英国概况（英文版）：1

A General Survey of the United Kingdom Teaching Material: The Society and Culture of Major English-Speaking Countries—An Introduction (By Higher Education Press) Teaching Objectives: This course is mainly to make known to the students the British politics, culture as well as society at large, and its position in the world as far as its long history is concerned. (It might be difficult for the students to understand the British political system, its people and its cultural differences because of religious reasons. Thus, some emphasis should be laid on its religious background.) Introduction: The United Kingdom Time Allocation: 4 periods Focal Points: The Country of today, Understanding of Different Names I. General Introduction Great Britain, the dominant industrial and maritime power of the 19th century, played a leading role in developing parliamentary democracy and in advancing literature and science. At its zenith (极盛时期), the British Empire stretched over one-fourth of the earth's surface. The first half of the 20th century saw the UK's strength seriously depleted in two World Wars. The second half witnessed the dismantling (瓦解) of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itself into a modern and prosperous European nation. (Read the first paragraph on P2) As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russian Federation, United Kingdom and United States), a founding member of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), and of the Commonwealth, the UK pursues a global approach to foreign policy; it currently is weighing the degree of its integration with continental Europe. A member of the EU (European Union), it chose to remain outside the Economic and Monetary Union for the time being. Constitutional reform is also a significant issue in the UK. The Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, and the Northern Ireland Assembly were established in 1999, but the latter is suspended due to bickering (argue) over the peace process.
Geography ???United Kingdom   Location: Western Europe, islands including the northern one-sixth of the island of Ireland between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea, northwest of France Area: total: 244,820 sq km land: 241,590 sq km water: 3,230 sq km Land boundaries: total: 360 km border countries: Ireland 360 km ?? People ???United Kingdom  Population: 60,441,457 (July 2005) Age Structure: 0-14 years: 17.7% (male 5,490,592/female 5,229,691) 15-64 years: 66.5% (male 20,329,272/female 19,855,862) 65 years and over: 15.8% (male 4,063,357/female 5,472,683) (2005) Population growth rate: 0.28% (2005) Population Density: 250 persons per sq km (2004 estimate) 646 persons per sq mi (2004 estimate) Birth rate: 10.78 births/1,000 population (2005) Death rate: 10.18 deaths/1,000 population (2005) Life expectancy: total population: 78.38 years male: 75.94 years female: 80.96 years (2005) Urban-rural: urban 89.5%; rural 10.5%. Sex distribution: male 49.09%; female 50.91%. Ethnic groups: white 92.1%, black 2%, Indian 1.8%, Pakistani 1.3%, mixed 1.2%, other 1.6% (2001 census) Official language: English. Languages: English, Welsh (about 26% of the population of Wales), Scottish form of Gaelic (about 60,000 in Scotland) Official religion: Churches of England (Protestantism) and Scotland "established" (Protected by the state, but not "official") in their respective countries; no established church in Northern Ireland or Wales. Religions: Christian (Anglican, Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, Methodist) 71.6%, Muslim 2.7%, Hindu 1%, other 1.6%, unspecified or none 23.1% (2001 census) Government ???United Kingdom  Official name: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Form of government: Constitutional monarchy Legislature: Bicameral legislature with two legislative houses House of Lords [675 members (consisting of approximately 500 life peers, 92 hereditary peers and 26 clergy); House of Commons (646 seats since 2005 elections; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms unless the House is dissolved earlier) Note: 1) Elections: House of Lords - no elections; House of Commons - last held 5 May 2005 (next to be held by May 2010) 2) Election results: House of Commons - percent of vote by party - Labor 35.2%, Conservative 32.3%, Liberal Democrats 22%, other 10.5%; seats by party - Labor 356, Conservative 197, Liberal Democrat 62, other 31  Capital: London, England. National holiday: the UK does not celebrate one particular national holiday Constitution: unwritten; partly statutes, partly common law and practice Chief of state: Sovereign (君主). Present Queen: Elizabeth II (since February 1952); Head of government: Prime Minister. Present Prime Minister: Anthony (Tony) Blair (since 2 May 1997) (Labor Party) Cabinet: Cabinet of Ministers appointed by the prime minister; National Anthem: God Save the King (Queen) God Save the Queen God save our gracious Queen, Long live our noble Queen, God save the Queen! Send her victorious, Happy and glorious, Long to reign over us, God save the Queen! O lord God arise, Scatter our enemies, And make them fall! Confound their knavish tricks, Confuse their politics, On you our hopes we fix, God save the Queen! Not in this land alone, But be God's mercies known, From shore to shore! Lord make the nations see, That men should brothers be, And form one family, The wide world ov'er From every latent foe, From the assasins blow, God save the Queen! O'er her thine arm extend, For Britain's sake defend, Our mother, prince, and friend, God save the Queen! Thy choicest gifts in store, On her be pleased to pour, Long may she reign! May she defend our laws, And ever give us cause, To sing with heart and voice, God save the Queen! II. Names and Position The United Kingdom (in full United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) is located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe and consists of four geographic and historical parts--England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom makes up most of the British Isles--the geographic term for the group of islands that also includes the republic of Ireland. Together, England, Wales, and Scotland constitute the larger of the two principal islands, while Northern Ireland and the republic of Ireland constitute the second largest. So when we talk about Britain, we are likely to come across different names like: 1. The British Isles. 2. Britain (or Great Britain) 3. The U. K -- The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 4. England The British Isles---It is a group of islands off the northwestern coast of Europe. The group consists of two main islands, Great Britain and Ireland, and numerous smaller islands. Of all the islands, the largest one is called Great Britain. The second largest one is Ireland, which is to the west of Great Britain. Thus, British Isles don’t refer to Great Britain only. Britain--- It is the short form for Great Britain. Officially it should be the Great Britain. The island of Great Britain is divided into three parts: England in the south, Scotland in the north and Wales in the Southwest. The United Kingdom---It’s the short form for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom is that part of the British Isles ruled over by the Queen. We know that Great Britain is the largest island of the British Isles. Ireland is the second largest one. Ireland is to the west of Great Britain. Ireland was once an independent country. During the English bourgeois revolution (in the 17th century), Oliver Cromwell invaded Ireland and from then on, many English protestant settlers began to immigrate to the island. Ireland became part of the United Kingdom in 1801. Ireland was added to Great Britain by the Act of Union of 1801, the title United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was introduced. England--- We know that England is very important in the UK. Because the importance is so great that English people tend to use the word when they mean Britain. Many foreigners are often confused, so they follow suit. The names United Kingdom, Great Britain, and England are often confused, even by U.K. inhabitants. England is just one country within the kingdom. Great Britain comprises England, Wales, and Scotland, while the United Kingdom also includes Northern Ireland (although the name Britain is sometimes used to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole). Wales and England were unified politically, administratively, and legally by the acts of union of 1536 and 1542. In 1707 Scotland joined England and Wales in forming a single parliament for Great Britain, although the three countries had previously shared a monarch. The United Kingdom is an insular country. Apart from the land border with the Irish republic, the United Kingdom is surrounded by sea. To the south of England, and between the United Kingdom and France, is the English Channel. The North Sea lies to the east. Across the North Sea, Britain faces Holland, Germany, Denmark and Norway. To the west of Wales and northern England is the Irish Sea, while western Scotland and the northwestern coast of Northern Ireland face the Atlantic Ocean. America and Canada lie on the West Side of the Atlantic Ocean. The area of the United Kingdom is 244,820 sq km. At its widest the United Kingdom is 300 miles across. From the top of Scotland to the southern coast of England it is about 600 miles. No part is more than 75 miles from the sea. The United Kingdom is characterized by a long history and by political and cultural links with other areas of the world. In modern times the United Kingdom is perhaps best seen as a middle-sized, middle-ranking industrial country. III. The Effects of its Imperial Past Imperial: indicating a country’s authority: involving or relating to the authority of a country over colonies or other countries Empire: lands ruled by single authority: a group of nations, territories, or peoples ruled by a single authority, especially an emperor or empress During the 19th century, Great Britain had colonies all over the world and got the name “the Sun-never Setting Empire” in its history. Its colonial expansion began soon after the completion of the Industrial Revolution. By 1850, Britain began to enjoy the position of workshop of the world. For the 50 years, British industrial development raced far ahead of that of any other country. She took the lead in world’s textiles, coalmining, iron and steel, engineering, shipbuilding, railways and other manufactures. The flourish industry brought about mass production. Thus, large markets were needed and Britain made colonial expansion. The foundation of the empire was already laid in Elizabeth’s time. Early from the end of 16th century to 1830s, Britain had occupied large, broad colonies in the world. When Britain turned from free capitalism into imperialism in the middle of the 19th century, she began to seize more colonies in the world. In Asia, Britain occupied: In 1839 --- Aden . 亚丁(也门人民共和国首都,临亚丁湾) In 1840 --- New Zealand 新西兰(太平洋南部岛国) In 1842 --- Singapore 新加坡(东南亚国家) In 1848 --- Malaya 马来亚, 马来半岛 In 1880 --- Afghanistan 阿富汗(西南亚国家) In 1886 --- Burma 缅甸 The formation of the British Empire went through two processes: 1) aggression with national states; 2) annexation with uninhabited or sparsely populated wild lands. The aggression in China (Opium War in China) was a typical case of British penetration. At the beginning of the 19th century, China was still a great empire with a population of about 360 million people, and with a civilization far older than that of Europe. As time went on, the isolation of China was threatened by the eastward extension of the European powers. In 1830s the English merchants began to smuggle opium into China for China’s tea and silk. Every year, they exported to China 55,000 casks of opium, and they made a lot of profits in this opium trade. In 1839, the Qing government appointed a special commissioner Lin Ze-Xu to deal with the matter; in Canton he burned to ashes over two million jin of opium. And the Qing government tried to have the drug shipment to China stopped. In 1840, under the pretext of protecting her trade, Britain launched an aggressive war against China, known as the Opium War. The Qing government surrendered to the British invaders and was forced to sign the first unequal Treaty of Nanjing in 1842. By the treaty, China (1) paid a heavy indemnity of 5,525,000 pounds, (2) ceded the island of Hong Kong to Britain as a base for her China trade, and (3) opened five “treaty ports”: Canton, Fuzhou, Amoy, Ninpo and Shanghai where the British colonies could live, trade and carry out missionary activities without interference. In 1860, the colonial possessions of Britain already covered about 2,500,000 square miles with 145,000,000 inhabitants, and in 1899 11,600,000 square miles with 345,000,000 inhabitants. At this highest point, Britain occupied about a quarter of the earth’s habitable area that was about 135 times of its own territory and about a quarter of the world’s population that was about ten times that of Britain. She had colonies all over the five continents: America, Asia, Africa, Australia and Europe. So she boasted that she was a sun-never-setting empire. Imperialism is a stage of capitalism--- the highest and last stage of capitalism. By 1900, Britain’s capitalism had been transformed into imperialism. However, Britain is no longer an imperial country now. Its important international role came to an end in the years following the Second World War. Yet, the effect of the “empire” can still be felt in Britain and in the international field. 1) It has close relationships with those countries, which used to be a part of that empire (The relationship between Great Britain and Hong Kong). It maintains links through a voluntary organization called the Commonwealth of Nations. 2) It became a member of the European Union in 1973. 3) It remains one of the 7 large developed economies (the UK, the United States, Italy, Germany, Japan, France and Canada) in the world. (Read P2, the second paragraph) ---What is “Commonwealth”? Commonwealth of Nations,?worldwide?association of nations and their dependencies, whose members share a common commitment to promoting human rights, democracy, and economic development. All members accept the British monarch as the symbolic head of the Commonwealth. All but one, Mozambique, were once associated in some constitutional way with either the former British Empire or with another member country. The association was formerly known as the British Commonwealth of Nations, but today is referred to simply as the Commonwealth. About?1.7?billion?people live in the 54 independent nations and the more than 20 dependencies that make up the Commonwealth. Only independent nations can be considered full members; they are all fully sovereign and in no way subordinate to Britain. Dependencies of Commonwealth nations are also included in the Commonwealth, although not as full members, and can participate in many Commonwealth activities. Commonwealth members share many customs and traditions as a result of their association with Britain. Many have parliamentary systems of government on the British model, and their judicial and educational institutions are often similar to those in Britain. English is an official language of many members of the Commonwealth. Since 1977 the second Monday in March has been celebrated as Commonwealth Day; on that day the British monarch, as the head of the Commonwealth, presents an annual message to all member countries. Almost?all?members?of the Commonwealth were once ruled by Britain as part of the British Empire. Some of them, such as Australia and Canada, were largely settled by British people. Others, such as India and Nigeria, were areas where British administrators governed a large non-British population. The?Commonwealth?is?a flexible and often informal association. Its main function is to encourage communication and cooperation among its diverse members, with their different needs and concerns. In 1965 the Commonwealth Secretariat was established in London to serve as a clearinghouse for the exchange of information. The Secretariat (秘书处) is headed by the Commonwealth secretary general and is responsible for carrying out programs formulated during the various meetings. The secretary general is elected by the Commonwealth heads of government from among the many Commonwealth diplomats and ministers. The Commonwealth Foundation provides financial and other support to professional associations and non-government organizations, enabling these groups to travel to other Commonwealth countries to work together. The?heads?of?Commonwealth governments meet to discuss common problems every two years at Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings (CHOGM). In addition, ministers and experts in education, health, finance, science, law, women’s issues, youth affairs, and various technical fields meet frequently to consult and act on important issues. IV. A Multiracial Society The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the political union of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. It is not a federation but a unitary state, and its inhabitants elect members to represent them in a parliament that meets in London. Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, however, retain a degree of autonomy in running some of their own affairs. The British people are mostly white people. But their forefathers were of different origins and came from different lands in Europe. When the British claim that theirs is a society of variety, they mean in part, the present-day British people are a mixture of ethnic groups. Britain?has?a?diverse population that includes people with connections to every continent of the world. The ethnic origins of this population have been complicated by immigration, intermarriage, and the constant relocation of people in this highly developed industrial and technological society. Most?British?people?attribute (认为…属于) their origins to the early invaders, calling themselves English, Scottish, Irish, Welsh, or Ulsterites. The Ulsterites are an ethnically controversial group—some claim they are Scottish and others identify themselves as Protestant Irish. The remaining share of the population are minorities who arrived, for the most part, in the decades following the end of World War II in 1945. These?minorities—Chinese, Asian Indians, Pakistanis, Africans, and Caribbean people of African ancestry—came to Britain in substantial numbers after 1945. Immigration from the South Asian subcontinent (India and Pakistan) stabilized (使安定) in the 1990s, but immigration from African countries continued to rise. By the late 1990s more than half of the people in these categories had been born in the United Kingdom. These newer ethnic groups tend to live in the more urban and industrial areas of England, especially in London, Birmingham, and Leeds. It is estimated that 60 percent of black Britons live in the London area, along with 41 percent of the Asian Indian population. Irish?immigration?to?Britain is unique. The Irish have migrated to Great Britain for centuries and continue to do so. If their descendants are included along with the 2.4 percent counted as ethnic Irish living in Great Britain today, they form a large component of the British population. Originally the Irish migrated to Britain to perform hard labor, such as building the railroads, but in recent years college graduates with high-tech skills are making up a higher percentage of Irish immigrants. Some live in largely Irish communities and others are quickly and completely absorbed into mainstream society. All children born to Irish parents in Britain are called British. Any citizen of Ireland who settles in Britain automatically has British citizenship. The?United?Kingdom?is generally a prosperous, well-educated, and tolerant society, and ethnic differences have sparked (发动) relatively little violence and hostility. Even so, black and Asian populations tend to cluster in certain urban neighborhoods, where economic and social disadvantages have become obvious. There was significant rioting in the 1980s, which was attributed to several causes. One factor was tension between the predominantly white police force and the poorest ethnic communities. Another was competition between unskilled whites and unskilled workers from ethnic minorities. Still another factor was the resentment by white middle-class businesspeople, particularly smaller shopkeepers, of the keen competition presented by Asians, who tend to work long hours and have support from family members and members of their own ethnic community in running their businesses. Integration?of?these?diverse ethnic groups into the workforce, as well as socialization into the broader society, including intermarriage, has been remarkably smooth. Percentages of employment for various ethnic minorities and whites are generally similar. Many individuals from ethnic minorities hold managerial and professional positions, and several sit in Parliament. Local and national government programs exist to seek fairness and justice for ethnic minorities. The Race Relations Act of 1976 makes it illegal to discriminate against any person because of race, color, nationality, or origin. So, “it is not possible to sum up the British people with a few simple phrases.”(Read P3, from the first sentence) Yet, English society used to be rigidly stratified and status-conscious. Everyone was told to be deferential towards those who were superior to him in wealth, status and power. The line from a famous English poem “Yours is not why but how” was a reflection of the demand for deference. Deference was once considered as the basis of social stability and good manners. But a new demand is definitely on the rise—the demand for equality. V. A Significant Role of London The national capital of the country is London, situated on the River Thames near its mouth in the southeastern corner of England. The history of London can be traced back to the first century when the Romans invaded England. With a population of about 7 million, this vast metropolis is by far the largest city in Europe. In the 19th century it was the largest and most influential city in the world, the center of a large and prosperous overseas empire. Although it no longer ranks among the world’s most populous cities, London is still one of the world’s major financial and cultural capitals. 1.The Largest City in the Country
The Thames River is the most important river in England and the main source of London’s water supply. In this picture, the Palace of Westminster is on the left, in front of Westminster Bridge. On the south bank of the river (on the right of the picture) are Lambeth Palace (the London residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury). London is divided into 33 political units—32 boroughs and the City of London. At the core of this immense urban area is Central London. Most of Central London is located north of the Thames. It contains about 12 of the 33 political units, including the City of London, the City of Westminster, and districts in the West End. The City of London is the traditional heart of the city and stands as its own political unit. The City of Westminster is the seat of the national government.
London from the Air This view of London, taken from the air, shows the city’s financial district spread out around the River Thames. The Canary Wharf Tower in the London Docklands dominates both the skyline and the regeneration project around the old wharves. The?City?of?Westminster, about two miles upstream from the City of London, emerged as England’s political and religious center of power after the 11th century. At the heart of Westminster is Westminster Abbey, begun by Edward the Confessor in the 11th century and rebuilt in the 13th century. It has always been closely associated with the monarchy and is used for such state occasions as coronations and royal funerals. It is also a giant mausoleum (陵墓), and more than 3000 notable people are buried there. Virtually across the street are the Houses of Parliament, officially called the New Palace of Westminster. Farther west is the monarch’s permanent residence in London, Buckingham Palace.
Houses of Parliament The seat of the British government is in London in the Houses of Parliament, officially the New Palace of Westminster. Parliament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The current building was built in the mid-19th century and was designed by British architect Sir Charles Barry.
Westminster Abbey A church has been located at Westminster since probably the 8th century. Edward the Confessor rebuilt the abbey in the Norman style during the 11th century. In the 13th century Henry III started building the present abbey. British monarchs have been crowned and buried here since William the Conquerer.
Buckingham Palace Buckingham Palace in Westminster is the official London residence of the British sovereign. Its interior, open to the public during August and September while the queen is on vacation, contains many elegantly furnished apartments and noted collections of paintings. Funds raised from the summer visits go toward repairing Windsor Castle, a royal residence located just outside of London that was damaged by fire in 1992. To?the?north,?Trafalgar Square links the political and religious section of Westminster to the rest of west London. This square is a modest version of the great ceremonial squares of Europe, and was built in dedication to British naval commander Viscount Horatio Nelson, whose monument is at the square’s center. It has long been a popular site for large-scale political demonstrations. Some significant buildings, such as the National Gallery, are on the square. To?the?west?and?north of Trafalgar Square is the West End, which is usually regarded as the center of town because it is London’s shopping and entertainment hub. The busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, where many large department stores are located.
Trafalgar Square London's Trafalgar Square, the city's official center, features some of England's most treasured historic monuments. The square was laid out between 1829 and 1841 on the site of the old royal stables (马房) and is lined on its northern side by the National Gallery. The gallery, begun in 1824, boasts one of the finest art collections in the world, with work from every major western artist from the 15th through the 19th centuries. The square's dominating landmark is a pedestal supporting a statue of Lord Nelson, the British naval hero who defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Trafalgar in Spain, in 1805. Trafalgar Square is the location for festivities at Christmas Eve, New Year, and other major public occasions. In?the?northern?part?of the West End is Bloomsbury, the city’s traditional intellectual center, with its concentration of bookshops and homes of writers and academics. In the early 20th century a number of famous writers, critics, and artists who lived here became known as the Bloomsbury Group. Here, too, is the British Museum, one of London’s chief tourist attractions. Nearby is the giant complex of the University of London, whose various colleges and departments have taken over much of Bloomsbury.
West End of London The West End of London is the capital's main center of entertainment and shopping. It is located to the west of the City of London, the principal financial area. The West End contains many of London's most famous streets and areas, including Piccadilly Circus, Leicester Square, Trafalgar Square, Carnaby Street, the theater district of Shaftesbury Avenue, and Soho-a trendy and bustling area of restaurants and bars. The well-known shopping district around Oxford Street and Bond Street lies at the West End's center.
British Museum The British Museum is located in the Bloomsbury section of London. It was founded in 1753 by Sir Hans Sloane, a British physician. The museum’s extensive collections are housed in a building that was begun in the 1820s. The?East?End,?beyond?the City of London and the Tower, has long been the home of London’s docks and immigrants. It has frequently been characterized by slums, poverty, and crime. Many poorer immigrants and working-class Londoners still reside in the East End, but its weekend street markets are very popular. The?population?of?metropolitan London in mid-1996 was about 7 million, which represents about 12 percent of Britain’s total population of 58.8 million. The population has declined since 1951, when more than 8 million people lived in London. Since 1985, however, the city has been growing at the rate of about 10,000 people per year. London’s population is heavily concentrated by British and North American standards, with a population density of about 4480 persons per sq km (about 11,400 per sq mi). London?has?always?attracted immigrants from Britain’s towns and villages. In the mid-19th century, half of the people of London had been born outside the city. During the Irish Famine (饥荒) of the 1840s, there was an influx of people from Ireland. At the turn of the century, Eastern European Jews settled in the East End. Chinese immigrants settled near the docks in the East End during the late 19th century, creating a Chinatown. More recently, Chinese immigrants, mostly from Hong Kong, have formed the highly visible Chinatown in the Soho area of the West End. A?second?influential?group is the black population, which represents about 425,000 people, mostly from the Caribbean, but recently also from African countries such as Somalia and Ethiopia. During the late 1940s Jamaicans were the first and largest group to emigrate from the Caribbean. 2. The Cultural Centre London?itself?is?a?living museum, with more than 2000 years of history and culture. But it also boasts one of the greatest concentrations of significant museums (more than 100) of any city in the world. The jewel in this cultural crown is the British Museum, with 4 km (2.5 mi) of galleries and more than 4 million exhibits. The University of London is the biggest university with the largest enrollment in England. Besides, it is the home to all the major newspapers and TV stations. 3. The Business and Financial Centre London?is?at?the?heart of Britain’s economy. More than one-third of Britain’s population and economic activity is concentrated in southeastern England, in and around London. The annual size of London’s economy, estimated in 1997 to be about $122 billion, is comparable to the economies of industrialized nations. More than a hundred of the world’s major companies have their headquarters in London. What?Londoners?do?for a living has changed considerably since the city was a commercial and industrial center in the 19th century. Manufacturing has steadily declined and today accounts for only 10 percent of total employment. The printing and publishing industry is now a leading employer. Also important are electrical and electronic engineering; food, drink, and tobacco; and chemicals and synthetic fibers. Far?more?important?is the services sector, which employs 85 percent of London’s workforce. This is led by financial and business services concentrated in the City. London is a major global financial center, rivaled only by Tokyo and New York. Tourism?is?another?important part of the services sector. London attracts more than 24 million visitors annually, more than half of them from outside the country. Serving tourists is thought to employ at least 300,000 Londoners. 4. The Seat of Government London?is?identified?with the center of British government as represented by the concentration of power in Westminster. Ironically, London itself has had a rather uneasy relationship with the central government since William the Conqueror guaranteed the City a degree of autonomy by not making the citizens change the way they ran the City when he took power; he did not want to upset his position by going against the citizens of the strongest city in England. Like?everything?else?about London, its current problems are also immense. The most obvious is the growing social polarization of the rich and the poor. The unemployment rate in London in 1996 was 10%, compared to the national unemployment average of about 7% for the United Kingdom. Much of this unemployment is a result of the decline in manufacturing jobs and manual and unskilled labor work, as substantial employment growth takes place in sectors such as advertising, marketing, and computing, which require technical and professional skills. London?was?the?target of a major terrorist attack in July 2005 when four bombs exploded in the central part of the city. The bombings targeted trains in the city’s underground subway system and a commuter bus during the morning rush hour. An investigation soon identified four British Muslim men as the suspected bombers. The attacks killed 56 people, including the suspected bombers, and injured about 700 others. The bombings came the day after the International Olympic Committee announced that it had chosen London to host the 2012 Summer Olympics. It also coincided with a summit meeting of the Group of Eight in nearby Scotland. British Prime Minister Tony Blair said the bombings were a terrorist attack timed to coincide with the opening of the summit. Exactly two weeks after the July 7 attack, another apparent terrorist attack targeted the city’s transportation system again. However, officials said only the detonators(雷管) of the bombs exploded, and no one was injured. Explain the following term: London: London is the largest city located in the south of the country. It’s dominant in Britain in all sorts of ways. It’s the cultural and business center and the headquarters of the vast majority of Britain’s big companies. It’s not only the financial center of the nation, but also one of the three major international financial centers in the world.  Chapter 1 Great Britain Time Allocation: 6 periods Focal Points: settlement of the Anglo-Saxons; William the Conqueror; campaigns for independence I. England
1. Introduction England is the largest and the most populated country of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It occupies more than half the island of Great Britain. It is bounded on the north by Scotland; on the west by the Irish Sea, Wales, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the south by the English Channel; and on the east by the North Sea.
Big Ben, London Named after Sir Benjamin Hall, London’s portly commissioner of works, Big Ben is the great bell in the clock tower on the eastern end of the Houses of Parliament in London. The booming 13.5-ton bell first rang out in 1859.
English Flag
Tower of London, England The Tower of London, located on the northern bank of the Thames River, was built about 1078. It was used alternately as a fortress, royal residence, and state prison in its early years. Today, it is maintained as an arsenal with a garrison, and is open to the public. The well-preserved Norman and medieval structures cover nearly 7.2 hectares (18 acres). By world standards, however, it is not large nor is it particularly rich in natural resources; yet its political and economic power in the past was virtually unrivaled. Today England's influence on the international scene is not as great, but it still remains a cultural force in the English-speaking world. The total area of Great Britain is about 244,000 square kilometers in which England covers 130,000 taking up nearly 60% of the whole island. The population of England is more than 47,000,000 making up 85% of the country’s whole population. England occupies only about one-thousandth of the world's land area but contains one-hundredth of the world's population and is, therefore, one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Even the farthest points of England are no more than a day's journey from London, and no place in England is more than 75 miles from the sea. There are nearly 47 million people living in England, of which almost 80 percent live in cities. The density of population is 929 persons per square mile (359 persons per square kilometer), one of the highest in Western Europe. The greatest concentrations of population are in the London area, the Midlands area around Birmingham, West Yorkshire, and Lancashire—including Manchester—and the northeast around Newcastle. There are also many people living along the southern coast. Greater London has a population of nearly 7 million and Birmingham more than 1 million. Birmingham has grown the most rapidly of all cities since 1900--apart from London--and has overtaken Manchester and Liverpool to become England's second city. The?great?majority?of the people of England, like those of the British Isles in general, are descended from early Celtic and Iberian peoples and later invaders of the islands, including the Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Danes, and Normans. After 1945 substantial numbers of blacks and Asians immigrated into the country. England, once a nation of small rural villages, has become highly urban since the early 19th century. 2. Early English History 1) Foreign invasions Britain is better remembered for its past, or its long history, and the British history has been a history of invasions. When we talk about British people, we should be clear about the origin of them. The forefathers of British people had different national origins. Iberians (伊比利亚人) The first known settlers of British people were Iberians. They came to Britain at about 3,000 BC during the New Stone Age. They probably came from the Iberian peninsular, now Spain. They are a dark-haired Mediterranean race. They are short in height, dark in skin and long in head (头颅狭长). They were farming folk who kept animals and grew crops. Celts (凯尔特人) By the end of the Bronze Age, around 700 BC Celtic people had arrived from northwestern Europe, now France, Belgium and southern Germany. Celts are tall in height, blond(e) (金发的) in hair and somewhat aggressive. Their language was called the Celtic language. When they came, they brought with them a revolutionary new skill: iron-working. Celts continued to come and settle in Britain for about 500 years. They didn’t kill off the Iberians. They drove some of them to the north and west, kept the rest as slaves and in the end the two races mixed to varying extent in different parts of the country. The Celtic tribes are ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Irish and the Welsh, and their languages are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic. C. Romans British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In 55BC, Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, invaded Britain for the first time. He landed in Kent with several thousand men. He met resistance and bad weather, so he decided to withdraw. He returned the following year. Yet, the successful invasion did not take place until nearly a century later, in AD 43, headed by the Emperor Claudius. So at last Romans came. When they came, they brought with them their laws, taxes, engineering skills, architecture and social system as well as their language, Latin. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain. Christianity came at first by indirect means, probably brought by traders and soldiers, and was quite well established later. The Romans made good use of Britain’s natural resources, mining lead, iron and tin and manufacturing pottery. Though, the Romans gave the Britons a good deal of their civilization, they never settled in Britain in large numbers. They departed in AD411. They left behind a well-established Celtic-Roman culture. They also left behind the first written description of the land and its peoples. D. Anglo-Saxons (盎格鲁-撒克逊人) In the 5th century AD, groups of people from North Europe came to settle in England. They were the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. These Germanic peoples form the basis of the modern English race. They brought in Old English, which was to become the official language of the nation. From AD 450 to 600, they gradually took control of most of the country. They became Christians and settled down as farmers. The name England is in fact derived from Anglo-land. The “Eng-“ part comes from the word Angles. The word “English” means “ the language that belongs to the Angles.” Because “-ish” means “belonging to.” (P8, Paragraph 3) King Arthur was the ruler of England in the 6th century. According to legendary stories, Arthur was the bastard of the king of England. After the king died, Arthur was brought up secretly by an ordinary man. When he grew up, he got from the stone successfully the supernatural sword (神剑). This he was made sure the king of England. Many people know the story of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. According to the story, Arthur’s knights were often arguing about the seats while having meetings. Arthur was annoyed, then he ordered his men to have the big round table his father-in-law had sent him as the table for meetings. In this way, there would be no difference between the seats, and there would be no arguments over the seats. Maybe that’s the origin of round tables for meetings. (P8, the second paragraph)
King Arthur’s Round Table In Arthurian legend, based on stories about the Anglo-Saxon hero King Arthur, the Round Table at Camelot served as a gathering place for Arthur’s knights. The table’s shape ensured that all who sat around it were equals. This replica of the Round Table can be seen at Winchester Castle in England. Danes Next came the Viking raiders (北欧海盗) from Scandinavia (公元九至十世纪之间，来自斯堪的纳维亚的海盗) and Danes from Denmark. They attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. They became a serious problem in the 9th century. They even managed to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 847. They plundered the coastlands and islands but eventually, they too settled, intermarried and fused with the local population. During the 9th and 10th centuries, England was divided almost in half between the Viking Danes in the east and northeast and the Saxons in the west. (Alfred the Great defeated the Danes and came to a relatively friendly agreement with them in 879.) By the end of the 10th century, however, the Saxons controlled most of the country. (P8, the fourth paragraph) Alfred was born in 849 at Oxfordshire and died in 901. He was one of the earliest and greatest of English Kings. He was also a pillar of light in the Dark Ages. The Dark Ages is a period of time in European history from 5th to the 11th centuries (黑暗时代). It is called the Dark Ages because this period of time was lacking in cultural achievements while ignorance and harsh despotism became the ruling force. Alfred was the Saxon King. In 835, Danes began to come to England. The year 835 was the time before Alfred was born. So when Alfred became the King in 871 AD. The Danes were already in England in large numbers. They were threatening to take over England. Situation was bad for Alfred. Yet, he began to lead his men to fight against the Danes bravely. He reorganized the land army. At the same time, he built boats to fight against the Danes on the sea and rivers. Thus, he got the name of “the Father of the British Navy.” Of course, it was not easy for Alfred and his men to defeat the Danes, for the Danes were already very strong at the time. In the spring of 878, Alfred was defeated and compelled to flee for refuge. Many people know the story of “Alfred and the Burnt Cake” (烧焦的饼子). It’s said that once Alfred was surrounded by the Danes when he was in a farmhouse in the Danes’ occupied area. To hide from the Danes, the hostess of the house asked him to bake the cake. Alfred was so busy thinking of the ways of defeating the invading Danes that he let the cakes burn. Just at this time, the Danes came into the house in searching of Alfred. The hostess was a clever lady. She was pretending to scold Alfred for his burning of the cakes. In this way, he was not recognized by the Danes. Two months later, Alfred came out of his hiding place and organized his army again and began his plan for a counter attack. He finally defeated the Danes. But he was not able to drive the Danes out of the country. He made a treaty with them, allowing them to keep the northern and eastern parts of England. Alfred liberated half of England. Yet, he still worried about the Danes. He began to build the system of defense. Thus, he was regarded as an outstanding military leader in the British history. However, King Alfred did great contributions in peace. 1) He established many schools. 2) He took the lead to learn Latin. 3) He repaired the churches and monasteries. 4) He did translations and writings, which have been called the beginning of prose literature in England. Alfred died in 901. After his death, more Danes came to England, because the later kings were not very strong. At last, a Danish King was put on the throne. Yet, this Danish king didn’t rule long, and so didn’t his two sons. After their death, there was no other man of the Danish royal family suitable for the throne. So, in 1042, Edward, an Englishman became the king. Edward ruled over England for 24 years. His main contribution as a king was the building of Westminster Abbey. Westminster Abbey was founded in 1065, one year before the death of Edward. For the first centuries of its existence, from the 11th century to the 16th century, the palace was the reigning king’s place of residence. After the middle of the 16th century the king ceased to live at Westminster. Westminster is famous for its Poets’ Corner, which has been the traditional burial ground of the most famous English poets. Moreover, it is a place of coronation for all the kings and queens since the Norman Conquest. Norman Conquest In 1066 (11th century), William of Normandy (William of conqueror) landed with a large armed force on the south coast and won a great victory over the Saxons (in the Battle of Hasting). William the conqueror and his followers set up a strong central government. This brought a new unified discipline and control to the country. They made French the official language and firmly established the feudal system. The king granted land to the aristocracy. The French influence was so strong that many aspects of England’s social and cultural life became totally French. (P8, from the fifth paragraph) The Norman Conquest was the last invasion of England by foreigners. When we talk about the Norman Conquest, we should first of all know something about the coming of the Normans. A) The Coming of the Normans While the Danes were coming to England, other north men from the Scandinavia Peninsula were robbing the northern coast of France. In 845, they captured the city of Paris. In France, these north men did what they could to rob and damage the country. So finally, the French King had to make a bargain with these north men. He gave the north leader a large tract of land in the northern part of France on condition that the north men promised 1) to help him in war and 2) to accept the Christian religion. The north leader accepted the conditions and thus, he and his men settled down in this land. Soon after, these men adopted the French language. Their country was named Normandy and they were called Normans. B) Norman Conquest Then in 1066, Edward died. Upon his deathbed, he recommended Harold as his successor. Harold was Edward’s wife’s brother. He was also a great warrior. Yet, he was not from the royal family. He was accepted as king only upon Edward’s recommendation. So this gave rise to great dispute. William, Edward’s cousin, was then Duke of Normandy. He was very angry when he heard the news that Harold became the king of England. He thought he should be the successor as the king of England. And this led to the Norman Conquest. Harold knew that William would come to measure swords with him. He was prepared to fight, placing an army on the southern coast of England to watch for William’s coming. Several months passed by and William failed to appear. When the harvest time in England came, many of Harold’s soldiers went back to their homes to gather in the crops. The coast was thus left undefended. William seized the chance and landed his army in Southeastern England without opposition in September 1066. Harold, who was fighting in the north, hurried back with his men. The two armies met near Hastings in Southeastern England. The Normans, armed with bows and arrows, defeated the Anglo-Saxons who fought with battle-axes. Harold was killed and English soldiers were put to flight. This is the famous Battle of Hastings in English history (P8, Paragraph 5). But the Normans were not so strong as to storm London directly. They crossed the Thames River and established their camps a few miles from the city, cutting its connection with the hinterland. Finally, London was forced to give in and a big group of noblemen and churchmen came out of the city to welcome William. So on Christmas Day, 1066, Duke William was crowned in Westminster Abbey.
William I of England William I, known as William the Conqueror, was king of England from 1066 to 1087. As king, William reorganized the feudal system, making all landholders swear greater loyalty to him rather than to their separate lords. William also ordered an exhaustive survey of the landed wealth in his realm. The written results, known as the Domesday Book, helped determine the revenues owed him by his subjects. After William was crowned the king of England (William I), the Norman aristocracy began to rule over a largely Saxon and English-speaking population. And this produces another of England’s heroic legends, the legend of Robin Hood. (P9, Paragraph 1) Robin Hood is a legendary?hero?of?medieval England. In most tales about him, Robin Hood leads an outlaw band called the Merry Men in daring forest adventures. The Merry Men fight authority and rob the rich to give to the poor. For more than 600 years, the adventures of Robin Hood have been celebrated in stories, poems, ballads, and motion pictures. The?stories?of?Robin?Hood are typically set in England between the 1100s and the 1400s. Most of the events take place in or near Sherwood Forest. The stories about Robin celebrate his courage, generosity and skill in archery (剑术). He does not hesitate to fight and steal from his enemies, but he always shows compassion (同情) for the poor, protects women and children, and offers assistance to anyone of honor. Although?Robin?fights to overturn the power of rich landowners, church leaders, and government representatives, he and his band respect the authority of the ruling king, who in most stories is Richard I. In many stories, the king disguises himself and joins the Merry Men, intending to capture Robin. But the king then discovers Robin’s honorable ways and pardons him. A?number?of?prominent authors wrote about Robin Hood in the 18th and 19th centuries, including Sir Walter Scott and John Keats. In England during the Victorian Age (1837-1901), the legend became a popular inspiration for children's tales.
Robin Hood The legendary hero Robin Hood is a popular figure from English folklore. According to the stories about him, he led a band of outlaws called the Merry Men, who robbed from the rich to give to the poor.
Statue of Robin Hood English ballads tell the story of the outlaw Robin Hood, who lived in England’s Sherwood Forest. No one knows for sure if Robin Hood existed, but the ballads about him give valuable information about English society in the late 14th and early 15th century. C) Influence of the Norman Conquest The Norman Conquest was the last invasion of England by foreigners. Since then, no foreign invaders have ever set foot on this country. The Norman Conquest sped up the development of feudalism in England. The development of feudal aristocracy resulted in the appearance of noble titles. What’s more, the Norman way of life, French civilization imposed itself on the English people. And one of the most striking manifestations of the great influence of the conquerors was naturally to be seen in the language. The Norman continued to speak French for about three centuries after their conquest of England while their English subjects retained their English tongue, which had developed into “Middle English”. The period of Middle English began soon after 1066. The Normans and the Anglo-Saxons, however, gradually got mixed and became intermingled. Invaders  Contribution  Iberians   Celts 1) Gaels (盖尔人) 2) Britons Scottish and Irish race and culture Welsh race and culture  Romans Latin alphabet and language, Christianity  Anglo-Saxons English race and language  Danes Some peculiarities of dialect in North and East England.  Norman Final Unification of England. Foundation of aristocracy. English civilization  Exercises: Who are said to be the first forefathers of British people? (Iberians) When Celts went to Britain, they brought with them a revolutionary new skill. What is it? (iron working) Who introduced Christianity to Britain? (Romans) Who introduced Latin to Britain? (Romans) Who formed the basis of the Modern English race? (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) England Under the Norman and the Great Charter The?year?1066?was?a?turning point in English history. William I, the Conqueror, and his sons gave England vigorous new leadership. Norman feudalism became the basis for redistributing the land among the conquerors, giving England a new French aristocracy and a new social and political structure. William?was?a?hard?ruler, punishing England, especially the north, when it disputed his authority. After the Norman Conquest, William confiscated the lands of the English barons (powerful local chiefs) who had resisted him and gave the lands to his own followers. In order to secure his own authority against the power of his barons, a. He made himself head of the bishops. b. He replaced the English bishops with Normans. c. He refused to accept the Pope as overlord (最高统治者) of his kingdom. d. He made the administration of justice directly dependent on the crown. e. He built London Tower as a military fortress. In this way, he established his firm control over England and achieved a position of extraordinary strength. But the contests for authority between the King and barons never stopped. In 1087, William died. He left Normandy to his elder son Robert and England to his third son William. William II ruled over England for 13 years. He was shot dead while hunting in the New Forest when he was about 40 years old. After his death, Henry I, the youngest son of William I became King. Henry I was born in 1068 and died in 1135. He became the King of England in 1100. When he succeeded his brother William II, the situation for him was very serious because his eldest brother Robert was supporting the rebellions against the new king. Robert tried to overthrow Henry I and be the king of England. At last, for the self-defense, Henry I defeated Robert and conquered Normandy. Thus, Normandy and England became united. Henry I became the king of both England and Normandy. He won the support of the Saxons by granting them a charter and marrying a Saxon princess. Henry I was proved to be an able administrator. Yet, he was the last of the Norman King. When Henry’s only legitimate son was drowned in 1120, he tried to make sure that his daughter Matilda would succeed him. Yet, his death was followed by civil war between his nephew Stephen and his daughter Matilda. At last, the two sides came to compromise. It was agreed that Stephen should reign as king for the rest of his life, and at his death, the position would be succeeded by Matilda’s son. Then in October 1154, Matilda's?son,?Henry?Plantagenet (金雀花王朝), at the age of 21, ascended the throne of England as King Henry II. Henry II had a strong will and a fierce temper. He was well educated, especially in the study of law. He was also the most powerful ruler in Europe. He received all northwest France from his father and all southwest France from his wife. He ruled, in fact, all the land between Scotland and Spain. No lord could dare to disobey such power, and Henry soon brought order to his English kingdom. During his reign the English conquest of Ireland began. Henry II died in 1189. After his death, his eldest-surviving son Richard succeeded to the throne. Richard was the third son of Henry II, and he ruled over England for 10 years. But he was only in England for 10 months of his 10 years’ rule. He went on the third crusaded. The third crusade was at last proved to be a failure. Richard I was killed in France in April 1199. Himself a poet, he became a hero of legends after his death. Yet, during the ten years rule of Richard I, the Lion-Heart, (French Coeur-de-Lion) (1157-1199), the government carried on without serious troubles. He was succeeded by John I, Henry II’s youngest son. John ruled over England from 1199 to 1216. He was said to be the worst of English Kings. John I became the King of England from 1199. Yet, he was the acting king from 1189 during his brother Richard the Lion-Heart's absence on the third Crusade. In 1205, the monks of Canterbury chose an archbishop themselves. Yet, King John wanted to make his treasurer archbishop. So he disagreed. At the same time, the Pope wanted to choose his favorite, Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury. Thus, there came a dispute between the Pope and John. The dispute lasted for five years. Of course, John had no way to defeat the Pope. The Pope persuaded the King of France to attack England. At last, John gave in and accepted Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury. He lost Normandy and almost all the other English possessions in France to Philip II of France by 1205. Because of this, he was called “Lack land”. What’s more, he promised to pay Rome a large yearly tax. Two years later, John was determined to revenge himself on France. So he demanded more feudal taxes and army service than the custom allowed. The barons became very angry at John’s tyranny. In 1214, many barons met and decided to force the King to sign a charter. Of course, King John refused to sign it. The lords got together and marched to London. All the Londoners supported them and welcomed them. No one would fight for King John. At last, on the 15th of June 1215, the barons forced King John to sign the Magna Carta, the Great Charter of English freedom. The Great Charter is a very important document in English history. Its importance can be compared to the Declaration of Independence in the United States. It covered a wide field of law and feudal rights. The main or the most important provisions are: a. No tax should be made without the approval of the council. b. No free man should be arrested or imprisoned unless convicted by a jury of his fellow citizens. c. Merchants should be permitted to move about freely. The Great Charter secured more power for the Great Council and protected the rights of the merchant class. This greatly facilitated the development of commerce and industry. The provisions of the Great Charter were designed to protect the privileged class at first. But they were later extended to the broad mass of common people. They established the basis for protection of human rights in the western world. The Great Charter was the first step of constitutional experiment. It laid down the basic rules for the English and American legal system. Since King John signed the Charter unwillingly, he never thought of putting it into practice. Thus, not long after, with the help of Pope, John tore it up. Fighting broke out again, and finally he lost the war and then he died. The Birth of Parliament When King John died suddenly, his son Henry III was crowned. At that time, Henry was only 9 years old. Thus, the Charter was accepted. Before he was old enough to rule, the country was ruled over in his name by a coalition of a group of noble men. After Henry grew up, he decided to take over the power and run the country in his own way. Henry III resembled his father in many ways. As a result, all the trouble began again. Henry hoped that with Pope’s help, he could defeat the lords and their Charter. Thus, year after year he poured English gold into Pope’s hands. At the same time, he invited many foreign advisers to give him advice on the control and management of the country. This hurt the national feeling of many English people. Many English people preferred to be independent in national and religious affairs. As a result, more and more people became against him. Just at this time, a man called Simon de Montfort stood out. He was the King’s brother-in-law. Yet, he acted as the firm defender of the Great Charter against the king. Simon de Montfort enjoyed a high prestige in English history as a love of liberty and a fine soldier. Under his leadership, the lords forced the king to dismiss his foreign advisers and to accept their own council of advisers. De Montfort’s new council took control of the Treasury and all the state officials. Then, they settled down to work out their reforms. The towns, the young people, the students all supported him. The battle was fought in 1264 in Southeastern England between De Montford’s army and the king’s men. As a result, the king and the entire royal family were defeated and the king was captured. Simon de Montfort became the head and controlled the entire government. He and his men decided to make some changes in the organization of the Great Council. Before then, the Great Council had been composed of nobles and clergymen only. Now, Simon and his men wanted more people to attend the discussion. So they decided to have two simple knights or commoners from each county and two citizens from each of the more important towns to attend the discussions. Thus, the Great Council got the new name Parliament. The word “parliament” comes from a French word. It means to speak. Therefore it means a place where things are spoken about, or discussed and debated (talking place). In fact, the parliament was a widened council. The parliament of 1265 in history is generally considered the “beginning of parliament.” Thirty years later, parliament became a regular agency of the government under Edward I. Parliament developed rapidly towards its present form later in 1337 when the king was busy with his wars against the French (the Hundred Years’ War). The common people’s representatives got into the habit of meeting privately to discuss their business before they joined the lords. (Because they were at first looked down upon or laughed at by the lords.) By 1350, they had a speaker who was to speak for them to express their agreed opinions to the lords. Within the nest ten years, the old parliament was divided to three parts, a House of Lords, a House of Commons and a small permanent council of the King’s official advisers. The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) Edward I, the son of Henry III, succeeded his father in 1272. His greatest achievements were in administration. Edward I (1272-1307) required strict discipline in the land under his command, and judged all men by their efficiency. Because he relied on the parliament of the time, his parliament became known as the Model Parliament. Edward I was also well known for his conquest of Wales. He made his son, Edward II, the first “Prince of Wales” in English history. But his conquest of Scotland ended in failure. Edward II (1307-1327) succeeded his father in 1307. He was good-looking like his father. But he was not so wise, ambitious and persistent as his father. He was a weak and lazy King. He left the work of government to his favorites. Soon a party of lords was formed against him. The dispute between the King and the lords became serious. Then the parliament forced Edward II to hand over the crown to his son in January 1327. Nine months later, he was murdered. Edward III (1327-1377) was only 15 years old when he succeeded his father. For the first three years, it was his mother and her lover Mortimer who ruled in his name. Then when he became old enough, he took over the power and arrested his mother and Mortimer. He imprisoned his mother and sent Mortimer to London to be hanged in public like a thief. At this time, the Old French line of Kings died out. Edward declared that he should be the King of France because his mother was a sister of the last French King. His mother’s brothers had all died without a son. Yet, the French nobles denied his claim and a distant relative of the last French King the nephew of the old King Phillip was put on the throne. Then in 1337, Edward III launched the war against the French. The Hundred Years’ War was fought entirely in France. It lasted on and off for about a hundred years with ups and downs for both sides. The reign of Edward III covers the central 50 years of the 14th century (1337-1377), which saw the first half of the Hundred Years War and the first major economic crisis in English history. In 1346, Edward III landed in Normandy with an English army. The English bowmen defeated the heavily armed French knights in the famous battled of Crocy (克雷西战役) and the whole of France very nearly fell into English hands. But as time went on, guns and gunpowder were invented. This greatly reduced the power of English troops who used bows and arrows. What’s more, the French peasants also joined in under the famous peasant girl Joan of Arc (1412-1431) (贞德). Joan of Arc was a legendary girl during the Hundred Years’ War. She was from a peasant family. She joined the fighting out of her love of the country. She led her army bravely and defeated the English army for many times. At last, she was captured and burnt to death. Joan of Arc is a national heroine in French history. Because of all these, the English army began to lose ground step by step. Eventually, they were driven out of France in 1453. 5) The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) Two years after the ending of the Hundred Years’ War with France, England was thrown into another series of civil wars, the Wars of the Roses. These wars were waged intermittently between the two branches of the Plantagenet family, the House of Lancaster and the House of York, between 1455 and 1485. The flag of Lancaster showed a red rose, and the flag of York showed a white one, so the struggle became known as the Wars of the Roses. We know that when Edward III was the king of England, he began the war with the French, the Hundred Years’ War. Edward III ruled over England for 50 years. In 1377, his grandson Richard II succeeded him. When Richard II (1377-1399) became the King, he was only 10 years old. And his uncle ruled in his name. His first attempt to get rid of his uncle’s rule was not successful. And yet he ruled himself not long after this first attempt. Richard II was a man with changeable temper. But he was not a powerful king. In 1399, he was forced to resign and give the seat to Henry IV. A year later, he was put to death by Henry IV. Henry IV was the son of the duke of Lancaster who was another son of Edward III. Thus, when he became King, he began the House of Lancaster. Henry IV(1399-1413) was a handsome man. He was also well educated for a King. Yet, he didn’t rule long. In 1413, his son Henry V succeeded to the throne. Henry V ruled over England for 9 years. He died in 1422 when he was only 35 years old. His successor was a baby of 9 months. Henry VI had grown up weak in mind and body. He was not powerful enough to rule the country. His cousins began a fresh fight for power. The Duke of York, Richard was the great grandson of Edward III. In 1455, he tried to replace the Lancaster King, Henry VI. For they were both descended from Edward III. (When Edward III was the King, he married his children to the heirs of the most powerful nobles in the hope of strengthening his family.) Thus, the civil war began between the Lancastrians and the Uorkists. The war went on for 30 years. Open battles were few, but murder and revenge were common. The nobles divided and supported different royal families. Superficially the war was a battle between rival gangs of nobles. But in reality it was a war between the commercial minded gentry in the South and the backward feudal landowners in the North and West. Because the supporters of the House of Lancasters were the wild nobles of the Scottish and Welsh borders, the most backward and feudal elements surviving in the country while those of the House of York were from the progressive south. The war was very destructive to the nobles who participated, yet it brought little trouble to the common people. Every victory of the war was followed by the confiscation of the lands and property of the defeated and murders. And political trials after disturbance took many noblemen to their death. In 1461, Lord Warwick, an army commander decided to interfere. After fierce fighting, the King’s forces were defeated and his cousin Edward of York was crowned with Warwick’s support. 10 years later in 1471, when Edward IV refused Warwick’s plans for a political marriage with the French royal house, Warwick changed his side and tried to bring back poor mad Henry who was then at the prison in the Tower. Edward IV killed Warwick in the battle and a few days later, Henry died mysteriously. In 1483, Edward IV died, his 12-year-old son became Edward V. But before he could be crowned, he and his brother were shut up in London Tower by their uncle, Edward IV’s younger brother. The uncle had himself crowned instead as Richard III. A month later, the two boys were murdered. There was no proof that they were killed by their uncle. Yet many blames were against Richard III. Then, his enemies from the House of Lancasters tried to replace him with another man. Since there had been no direct male heir from the House of Lancasters, they found one in Henry Tudor, a powerful welsh lord whose mother came from John of Gaunt’s family (Duke of Lancaster). He had been living in France to escape the quarrels of his relatives and to await his chance. In August, 1485, he sailed form France with 2,000 men. On August 22, 1485, he met Richard in the battle of Bosworth Field. Since many Richard’s men refused to fight for him, Richard was defeated and died for fighting for his crown. The crown itself rolled down. And it was placed on the victor’s head. So Henry, the Welshman became Henry VII and England settled down to a new age of orderly government under the royal House of Tudor. When Henry VII became King, he felt it necessary to appease the turmoil caused by the war between the two royal families. Thus, he married the successor of the House of York, the daughter of Edward IV. Elizabeth and ended the hate and dispute between the two Houses. This was also the real end of the Wars of the Roses. 3. English People We take it for granted that the British people are Europeans. Geographically speaking, Britain is a part of Europe. Yet, the fact that it is a separate island has made its people very insular (偏狭的,与世隔绝的). The British people don’t regard themselves as Europeans. They feel different from the rest of Europe. They don’t like the characteristics of some other Europeans. So many people think that the British are reserved. We know before 1066, England was invaded by Celts, Roman, Anglo-Saxons, Danes and Norman. These invaders added not only to the population but also the variety of characteristics. But in spite of these invasions, today the British people are well mixed for a national state. What are the common characteristics of English people? Traditionally, an Englishman is thought to be reserved, unemotional, courteous, shy of strangers, suspicious of change and slow to accept new ideas. He believes that the English are superior to any other race in the country and even on earth. In one word, the main characteristics of British people are “conservatism, deference, and reservation.” (Why do we say so?) Conservatism consists of an acceptance of things, which are familiar, and an inclination to be suspicious of anything that is strange or foreign. There are many examples which bespeak (证明) the influence of English conservatism. The monarchy and the Upper House have been retained; The national song is still the old God Save the King (or Queen); English judges still wear long wigs in law courts; Though the feudal class is no longer in power, the monarchy continues to confer noble titles on distinguished persons; While there is criticism of the royal family for its large expenditure, the costly royal ceremony is still popular as a reminder of the past. Many rooms in England are heated by gas and electric fire, but their owners still spend money keeping fireplaces which are of no use value. Britain was the first country to start the industrial revolution, but it was not until 1971 that its old and troublesome currency became decimalized after a century-old battle for reform. Adherence to traditions and familiar things easily leads to public suspicion of new plans of the government, causing numerous protests in the country. Many English people took part in the protest against the construction of nuclear power stations and etc. Yet, English conservatism does not imply a high degree of conformity in attitudes, rather it is a kind of nostalgia of the past. As a matter of fact, most English people attach great importance to local and individual character. They like to think of their own ways of doing things as distinctions between them and the rest of the world. Many of them believe the saying that a person is like a tree in a forest: he is side by side with others but he should have his own character. (P9, Paragraph 2, Line 11) Another English characteristic is what people call deference. English society used to be rigidly stratified (分层) and status-conscious. Everyone was told to be differential towards those who were superior to him in wealth, status and power. The line from a famous English poem “Yours is not why but how” was a reflection of the demand of deference. Deference was once considered as the basis of social stability and good manner. The English people are also known for their reservation. They hate small talk (闲聊) and refuse to express their mind freely. When they speak, they carefully choose the words appropriate to the occasion and their status. They hate any attempt to poke into other people’s private business. Many topics for small talk in other countries are under taboo (禁止) in England. Gossips behind the back of others are considered as a sign of low-breeding. But we should notice that this stereotype picture is far from true now. We know that the U.K. is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. And the people of different parts are all very proud of their separate nationalities, although the British people as a whole have a strong national sense. 4. Climate and weather ---Climate: refers to the average temperature, rainfall, wind, etc. of a place or area over the year or a season. ---Weather: refers to the day-to-day conditions of sunshine, temperature, wind, rain, etc. over a particular place or area. As?a?result?of?the?relative warmth of the nearby seas, England has a moderate climate, rarely marked by extremes of heat or cold. The mean annual temperature ranges between 11° C (52° F) in the south and 9° C (48° F) in the northeast. Seasonal temperatures vary between a mean of about 16° C (61° F) during July, the hottest month of the year, and 4° C (40° F) during January, the coldest month. The average January and July temperatures for the city of London are 4° C (40° F) and 18° C (64° F), respectively. Fogs, mists, and overcast （阴天的） skies are frequent, particularly in the Pennine and inland regions. Precipitation （降水）, heaviest during October, averages about 760 mm (about 30 in) annually in most of England. It has been said that in no country other than England can one experience four seasons in the course of a single day. Day may break as a warm spring morning; an hour or so later black clouds may have appeared from nowhere and the rain may be pouring down. At midday, conditions may be really wintry with the temperature down by about 8 degrees or even more. In the late afternoon, the sky will clear, the sun will begin to shine. Then before darkness falls, it will be summer. Not only can people get several different sorts of weather in one day, but they may also get a spell of winter in summer and vice-versa. Thus, many English people claim that they have no climate but weather in their country. Their argument is based on 1. the variability (易变) of the weather and 2. the small differences between the seasons. These are said to be the two typical features of English weather. Another feature of the English weather is 3.abundant rainfall. The rainfall is distributed almost evenly through the twelve months of the year. In some places, there are over 260 raining days. In London, the rainy days amount to 160. There is usually no heavy rain, only showers and drizzles. That’s why English people have to bring their umbrellas when they go out. Sunny days in Britain are rare. II. Scotland 1. Introduction Scotland, the most northerly of the four parts of the United Kingdom, occupies about one-third of the island of Great Britain. It is bounded by England in the south and on the other three sides by sea: by the Atlantic Ocean on the west and north and by the North Sea on the east (See the map). It is the second largest both in area and population. Its mainland area is 28,269 square miles (73,217 square kilometers). Including inhabited islands, it has an area of 30,418 square miles, taking up less than 30% of the total area. Its population covers 5,000,000. This does not exceed 10% of the whole population. Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland, and Glasgow is its largest city. (P10, Paragraph 1-2)

Edinburgh, Scotland Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland and its second largest city. The view here is of the city with the hills south of an estuary （港湾）.
Gardens in Edinburgh Edinburgh is more flatteringly known as "the Athens of the North," a tribute to its world-renowned architecture and cultural calendar. As Scotland's capital, the city proudly displays Scottish cultural heritage, providing a home to the Royal Museum of Scotland and the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art. Princes Street, separated from the imposing Edinburgh Castle by Princes Street Gardens, forms part of Edinburgh's New Town, and is the city center's main thoroughfare and shopping area.
George Square Lions guard Glasgow's war memorial, which commemorates the many thousands of Glaswegians who died in the World Wars. The City Chambers, behind the memorial in George Square, is renowned for its opulent （豪华的）, marbled interior, recalling the great wealth once brought to the city by trade and heavy industry. Once the center of a mighty industrial region, Glasgow, whose motto is "Let Glasgow Flourish," has undergone something of a cultural renaissance in recent years. Today, Glasgow challenges Edinburgh as Scotland's premier cultural center.
George Square, Glasgow George Square lies at the heart of Glasgow, Scotland, a bustling seaport and industrial center. The City Chambers building, shown in the background, is constructed in the Italian Renaissance style, which was popular in the 19th century. In the foreground is a column topped by a statue of novelist and poet Sir Walter Scott. English is the principal language; the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) is the established religion. There?are?13?universities in Scotland. The four oldest and most well-known are the University of Aberdeen, University of Edinburgh, University of Glasgow, and University of Saint Andrews, all founded in the 15th and 16th centuries. The University of Edinburgh is famous as one of the largest universities in Britain. Scotland has long been characterized as a land of romance. It contains ruins of many ancient castles and abbeys, and there is a haunting beauty in its windswept mountains, long deep valleys, and ribbon lakes. It attracts many tourists, particularly from the United States and England.
University of Glasgow This Gothic-style building on the Gilmorehill campus of the University of Glasgow is one of the best-known landmarks in Glasgow. It has served as the main building of the university since 1870. The University of Glasgow was founded in 1451.
King’s College Chapel King’s College Chapel is on the campus of the University of Aberdeen in Aberdeen, Scotland.
National Gallery of Scotland The National Gallery of Scotland, founded in 1859 in Edinburgh, is housed in a neoclassical building designed by Scottish architect William Playfair. The museum has an outstanding collection of paintings, prints, and drawings by European artists from the Renaissance to the late 19th century. The gallery’s collection of Scottish paintings is especially strong.
Forth Bridge, Scotland The Forth Bridge, a steel railway bridge across the Firth峡湾 of Forth near Edinburgh, Scotland, was built between 1882 and 1890. It is one of the longest cantilever 悬臂 bridges in the world.
Bridge at Firth of Forth One of the most spectacular human-made sights in Scotland, the Forth Rail Bridge crosses the River Forth between South and North Queensferry, 16 kilometers (10 miles) west of Edinburgh. Opened in 1890, the bridge is composed of 58,000 metric tons （公吨）of steel and spans a distance of more than 1.6 kilometers (more than 1 mile). Maintenance of the extensive framework is a never-ending job. Once the bridge has been painted, which takes roughly three years; it is time to start painting it again. 2. Natural Regions The?terrain (地形)?of?Scotland is predominantly mountainous but may be divided into three distinct regions, from north to south: the Highlands, the Central Lowlands, and the Southern Uplands. More than one-half of the land in Scotland is occupied by the Highlands, the most rugged region on the island of Great Britain and the least densely inhabited part of Scotland. The Highlands contain two parallel mountain chains that run roughly northeast to southwest. Most of Scotland’s hills and mountains are covered with grasses and shrubs. Coal is Scotland’s chief mineral resource. Water is a valuable resource, especially for generating electricity. In the Southern Uplands and the Highlands regions, hill-sheep farming is important. In the southwest, dairy farming is widespread. Forestry is also an important industry in Scotland, and one that has helped retain the population in rural areas.
Scottish Highlands More than half of the surface of Scotland is occupied by the Scottish Highlands, the most rugged region in Great Britain. They consist of parallel mountain chains with a general northeast-to-southwest trend, broken by deep ravines (峡谷) and valleys.
Ben Nevis, Scotland Ben Nevis, in western Scotland’s Grampian Mountains, is the tallest mountain in the British Isles and a popular tourist destination. More than 300 million years of erosion have rounded the top of the mountain, once a lofty volcano.
Summit of Ben Nevis At the western edge of Scotland's Grampian Mountains is Ben Nevis, which at 1,343 meters (4,406 feet) is the highest peak in the British Isles. The mountain's northeastern face is one of the most challenging climbs in Britain, made even more so because the weather near the summit can change in a matter of minutes. 3. People in Scotland The Scots have a reputation for being inventive, hardworking, serious-mined, careful of detail and cautious with money. However, they are far from being all alike. Scotland is a country in which individualism flourishes. The Scots, particularly the Highlanders from the mountainous north, try to maintain their separate identity. They object to being called “English”. The Scottish Highlanders consider themselves the “true” Scots, and they wear their national dress, the kilt, with pride. Kilts are pleated skirts (百褶裙) made of material with a squared, colored design called a tartan (格子花呢)(作为苏格兰氏族标志的格子图案). They probably derive from the costume of the Roman conquerors. Each Scottish clan (tribe) has its own tartan with specific colors and design and only members of that clan are entitled to wear it.
Tartan Tartan was worn by clansmen of the Scottish highlands as early as the 1660s. Tartan is a pattern, commonly called plaid （格子花呢）, that consists of stripes of varying widths and colors, crossing at right angles against a solid background. Certain tartans are associated with specific Scottish clans, regiments, or geographical districts. Tartan is now worn mostly for ceremonial or formal occasions. The Highlanders are of Celtic descent, and a small number of them still speak Gaelic, an ancient Celtic language. The Lowlanders are much like the people of northern England, but their Scots dialect is distinct. So, apart from their very distinctive national dress, the Scots can be recognized by their particular style of speech and accent. The Highlanders are a proud, independent and hardy people. They mainly live by farming sheep in the mountain areas; others, on the coasts and islands, are fishermen. But most Scots are Lowlanders, concentrated in the densely populated towns and cities of southern Scotland. These urban areas are heavily industrialized with coal-mining, iron, steel, shipbuilding and textiles. Scotland has retained much of its cultural identity. Though Scotland's population is only about five million, many millions abroad proudly claim Scottish descent and keep some of these traditions alive after many generations. 4. Early Scottish History The name Scotland (in Latin, Scotia) derives from the Scots, a Celtic people from Ireland who settled on the West Coast in about the 5th century. The name Caledonia has often been applied to Scotland, especially in poetry. It is derived from the Roman name, Caledonii, of a tribe in the northern part of what is now Scotland. Like England, Scotland was also invaded by Romans, yet Scotland was not conquered by the Romans. They occupied the edge of the northern highland zone (P10, Paragraph 3). In AD 122, to ward off the threat to the imperial positions in northern Britain, the Roman emperor Hadrian ordered the construction of a wall to mark the northern edge of their domain and to protect the northern boundary of Roman Britain against hostile tribes. The wall is called “Hadrian’s Wall” after the Emperor. The wall extended 117 km (73 mi) and was about 6 m (about 20 ft) high and about 2.4 m (about 8 ft) wide. ?The?Romans?withdrew from Britain in 409. In the 9th century, the Scots established their own kingdom.
Hadrian's Wall Around ad 122, Roman Emperor Hadrian ordered the construction of a wall in northern Britain, then part of the Roman Empire, to keep out the unconquered Caledonians of Scotland. Built out of stone and turf and measuring about 117 km (73 mi) in length, the wall linked a series of forts and watchtowers. The Romans rebuilt Hadrian’s Wall several times throughout the 200s and 300s and used it as a fortification until about 400. The original pre-Roman inhabitants were collectively known as Picts. After?the?Roman?withdrawal from Britain in 409, Picts systematically raided the territories of their southern neighbors. The southern people with the help of the Saxons, one of the Germanic tribes, however, soon put an end to these raids. Like England, Scotland began to experience Viking raids in the ninth century. (P11, Paragraph 2) During the Middle Ages (the period in European history from about A.D.1100 to 1400, in a wider sense from A.D.600 to 1500), there is an endless contest of strength between England and Scotland. (Many?Scottish?nobles?and the overwhelming majority of the Scottish people bitterly resented English interference in their national affairs. ) In 1297, the?Scottish?struggle against England was under the leadership of the Scottish patriot Sir William Wallace. William Wallace is one of Scotland's greatest national heroes, undisputed leader of the Scottish resistance forces during the first years of the long and ultimately successful struggle to free Scotland from English rule at the end of the 13th Century. Wallace was born in around 1270. His father was a small landowner and little-known Scottish knight. At the time of Wallace's birth, Alexander III had already been on Scotland's throne for over twenty years. And King Edward I came to the throne of England in 1272, two years after Wallace was born. With soldiers recruited from all sections of the nation, Wallace destroyed an English army at Stirling in September and reinstituted Scottish rule. The following year Edward, the king of England, led a huge army into Scotland. On July 22, 1298, Edward defeated Wallace's army in the Battle of Falkirk, and Wallace was forced into hiding. He lived in France for a time but returned and was captured near Glasgow. He was brought to London, tried for treason (叛国罪) and executed. After?Wallace’s?death, Robert Bruce, a descendant of David I, himself of Norman descent and a blood cousin of the English king, assumed the leadership of the resistance movement. Although Bruce had opposed Wallace, most of the Scottish nobility and clergy rallied to his support. He was crowned Robert I, king of Scotland, in March 1306. During the first year of his reign Bruce suffered several reverses at the hands of the English. In 1307, on the accession (即位) to the English throne of Edward II, who abandoned his father’s plan to conquer Scotland, Bruce began a systematic guerrilla campaign against the pro-English section of the Scottish nobility and against English garrisons in Scotland. Between 1307 and 1314 he won numerous battles against his enemies and, on a number of occasions, even invaded northern England. Edward II finally led a punitive（惩罚性的）expedition (远征) into Scotland in the spring of 1314. Meeting this invasion force at Bannockburn on June 24, the Scottish army inflicted on it one of the most disastrous defeats in the military history of England. (The famous Battle of Bannockburn) (P11, Paragraph 2, the last sentence) Edward II refused to grant independence to Scotland, however, and the war between the two nations continued for more than a decade. The war against England ended victoriously in 1328, when the regent (摄政王) (Edward III’s mother) of the young Edward III of England approved the Treaty of Northampton. By the terms of this document, Scotland obtained recognition as an independent kingdom. Thus an uncompromising national identity built on earlier tribal alliances was firmly established. In 1603, the Scottish King James VI was welcomed to the English throne as James I, and James VI of Scotland became king of England (as James I), uniting Scotland and England under one ruler and creating the so-called Union of the Crowns. However, the two parts came together. So the unification of England, Wales and Scotland was completed in 1603. From then on, the large island began to use its name Great Britain (a French word). Despite this unification, Scotland retained its own parliament until 1707, when the parliaments of the two states were formally united. Thus Scotland no longer has a separate legislature or executive, nor diplomatic representation abroad, and its economy is integrated into that of the rest of Britain. Now it has 72 seats in the United Kingdom’s House of Commons. All Scottish peers are now entitled to sit in the House of Lords. Scotland has no sovereign executive or political power, yet it retains its own legal and educational system, a national church, and a separate administration. So, the?people?of?Scotland, like those of the United Kingdom in general, are descendants of various ethnic stocks, including the Celts, Scandinavians, Anglo-Saxons, and newer immigrant groups. Scotland is mainly an urban-industrial society with a small, sparsely scattered rural population. III. Wales 1. Introduction Wales is smaller than England and Scotland. It is 240 kilometers from north to south and 185 kilometers from east to west at its widest part. Its area is 20,776 square kilometers, less than 9% with a population of 2,899,000, about 5% of the whole. It is bounded on the north by the Irish Sea, on the west by St. George's Channel, and on the south by the Bristol Channel. In the east it borders a number of English counties. The capital of Wales is Cardiff. Cardiff is only a small city with an area of 120 square kilometers and a population of 300,000. About two-thirds of Wales's population lives in the south. Wales is predominantly nonconformist in religion, with Methodism the most widespread denomination.

Welsh Flag
Cardiff's City Center Cardiff, the capital of Wales, is located at the mouth of the River Taff, on the Bristol Channel. At one time among the world's biggest coal-exporting ports, Cardiff remains an important industrial, commercial, and government center in Wales. Cathays Park, at the heart of the city, is bounded by a fine set of civic buildings, mostly built around the turn of the century. These include the city hall, the law courts, the Welsh National Museum, and the University College, Cardiff. Wales?has?an?irregular coastline with many bays, the largest of which is Cardigan Bay. Except for narrow, low-lying coastal regions, mainly in the south and west, Wales is almost entirely mountainous. The principal range is the Cambrian Mountains, which extend north and south through central Wales. 2. Natural Resources Coal?is?the?most?valuable mineral resource of Wales; deposits are located mainly in the south. Some high-grade anthracite（无烟煤）(hard black coal) is found, but output consists principally of bituminous（含沥青的）coal. Much of the soil of Wales is of infertile rocky. The most fertile soils are in the southeast and in a few coastal areas. Much of the electricity generated by the country’s large waterpower resources is exported to England.
Mining in Mountain Ash These buildings at the foot of a tailings pile were once home to the coal-mining families of Mountain Ash, in south central Wales. Coal was once a major mineral resource in Wales. In the 1960s, these valleys held more than 150 mines and provided one of every four industrial jobs in Wales. Today, nearly all mining in Mountain Ash has ceased. Wales depended historically upon mining and heavy industry. Yet, the decline of mining and heavy industry has led to lower per capita incomes and higher levels of unemployment than in the rest of Britain. The coalmines of South Wales were first developed in the 19th century and became the premier source of British coal, but by the late 20th century declining production had reduced coal to a minor factor in the economy. We know because of the problem of pollution, coal is no longer allowed to be used even in the families. Farming, forestry, and tourism are the most important occupations in the rural areas of Wales, with most small farms raising cattle and sheep. The increasingly important tourism industry depends on a string of flourishing coastal resorts and the scenery in Wales's three national parks. Cardiff Airport handles both international and domestic traffic. (P12, Paragraph 3) 3. Language Both?English?and?Welsh are official languages. English is spoken by most of the population. A small percentage of the people speak Welsh only; more than one-quarter of the population speak both Welsh and English (see Celtic Languages). The native language of Wales is Welsh, a member of the Brythonic group of Celtic languages. It was spoken by nearly all the inhabitants until the late 18th century and remained the language of the common people for another century after that. But as industrialization attracted workers to Wales from England, Scotland, and Ireland, the Welsh language gave way to English, a trend accelerated in the 20th century by English-language radio and television broadcasts and motion pictures. By the late 20th century less than one-fifth of the population could speak Welsh, and they were concentrated in the northern, western, and southern highland areas of the country. Much effort is being devoted to preserving the Welsh language and culture, with bilingual education, Welsh-language broadcasting, and attempts to maintain Wales's long literary tradition. The Royal National Eisteddfod (音乐家大会) (Welsh festival of music and poetry) is an annual competitive festival that is held for a week each August and consists of competitions in all aspects of music, literature, drama, and art, all presented in the Welsh language. As part of an effort to preserve Welsh culture, the government supports Welsh language books, plays, and other artworks. The British Broadcasting Corporation has set aside a channel to broadcast in Welsh during peak viewing hours. 4. Early Welsh History The?people?of?Wales,?like those of Britain in general, are descendants of various stocks, including Celts, Scandinavians, and Romans. The?earliest?inhabitants of Wales, like those of the rest of Britain, were a short, dark race, generally referred to as Iberians. At the time of the coming of the Romans in 55 BC, the tribes of Wales represented a mixture of the primitive Iberians with the later invading Celts. Wales was also conquered by Romans. But it didn’t fall to the Anglo-Saxon invaders of the fifth century. (P13, Paragraph 2) When we talk about English History, we know that Edward I was well known in English history for his conquest of Wales. He made his son, Edward II, the first “Prince of Wales” in English history. (P13, Paragraph 4) Edward I (1239-1307), was born in Westminster on June 17, 1239, the eldest son of King Henry III. In 1270, he left England to join the Seventh Crusade. Following his father's death in 1272, and while he was still abroad, Edward was recognized as king by the English barons; in 1273, on his return to England, he was crowned. The first years of Edward's reign were a period of the consolidation of his power. He suppressed corruption in the administration of justice and passed legislation allowing feudal barons and the crown to collect revenues from properties willed to the church. When Edward’s father was the king of England, Llewellyn ap Gruffydd, (P13, Paragraph 3) Prince of North Wales, sided with Simon de Montfort against Henry III, but later submitted to the king. In 1273, however, he refused to pay respect to the new English king, Edward I. Then in 1276, Edward invaded Wales and compelled Llewellyn to submit to humiliating terms, including the surrender of the eastern portion of his lands. Llewellyn rebelled in 1282, but died, and his brother David ap Gruffydd, who carried on the struggle, was captured in 1283 and beheaded. In 1284 Edward I completed the conquest of Wales. In 1301 Edward I conferred on his oldest surviving son, later King Edward II, who was born in Wales, the title of Prince of Wales. This sufficiently satisfied the pride of the Welsh to keep them loyal for 100 years. It has become traditional for the firstborn son of each monarch to be given the title of Prince of Wales. The national spirit survived, however, and was nourished by the songs of the bards (游吟诗人). When Henry IV seized the English throne, a revolt began in Wales under the leadership of Owen Glendower (Owain Glyndwr) in 1402. Owen Glendower was the last Welsh chief to claim the title of independent Prince of Wales. He is a Welsh national hero and historically famous as the leader of a major revolt for Welsh independence from English domination during the reign of King Henry IV of England. Henry IV repeatedly invaded the country, but the revolt was not suppressed until the death of Glendower, about 1416. The Welsh submitted to Henry VII, the first Tudor king, whom they regarded as their countryman. Tudor policy toward Wales stressed assimilation and equality. By the Act of Union of 1536, Wales was incorporated with England, its inhabitants receiving all the rights and privileges of English subjects. Welsh representatives then took their seats in the English Parliament, and customary Welsh laws that differed with those of England were abolished. The Welsh gentry continued to exercise local authority in the name of the monarch, from whom they held their lands. (P 13, Paragraph 4,5) So, the Welsh have been united with England since the 1536 Act of Union (联盟法), which declares the elimination of all the traditional laws of Wales, and the use of English language and laws. From then on, Wales formally became a part of Britain. Yet, the Welsh are still very conscious of their separate Celtic heritage.
Brighton's Royal Pavilion Onion-shaped domes and filigree arches adorn (装饰) Brighton's Royal Pavilion, which was begun in the 1780s as the residence of the Prince of Wales (later King George IV). The building was originally designed by Henry Holland as a symmetrical, neoclassical structure. The interior was later decorated in Chinese style, and a circular stable block (now the Dome Concert Hall) was added with Indian motifs. In 1815 the prince employed John Nash to remodel the interior. Nash added the distinctive minarets and balconies, transforming the Pavilion's style into an eclectic mix that incorporated many fanciful Asian and Gothic elements. The Pavilion was abandoned in the 1840s and was acquired by citizens of Brighton in 1850. The structure now houses a museum, picture galleries, and assembly halls. 5. People The Welsh, like Scots, fall into two groups: those –mostly sheep farmers –from the mountainous regions of the center and north; and those (2/3 of the population) who live and work in the highly industrialized south. The Welsh is famous for their love of music and poetry. Cultural pride in Wales is very strong. The Welsh not only love poetry but are also keen singers. Choral singing is a popular activity, with Welsh folk songs and hymns as favorites. Every year there is a national poetry and singing competition called the Eisteddfod in which individuals and choirs from all over Wales participate. A Welshman can often be recognized by his name. The Welsh are also easily identified by the soft lilting(轻快有节奏地唱)，almost singing, way in which they speak English. The Welsh are predominantly Protestants. Most belong to the Presbyterian Church of Wales. EXPLOITATION ACTIVITIES 1. ( Work in pairs ( Answer the following questions: a. What is the most densely populated area of Britain? ( England b. Which is the least populated? How might this be explained? ( Scotland. Geographically, Scotland is a mountainous region, and therefore less populated. Other factors are historical, political and economic. London developed as a political and economic center of the United Kingdom with the development of the British Empire. This attracted people from all parts of the UK to live in the southeast. Many people now commute from rural areas of the southeast to London to work. 2. ( Work in groups of four ( Questions for Thought on p.18