
? Test of English as a foreign language
? read only memory
? The North Atlantic Treaty organization
? Federation Internationale de Football
? Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome
? Radio detecting and ranging
Write out in full the following acronyms
English Lexicology(II) 68
6.4 Analogy
? The definition of analogy（ 类比）
? The process by which words or phrases are
created or re-formed according to the existing
patterns in the language
English Lexicology(II) 69
6.4 Analogy
? Examples
? Marathon-----telethon,talkathon
? blue-collar workers-----white-collar workers,gray-collar
workers,pink-collar workers,gold-collar workers
? environmental pollution-----visual or eye pollution,noise
pollution,cultural pollution,graffiti pollution
? First Family-----First Lady,First Dog
? Landscape-----moonscape,marscape
? Bird’s eye------fish-eye,worm’s-eye,cat’s-eye
Chapter 7 Motivation
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
7.3 Morphological motivation
7.4 Semantic motivation
7.5 Logical motivation
7.6 Motivation and Culture
English Lexicology(II) 71
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
Meaning (Concept)
Word
? Triangle of significance（ 词义三角）
Form Referent …………,
English Lexicology(II) 72
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
? The debate over the connection
between sound and meaning
? The naturalists maintain there is a
natural/intrinsic connection between sound and
meaning,
? The Conventionalists,on the other hand,hold
that the relations between sound and meaning
are conventional and arbitrary,The meaning of a
word is a kind of linguistic social contract,
English Lexicology(II) 73
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
? Conventionality（ 约定俗成 ）
? What’s in a name? That we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet,
-----Shakespeare,Romeo and Juliet
? Words have no meaning,people have meaning
for them,
------ Eric Partridge
English Lexicology(II) 74
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
? Conventionality
? 树 ---Chinese
? 木 ---Japanese
? arbre---French
? baun---Germany
English Lexicology(II) 75
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
? Motivation（ 理据）
? Motivation deals with the connection between
name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning),It
is the relationship between the word structure
and its meaning,
English Lexicology(II) 76
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
? Non-motivated and motivated
? From the point of view of motivation,the great
majority of English words are nonmotivated,
since they are conventional,arbitrary symbols,
? However,there is a small group of words that
can be described as motivated,that is,a direct or
somewhat connection between the symbol and
its sense can be readily observed,
English Lexicology(II) 77
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
? Examples of motivation
? The pigeon coos,
? airmail,miniskirt,hopeless
? a coat of paint
? He has a stony heart,
? The question was like the Sphinx’s riddle to them,
English Lexicology(II) 78
7.1 Conventionality and Motivation
? Types of motivation
? Onomatopoeic motivation
? Morphological motivation
? Semantic motivation
? Logical motivation
? Motivation and Culture
English Lexicology(II) 79
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
? Onomatopoeic motivation（ 拟声理据） means
defining the principle of motivation by sound,
Words motivated phonetically are called
onomatopoeic words,whose pronunciation
suggests the meaning,They show a close
connection between sound and sense,
English Lexicology(II) 80
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
? Primary onomatopoeia
? Primary onomatopoeia means the imitation of
sound by sound,Here the sound is truly an
―echo to the sense‖,
English Lexicology(II) 81
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
? Primary onomatopoeia
cats mew,purr lions roar
eagles scream mice squeak
frogs croak Snakes hiss
hens cluck wolves howl
(For more examples,see page 60-61)
English Lexicology(II) 82
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
? Secondary onomatopoeia
? Secondary onomatopoeia means that certain
sounds and sound-sequences are associated
with certain senses,In other words,certain
sounds evoke symbolic connotations,
suggesting particular senses,
English Lexicology(II) 83
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
? Secondary onomatopoeia
? -are suggests ―big light or noise‖
? Blare,flare,glare,stare
? -ump suggests ―protuberance‖
? Plump,chump,rump,hump,stump,dump,mump
? sk- suggests ―touching or moving on the surface’
? Skate,skim,skin,ski,sketch,skid
? h- suggests ―moving with great speed,force,or violence‖
? Heavy,haste,hurry,hit,hurl,hammer,hinder
English Lexicology(II) 84
7.2 Onomatopoeic motivation
? But it has to be pointed out that onomatopoeic
words constitute only a small part of the
vocabulary; some onomatopoeic words are not
completely motivated phonetically and are
conventional to quite a large extent,If you throw
a stone into water,the sound you hear is by no
means the same as when you say splash,Flies
do not exactly make the sound of buzz,
English Lexicology(II) 85
7.3 Morphological motivation
? We say the word is morphologically motivated,
for a direct connection can be observed between
the morphemic structure of the word and its
meaning,This is called morphological
motivation(形态理据 ）
English Lexicology(II) 86
7.3 Morphological motivation
? Derivational words are morphologically motivated,If one
knows the meaning of the affix and the base,then one
can immediately tell the meaning of the word,
? Compounds words may be morphologically motivated
too,The meanings of words like good-looking,spaceman,
moonscape,daydream and many others derive from the
combined meaning of the component parts,
? One thing worth pointing out is that the morphemes,the
component parts of these words are themselves
conventional,
English Lexicology(II) 87
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Semantic motivation （ 语义理据） refers to the
mental association suggested by the conceptual
meaning of a word,It explains the connection
between the literal sense and figurative sense of
the word,Here it is the figurative usage that
provides the semantic motivation,
English Lexicology(II) 88
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Examples,
? When we speak of a stony heart we are
comparing the heart with a stone,
? when we say the leg of a table,we are comparing
the table’s leg with one of the lower limbs of a
human being,
English Lexicology(II) 89
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Types of semantic motivation
? Metaphor
? Metonymy
? Synecdoche
? Analogy
English Lexicology(II) 90
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Metaphor
? Metaphor（ 隐喻 ） is a figure of speech
containing an implied comparison,in which a
word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of
one thing is applied to another,It is a simile
without like or as,
English Lexicology(II) 91
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Metaphor
? The world is a stage,
? A sea of troubles; a tide of popular applause,
? The city is a jungle where no body is safe after
the dark,
? Some books are to be tasted,others swallowed,
and some few to be chewed and digested,
? ----- Bacon Of Studies
English Lexicology(II) 92
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Metonymy
? Metonymy（ 借代 ） is the device in which we
name something by one of its attributes,The
substitution of the name of one thing for that of
another with which it is closely associated,
English Lexicology(II) 93
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Metonymy
? Metonymy usually includes several classes,
container for its content,a thing closely
associated for another,tool for the doer or deed,
writer for his works,the concrete for the abstract
and so on,
English Lexicology(II) 94
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Metonymy
? He is too fond of bottles,
? The hall applauded,
? I have never read Li Bai,
? The pen is mightier than the sword,
? He succeeded to the crown,
? Uncle Sam; the Pentagon; Hollywood; the White
House;Beijing
English Lexicology(II) 95
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Synecdoche
? Synecdoche（ 提喻 ） means using a part for a
whole,an individual for a class,a material for a
thing,or vice versa,the whole for a part,
English Lexicology(II) 96
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Synecdoche
? There are about 500 hands working in this
factory,
? This newspaper—and probably the country—will
wait its time and see how the new faces perform
before judging them,
? The birds sing to welcome the smiling year,
? To earn one’s bread
? He is a clever creature,
English Lexicology(II) 97
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Analogy
? Analogy（ 类比） is a process whereby words or
phrases are created in imitation of existing
patterns in the language,The motivation is that
the meaning or sense of the created word shares
similarity with the existing language pattern,
English Lexicology(II) 98
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Analogy
? Color,black list---white list,gray list; blue-color workers-
--white-collar workers,gray-collar workers,pink-collar
workers,and gold-collar workers
? Number,the First World---the Second World,the Third
world,the Fourth World
? Place and space,landscape---moonscape,marscape;
sunrise---earthrise; spaceman---earthman,moonman
English Lexicology(II) 99
7.4 Semantic motivation
? Analogy
? Similarity,missile gap---generation gap,
development gap,income gap,credibility gap
? Antonym,hot line---cold line; baby boom---baby
bust; nightmare---daymare; cold-war---hot war;
high-rise---low-rise
English Lexicology(II) 100
7.5 Logical motivation
? Logical motivation（ 逻辑理据） deals with the
problem of defining a concept by means of logic,
It means,first,identify the concept of a genus
（ 种概念）,second,to identify the attributes
distinguishing one species（ 属差） from other
similar species in the same genus,
English Lexicology(II) 101
7.5 Logical motivation
? Compounds combining species and genus
? Crisis---economical crisis,financial crisis,
spiritual crisis,ecological crisis,credit crisis,
military crisis,identity crisis
? Relations---international relations,business
relations,diplomatic relations,bilateral relations
English Lexicology(II) 102
7.5 Logical motivation
? Clipped compounds by shortening species or genus
? drug from narcotic or hallucinogenic drug
? He is addicted to drugs
? pill from birth control pill
? The Hill from the Capitol Hill
? Nobel from Nobel Prize
English Lexicology(II) 103
7.6 Motivation and Culture
? Relation
? Motivation is closely related to culture and
history,In English,some words are endowed
with rich cultural connotations,Words that
epitomize cultural history are call culturally-
bound words or allusive words,These words
originated from religion,mythology,history and
literature,
English Lexicology(II) 104
7.6 Motivation and Culture
? forbidden fruit,sth,alluring but prohibited
because of terrible consequences
? Odyssey,a long,adventurous journey
? the last straw,the last thing that leads one to a
final loss of patience,temper,trust,or hope
? Waterloo,a final,crushing defeat,eg,meet one's
Waterloo
? Uncle Tom,a person who compromises and
conforms
English Lexicology(II) 105
7.6 Motivation and Culture
? Prometheus unbound:an overwhelming power
? Solomon,a wise man
? Sphinx,A puzzling or mysterious person or thing,
Eg,a Sphinx’s riddle,a puzzling,mysterious
question,problem,
English Lexicology(II) 106
7.6 Motivation and Culture
? Judas,One who betrays another under the guise of
friendship,Judas kiss,a malicious intention under
the guise of intimacy and friendship
? pound of flesh,legal but unreasonable demand or
claim
? white elephant,A rare,expensive possession that is
a financial burden to maintain,no longer wanted
English Lexicology(II) 107
7.6 Motivation and Culture
? The naked truth was fully revealed through a
newspaper,
? -----He told us about his adventures last night,It’s a
pity you were not there,
-----Arabian Nights only,Don’t believe him,
? Like an Apollo,he comes and arrests everyone’s
attention in the hall,
? No cross,no crown
? To quest for full citizenship is really an Odyssey for
Afro-Americans,
English Lexicology(II) 108
7.6 Motivation and Culture
? A non-native learner should have
relevant background knowledge
about the target language’s history,
geography,customs,habits,
knowledge about the Bible and
Christianity,
English Lexicology(II) 109
7.6 Motivation and Culture
? National psychology
? To take French leave
? Double Dutch; Dutch bargain; Dutch courage;
Dutch comfort; Dutch treat; to go Dutch; to talk
Dutch; I’m a Dutchman if …,
English Lexicology(II) 110
7.6 Motivation and Culture
? Religious Philosophy
? As poor as a church-mouse
? As patient as Job
? As wise as Solomon
English Lexicology(II) 111
7.6 Motivation and Culture
? 力大如牛
? 守口如瓶
? 如雨后春笋
? 如热锅上的蚂蚁
? 覆水难收
? 胆小如鼠
? as strong as a horse
? as dump as an oyster;as
silent as the grave; as close
as wax
? spring up like a mushroom
? like a cat on hot bricks
? It’s no use crying over spilt
milk,
? As timid as a rabbit
