English Lexicology (IV)
English lexicology (III) 2
Contents
? 10,Changes in Meaning
? 11,American English
To be continued
English lexicology (III) 3
?Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a
language as it is undergoing constant changes
both in form and content,Comparatively,the
content is even more unstable than the form,
?This chapter will deal with the major patterns that
changes in meaning follow and the causes of
changes,
English lexicology (III) 4
10.1 Types of changes
?Extension / Generalization
?lady
?Economy
?Orientation
?influence
?holidays
?slogan
?Scene
English lexicology (III) 5
10.1 Types of changes
?Narrowing / Specialization
?Deer
?girl
?garage
?liquor
? instant reply
English lexicology (III) 6
10.1 Types of changes
?Elevation / Amelioration
Sth,Low,humble,unpleasant------sth,Noble,
agreeable,pleasant
?Marshall
?Shrewd
?Angel
?Minister
English lexicology (III) 7
10.1 Types of changes
?Degradation / Degeneration
?Silly
?Villain,boor,churl
?Cunning
English lexicology (III) 8
10.1 Types of changes
?Degradation / Degeneration
?Intensifiers
? terrific,fantastic,marvelous,splendid,
magnificent,wonderful,superb,tremendous,
overpowering,fabulous……
? horrible,outrageous,awful,dreadful…,
?Weakening of meaning of intensifiers
English lexicology (III) 9
10.1 Types of changes
?Transference
?Subjectiveness and objectiveness
? He is doubtful of success,
? The future looks doubtful,
? … an honourable gentleman
? … an honourable invitation
English lexicology (III) 10
10.1 Types of changes
?Transference
?subjectiveness objectiveness
? hateful,a hateful job,a hateful crime
? painful:a painful experience,a painful task
? pompous language/style/manner
? a pompous man
? solemn music/oath/duty
? a solemn judge
English lexicology (III) 11
10.1 Types of changes
?Transference
?Subjectiveness and objectiveness depend on the
collocation
? a suspicious character/truth/condition
? a suspicious look/glance/attitude
? a dubious answer
? a dubious look
English lexicology (III) 12
10.1 Types of changes
?Transference
Subject Object
respectful respectable
imaginative imaginary
unexpressive inexpressible
contemptuous contemptible
English lexicology (III) 13
10.2 Causes of changes
?Social development
?Pen
?Manuscript
?Straw
?Atom
?Computer
English lexicology (III) 14
10.2 Causes of changes
?Class reason
?Language is just like a mirror,reflecting
everything that exists in human society,
Naturally,it records the speech and attitude of
different social class,
? Villain,clown,churl
? Democracy,revolution,liberalism,
communism,landlord,trade union
English lexicology (III) 15
10.2 Causes of changes
? National Psychology
? Some words or expressions shows the national
psychology,especially a feeling of dislike,contempt,
irony towards other nationalities,
? To take French leave
? Spanish athlete
? Irish bull
? To talk Dutch,Dutch comfort,Dutch bargain,in
Dutch
? An American will go to hell for a bag of coffee,
English lexicology (III) 16
10.2 Causes of changes
?Racial discrimination or prejudices
?Black
? Black Power,Black is beautiful,Black
English,Black history
? Negro
? African Americans,Afro-Americans
? Native Americans (Indians)
English lexicology (III) 17
10.2 Causes of changes
?Sexism
?Man,chairman,salesman,spaceman…
?Poet-poetess,hero-heroine,student-girl student,
novelist-lady novelist,doctor-woman doctor,
president-female president…
?Chairperson,businessperson,draftsperson.,
English lexicology (III) 18
10.2 Causes of changes
?Social values
?Euphemism,The substitution of a mild,indirect,
or vague expression for one that may be
offensive,disagreeable,harsh,or blunt,
English lexicology (III) 19
10.2 Causes of changes
?Social values
?garbage collector------sanitation engineer
?gardener-----landscape architect
?servant----domestic engineer
?hairdresser---beautician
?old people----senior citizens,mature people,
pensioner
?war----conflict
English lexicology (III) 20
10.2 Causes of changes
?Social values
?the poor people----the disadvantage,the
underprivileged
?,I used to think I was poor,Then they told
me I wasn’t poor,I was needy,I was
deprived,Then they told me underprivileged
was overused,I was disadvantaged,I still
don’t have a dime,But I have a great
vocabulary.”
English lexicology (III) 21
10.2 Causes of changes
?Linguistic factors
?Borrowing
? pig,cow,sheep-----pork,beef,mutton
? deer-----animal,beast
English lexicology (III) 22
10.2 Causes of changes
?Linguistic factors
?Simplifying
? as a matter of course-----of course
? above all things-----above all
? God gives you a good morning---Good
morning
? private soldier----private
? general officer----general
? periodical paper----periodical
? fall of leaves----fall
Chapter 11 American English
English lexicology (III) 24
?In this chapter,we aim to understand the
characteristics of American English,to
distinguish the differences between American
English and British English,It is a laborious job,
while it is important that American English be
addressed in English learning,
American English or British English?
English lexicology (III) 25
? Questions
? What is American English?
? Is it American English or British English we are speaking
as non-native speakers?
? Is there essential difference between British English and
American English?
? What are the major differences between them?
? As non-native speakers,what is the significance for us to
distinguish the differences between them?
English lexicology (III) 26
11.1 English as an international language
? Users of English
? English as a native language,Britain,the United States,
Ireland,Australia,New Zealand,Canada,the West Indies
and South Africa,
? ESL,India,Pakistan,Nigeria,Kenya,and many other
countries,
? EFL,Large numbers of people in the world speak and
write English as a foreign language for the purpose of
science,technology,and international communication,It
has become a universal language of international
communication,
English lexicology (III) 27
11.1 English as an international language
?Varieties of English
?As an international language,the English
language has a number of varieties,
? British English
? American English
? Australian English
? Canadian English
? Singapore English
? ………
English lexicology (III) 28
11.1 English as an international language
? Two major varieties of English
? British English (BrE) and American English(AmE)
? These two varieties differ in certain details,but there is
no essential difference between them because of the
similarities of the basic word stock,the basic grammar
and the basic phonetic system,English is unmistakable
one language,with two major national dialects,
? There is no superiority or inferiority as regards BrE and
AmE,
English lexicology (III) 29
11.2 Growth of American English
? Colonial America
? The establishment in 1607 of the settlement which the
explorers called Jamestown marked the beginning of
British colonization in America,
? By 1732 the original thirteen English colonies had been
set up,The language the early immigrants brought with
them was Elizabethan English,the language spoken by
Shakespeare,Milton and Bunyan,which belonged to the
early stage of Modern English,
English lexicology (III) 30
11.2 Growth of American English
?Colonial America
?The original thirteen colonies
? Virginia,Maryland,North Carolina,South
Carolina,Georgia,Pennsylvania,New York,
New Jersey,Delaware,Massachusetts,
Rhode Island,New Hampshire and
Connecticut,
English lexicology (III) 31
11.2 Growth of American English
? After independence
? Following American independence,famous persons like
Thomas Jefferson,John Adams,Benjamin Franklin,and
Noah Webster begin to consider that the country should
have a language of its own,
? The independence led to the emergence a sense of
nationality,In the field of language,this patriotic feeling
was manifested by the argument for the recognition of
the American variety or standard of English,
English lexicology (III) 32
11.2 Growth of American English
? After independence
? In 1806,Noah Webster first used,American
English”.Webster proclaimed that his countrymen had
not only the right to adopt new words but were obliged to
modify the language to suit the new circumstances,
geographical and political,in which they were placed,
? Many great writers,such as Washington Irving,Walt
Whitman,Ralph W,Emerson,mark Twain,and O,Henry
helped to promote the development of the American
English,
English lexicology (III) 33
11.2 Growth of American English
? After independence
? American English has developed a character of its own,
reflecting the life and the physical and social
environment of the American people,
? The Americans invented large numbers of new words to
meet their various needs,
? representative,assembly,president,Congress,
senator…
? department store,telephone,lynch
? to advocate,to antagonize,to demoralize,to donate
English lexicology (III) 34
11.2 Growth of American English
? The future of American English
? Since the Second World War,the United States has
become literally the leader of the western world,
American English has been developing and changing,
There is no doubt that American English will enrich the
English language greatly,
? With the rapid development of modern mass media and
the common needs of economic,cultural and political
exchanges,American English will be more widely used
in the world than British English,
English lexicology (III) 35
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Major differences
?Differences in grammar
?Differences in spelling
?Differences in pronunciation
?Differences in vocabulary
English lexicology (III) 36
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in grammar
?On the whole BrE and AmE use the same
grammar system,Differences in grammar are few
in number and trifling in nature,However,it is
important for non-native speakers to understand
these distinctions,
English lexicology (III) 37
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in grammar
?Differences in prepositions
? Mary aims to become a writer,
? Mary aims at becoming a writer,
? Please fill out the form,
? Please fill in the form,
? At weekends I like to …,,
? On weekends I like to……
AmE
BrE
BrE
BrE
AmE
AmE
English lexicology (III) 38
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in grammar
? Differences in prepositions
BrE AmE
different from… different than…
talk to… talk with…
at college in college
late for work late to work
the key of the door the key to the door
five minutes past six five minutes after six
English lexicology (III) 39
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
? Differences in grammar
? Differences in prepositions
? Let’s stay home,
? Let’s stay at home,
? The new term begins September 1,
? The new term begins on September 1,
? I’ll see you Sunday,
? I’ll see you on Sunday,
? We’re trying to plan our future,
? We’re trying to plan for the future,
English lexicology (III) 40
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in grammar
?The use of subjunctive
? I suggest that the meeting should be
postponed,
? I suggest that the meeting be postponed,
? It is important that the motion should be
placed on the agenda,
? It is important that the motion be placed on
the agenda,
English lexicology (III) 41
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in grammar
?The use of articles
? Today is July first,nineteen ninety-seven,
? Today is July the first,nineteen ninety-
seven,
? My uncle had the flu last year,
? My uncle had flu last year,
? It’s in bad condition,
? It’s in a bad condition,
English lexicology (III) 42
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in spelling
BrE AmE
-re -er Centre,theatre Center,theater
-ise -ize Realise,modernize Realize,modernize
-ce -se Defence,practice Defense,practise
-our -or Favour,labour Favor,labor
e- i- Enquire,enclose Inquire,inclose
English lexicology (III) 43
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in spelling
BrE AmE
-gue -g Catalogue,dialogue Catalog,dialog
-il -l Travelling,jeweller Traveler,jeweler
-mme -m Programme,gramme Program,gram
-xion -ction Connextion,
inflexion
Connection,
inflection
Omission of
silent -e
Axe,judgement Ax,judgment
English lexicology (III) 44
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in spelling
BrE AmE
cheque check
draught draft
plough plow
cigarette cigaret
tyre tire
English lexicology (III) 45
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Difference in vocabulary
BrE AmE
flat apartment
lift elevator
torch flashlight
Tin can
note bill
English lexicology (III) 46
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Difference in vocabulary
BrE AmE
silencer muffler
lorry truck
windscreen windshield
sweets candy
luggage baggage
English lexicology (III) 47
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Difference in vocabulary
?Three terms-----two semesters or four quarters
?The first year,the second year,the third year-----
freshman,sophomore,junior,senior
?Post-graduate-----graduate
?Staff-----faculty
English lexicology (III) 48
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Difference in vocabulary
?Billion
?First floor
?Public school(BrE)------private school(AmE)
?Public school (AmE)----Council school (BrE)
?Cupboard
English lexicology (III) 49
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in pronunciation
?See page 199-200
English lexicology (III) 2
Contents
? 10,Changes in Meaning
? 11,American English
To be continued
English lexicology (III) 3
?Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a
language as it is undergoing constant changes
both in form and content,Comparatively,the
content is even more unstable than the form,
?This chapter will deal with the major patterns that
changes in meaning follow and the causes of
changes,
English lexicology (III) 4
10.1 Types of changes
?Extension / Generalization
?lady
?Economy
?Orientation
?influence
?holidays
?slogan
?Scene
English lexicology (III) 5
10.1 Types of changes
?Narrowing / Specialization
?Deer
?girl
?garage
?liquor
? instant reply
English lexicology (III) 6
10.1 Types of changes
?Elevation / Amelioration
Sth,Low,humble,unpleasant------sth,Noble,
agreeable,pleasant
?Marshall
?Shrewd
?Angel
?Minister
English lexicology (III) 7
10.1 Types of changes
?Degradation / Degeneration
?Silly
?Villain,boor,churl
?Cunning
English lexicology (III) 8
10.1 Types of changes
?Degradation / Degeneration
?Intensifiers
? terrific,fantastic,marvelous,splendid,
magnificent,wonderful,superb,tremendous,
overpowering,fabulous……
? horrible,outrageous,awful,dreadful…,
?Weakening of meaning of intensifiers
English lexicology (III) 9
10.1 Types of changes
?Transference
?Subjectiveness and objectiveness
? He is doubtful of success,
? The future looks doubtful,
? … an honourable gentleman
? … an honourable invitation
English lexicology (III) 10
10.1 Types of changes
?Transference
?subjectiveness objectiveness
? hateful,a hateful job,a hateful crime
? painful:a painful experience,a painful task
? pompous language/style/manner
? a pompous man
? solemn music/oath/duty
? a solemn judge
English lexicology (III) 11
10.1 Types of changes
?Transference
?Subjectiveness and objectiveness depend on the
collocation
? a suspicious character/truth/condition
? a suspicious look/glance/attitude
? a dubious answer
? a dubious look
English lexicology (III) 12
10.1 Types of changes
?Transference
Subject Object
respectful respectable
imaginative imaginary
unexpressive inexpressible
contemptuous contemptible
English lexicology (III) 13
10.2 Causes of changes
?Social development
?Pen
?Manuscript
?Straw
?Atom
?Computer
English lexicology (III) 14
10.2 Causes of changes
?Class reason
?Language is just like a mirror,reflecting
everything that exists in human society,
Naturally,it records the speech and attitude of
different social class,
? Villain,clown,churl
? Democracy,revolution,liberalism,
communism,landlord,trade union
English lexicology (III) 15
10.2 Causes of changes
? National Psychology
? Some words or expressions shows the national
psychology,especially a feeling of dislike,contempt,
irony towards other nationalities,
? To take French leave
? Spanish athlete
? Irish bull
? To talk Dutch,Dutch comfort,Dutch bargain,in
Dutch
? An American will go to hell for a bag of coffee,
English lexicology (III) 16
10.2 Causes of changes
?Racial discrimination or prejudices
?Black
? Black Power,Black is beautiful,Black
English,Black history
? Negro
? African Americans,Afro-Americans
? Native Americans (Indians)
English lexicology (III) 17
10.2 Causes of changes
?Sexism
?Man,chairman,salesman,spaceman…
?Poet-poetess,hero-heroine,student-girl student,
novelist-lady novelist,doctor-woman doctor,
president-female president…
?Chairperson,businessperson,draftsperson.,
English lexicology (III) 18
10.2 Causes of changes
?Social values
?Euphemism,The substitution of a mild,indirect,
or vague expression for one that may be
offensive,disagreeable,harsh,or blunt,
English lexicology (III) 19
10.2 Causes of changes
?Social values
?garbage collector------sanitation engineer
?gardener-----landscape architect
?servant----domestic engineer
?hairdresser---beautician
?old people----senior citizens,mature people,
pensioner
?war----conflict
English lexicology (III) 20
10.2 Causes of changes
?Social values
?the poor people----the disadvantage,the
underprivileged
?,I used to think I was poor,Then they told
me I wasn’t poor,I was needy,I was
deprived,Then they told me underprivileged
was overused,I was disadvantaged,I still
don’t have a dime,But I have a great
vocabulary.”
English lexicology (III) 21
10.2 Causes of changes
?Linguistic factors
?Borrowing
? pig,cow,sheep-----pork,beef,mutton
? deer-----animal,beast
English lexicology (III) 22
10.2 Causes of changes
?Linguistic factors
?Simplifying
? as a matter of course-----of course
? above all things-----above all
? God gives you a good morning---Good
morning
? private soldier----private
? general officer----general
? periodical paper----periodical
? fall of leaves----fall
Chapter 11 American English
English lexicology (III) 24
?In this chapter,we aim to understand the
characteristics of American English,to
distinguish the differences between American
English and British English,It is a laborious job,
while it is important that American English be
addressed in English learning,
American English or British English?
English lexicology (III) 25
? Questions
? What is American English?
? Is it American English or British English we are speaking
as non-native speakers?
? Is there essential difference between British English and
American English?
? What are the major differences between them?
? As non-native speakers,what is the significance for us to
distinguish the differences between them?
English lexicology (III) 26
11.1 English as an international language
? Users of English
? English as a native language,Britain,the United States,
Ireland,Australia,New Zealand,Canada,the West Indies
and South Africa,
? ESL,India,Pakistan,Nigeria,Kenya,and many other
countries,
? EFL,Large numbers of people in the world speak and
write English as a foreign language for the purpose of
science,technology,and international communication,It
has become a universal language of international
communication,
English lexicology (III) 27
11.1 English as an international language
?Varieties of English
?As an international language,the English
language has a number of varieties,
? British English
? American English
? Australian English
? Canadian English
? Singapore English
? ………
English lexicology (III) 28
11.1 English as an international language
? Two major varieties of English
? British English (BrE) and American English(AmE)
? These two varieties differ in certain details,but there is
no essential difference between them because of the
similarities of the basic word stock,the basic grammar
and the basic phonetic system,English is unmistakable
one language,with two major national dialects,
? There is no superiority or inferiority as regards BrE and
AmE,
English lexicology (III) 29
11.2 Growth of American English
? Colonial America
? The establishment in 1607 of the settlement which the
explorers called Jamestown marked the beginning of
British colonization in America,
? By 1732 the original thirteen English colonies had been
set up,The language the early immigrants brought with
them was Elizabethan English,the language spoken by
Shakespeare,Milton and Bunyan,which belonged to the
early stage of Modern English,
English lexicology (III) 30
11.2 Growth of American English
?Colonial America
?The original thirteen colonies
? Virginia,Maryland,North Carolina,South
Carolina,Georgia,Pennsylvania,New York,
New Jersey,Delaware,Massachusetts,
Rhode Island,New Hampshire and
Connecticut,
English lexicology (III) 31
11.2 Growth of American English
? After independence
? Following American independence,famous persons like
Thomas Jefferson,John Adams,Benjamin Franklin,and
Noah Webster begin to consider that the country should
have a language of its own,
? The independence led to the emergence a sense of
nationality,In the field of language,this patriotic feeling
was manifested by the argument for the recognition of
the American variety or standard of English,
English lexicology (III) 32
11.2 Growth of American English
? After independence
? In 1806,Noah Webster first used,American
English”.Webster proclaimed that his countrymen had
not only the right to adopt new words but were obliged to
modify the language to suit the new circumstances,
geographical and political,in which they were placed,
? Many great writers,such as Washington Irving,Walt
Whitman,Ralph W,Emerson,mark Twain,and O,Henry
helped to promote the development of the American
English,
English lexicology (III) 33
11.2 Growth of American English
? After independence
? American English has developed a character of its own,
reflecting the life and the physical and social
environment of the American people,
? The Americans invented large numbers of new words to
meet their various needs,
? representative,assembly,president,Congress,
senator…
? department store,telephone,lynch
? to advocate,to antagonize,to demoralize,to donate
English lexicology (III) 34
11.2 Growth of American English
? The future of American English
? Since the Second World War,the United States has
become literally the leader of the western world,
American English has been developing and changing,
There is no doubt that American English will enrich the
English language greatly,
? With the rapid development of modern mass media and
the common needs of economic,cultural and political
exchanges,American English will be more widely used
in the world than British English,
English lexicology (III) 35
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Major differences
?Differences in grammar
?Differences in spelling
?Differences in pronunciation
?Differences in vocabulary
English lexicology (III) 36
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in grammar
?On the whole BrE and AmE use the same
grammar system,Differences in grammar are few
in number and trifling in nature,However,it is
important for non-native speakers to understand
these distinctions,
English lexicology (III) 37
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in grammar
?Differences in prepositions
? Mary aims to become a writer,
? Mary aims at becoming a writer,
? Please fill out the form,
? Please fill in the form,
? At weekends I like to …,,
? On weekends I like to……
AmE
BrE
BrE
BrE
AmE
AmE
English lexicology (III) 38
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in grammar
? Differences in prepositions
BrE AmE
different from… different than…
talk to… talk with…
at college in college
late for work late to work
the key of the door the key to the door
five minutes past six five minutes after six
English lexicology (III) 39
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
? Differences in grammar
? Differences in prepositions
? Let’s stay home,
? Let’s stay at home,
? The new term begins September 1,
? The new term begins on September 1,
? I’ll see you Sunday,
? I’ll see you on Sunday,
? We’re trying to plan our future,
? We’re trying to plan for the future,
English lexicology (III) 40
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in grammar
?The use of subjunctive
? I suggest that the meeting should be
postponed,
? I suggest that the meeting be postponed,
? It is important that the motion should be
placed on the agenda,
? It is important that the motion be placed on
the agenda,
English lexicology (III) 41
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in grammar
?The use of articles
? Today is July first,nineteen ninety-seven,
? Today is July the first,nineteen ninety-
seven,
? My uncle had the flu last year,
? My uncle had flu last year,
? It’s in bad condition,
? It’s in a bad condition,
English lexicology (III) 42
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in spelling
BrE AmE
-re -er Centre,theatre Center,theater
-ise -ize Realise,modernize Realize,modernize
-ce -se Defence,practice Defense,practise
-our -or Favour,labour Favor,labor
e- i- Enquire,enclose Inquire,inclose
English lexicology (III) 43
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in spelling
BrE AmE
-gue -g Catalogue,dialogue Catalog,dialog
-il -l Travelling,jeweller Traveler,jeweler
-mme -m Programme,gramme Program,gram
-xion -ction Connextion,
inflexion
Connection,
inflection
Omission of
silent -e
Axe,judgement Ax,judgment
English lexicology (III) 44
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in spelling
BrE AmE
cheque check
draught draft
plough plow
cigarette cigaret
tyre tire
English lexicology (III) 45
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Difference in vocabulary
BrE AmE
flat apartment
lift elevator
torch flashlight
Tin can
note bill
English lexicology (III) 46
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Difference in vocabulary
BrE AmE
silencer muffler
lorry truck
windscreen windshield
sweets candy
luggage baggage
English lexicology (III) 47
11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Difference in vocabulary
?Three terms-----two semesters or four quarters
?The first year,the second year,the third year-----
freshman,sophomore,junior,senior
?Post-graduate-----graduate
?Staff-----faculty
English lexicology (III) 48
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Difference in vocabulary
?Billion
?First floor
?Public school(BrE)------private school(AmE)
?Public school (AmE)----Council school (BrE)
?Cupboard
English lexicology (III) 49
11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE
?Differences in pronunciation
?See page 199-200
