Chapter 8 British Holidays and Festivals Time Allocation: 2 periods Focal Points: Christmas, Christian trinity, Easter and Halloween. Introduction Holiday is a day set apart for religious ob’servance or for the commemoration of some extraordinary event or distinguished person, or for some other public occasion. Holidays are characterized by a partial or total cessation of work and normal business activities and are generally accompanied by public and private ceremonies, including feasting (or fasting), parades and carnivals, or displays of flags and speechmaking. The word holiday, in fact, is derived from “holy day.” Subsequently, non-religious holidays commemorating historical occasions or distinguished persons outnumbered holy days, although many ancient religious rituals and customs have been carried over into modern times and incorporated into both non-religious and religious observations. Thus, knowing a little bit about a country’s holidays and their origins is a good way of understanding this country’s way of life and people’s way of thinking. Holidays usually reflect a country’s religious, historical, social and cultural diversity. (P. 93, Paragraph 1) United Kingdom is a Christian country. Yet, its public holidays include not only religious ones, but also non-religious ones. The main holidays are as follows. United Kingdom Public Holidays Name Date Meaning New Year’s January 1 Celebration of the new year  Good Friday March or April Christian religious holiday  Easter Monday March or April Christian religious holiday  Labor Day First Monday in May Celebration in honor of workers  Late May Bank Holiday Last Monday in May Traditional bank holiday  Whit Monday The day after Pentecost Christian religious holiday  Queen’s Birthday Second Monday in June Celebration of birthday of Queen Elizabeth II  Summer Bank Holiday Last Monday in August Traditional bank holiday (except Scotland)  Christmas December 25 Celebration of Christmas  Boxing Day December 26 Traditional holiday where gentry give presents to servants and others  Source: Europa International Holidays; Holidays, Festivals, and Celebrations of the World Dictionary, 2nd edition  Religious Holidays 1. Christmas Christmas, the annual?Christian?holiday, commemorates the birthday of Jesus Christ. Most members of the Roman Catholic Church and followers of Protestantism celebrate Christmas on December 25, and many celebrate on the evening of December 24 as well. Members of the Eastern Orthodox Church usually delay their most important seasonal ceremonies until January 6, when they celebrate E’piphany, (主显节) a commemoration of the baptism of Jesus. The?most?important?holiday on the Christian calendar is Easter, which commemorates the Crucifixion and Resur’rection of Jesus. Nevertheless, many people, particularly in the United States and Canada, consider Christmas to be the most significant annual Christian event. In addition to being a religious holiday, Christmas is a widely observed non-religious festival. For most people who celebrate Christmas, the holiday season is characterized by gatherings among family and friends, feasting, and gift giving. Thus, the meaning of Christmas can be the commemoration of the birth of Jesus Christ as well as the celebration of the Winter Solstice. However, different people and different countries may have different ways of celebration. In the United Kingdom, people celebrate Christmas in their own way, which is more or less different from the celebration of the United States. The special features of the British celebration are: The Christmas Pantomime (P94, Paragraph 3) The Christmas Message given by the Queen (P94, Paragraph 4) The celebration of Boxing Day (P94, Paragraph 5) Religious customs of Christmas celebrations in England center on recounting the story of Christ’s birth. Most people who celebrate Christmas also participate in such secular customs as watching Christmas plays, feasting, singing, and helping the poor. Before Christmas Day, children write wish lists to Father Christmas, who is the British version of Santa Claus. They then throw these letters into the fire. Children believe that if a draft (气流) draws the letter up through the chimney, their wishes will be fulfilled. Children open their gifts on Christmas afternoon, following a meal of goose or roast beef and a dessert of plum (李子) pudding. The day after Christmas is also a national holiday in England, known as Boxing Day or Saint Stephen’s Day (see Saint Stephen). Long ago, English gentry gave small gifts known as Christmas boxes to their servants on the day after Christmas. English custom still sets aside Boxing Day for tipping the delivery person and others who have performed personal services throughout the year. Many people in England also make charitable contributions to churches and to the needy on Boxing Day. 2. Easter Easter is an annual?festival?commemorating the resu’rrection (复活) of Jesus Christ, and the principal feast (节日) of the Christian year. It is celebrated on a Sunday on varying dates between March 22 and April 25 and is therefore called a movable feast. According?to?the?New?Testament, Christ was crucified on the eve of Passover and shortly afterward rose from the dead. In consequence, the Easter festival commemorated Christ's resurrection. In time, a serious difference over the date of the Easter festival arose among Christians. Those of Jewish origin celebrated the resurrection immediately following the Passover festival, which, according to their Babylonian (巴比伦的) lunar calendar, fell on the evening of the full moon (the 14th day in the month of Nisan, the first month of the year); By their reckoning, Easter, from year to year, fell on different days of the week. During the celebration of Easter, people give each other chocolate or candy Easter Eggs, which are often very large, elaborate and expensive. National Holidays The Queen’s Birthday is on the second Saturday in June. The main celebration is Queen’s inspection of her troops. Holidays in the 4 Nations England—Bonfire Night Guy Fawkes Day is celebrated on November 5 with bonfires and fireworks. The festival marks the day in 1605 that Guy Fawkes and other conspirators planned to blow up the Houses of Parliament in London, England. Today, in mock rebellion, children make effigies of Guy Fawkes and parade down the street, chanting and asking passersby for money to spend on fireworks. The effigies are burned in bonfires later that night. Background to the Bourgeois Revolution In 1640, a great event which was to shock the world took place. It was the bourgeois revolution in Britain. The revolution completed the transition from a feudal society to a capitalist society, and from then on, Britain became an advanced capitalist country. Before the beginning of the House of Tudor, the Wars of the Roses had greatly weakened the feudal noble class. And the development of capitalism in Britain made the new lords and the bourgeois richer than ever. But they felt this wasn’t enough. They wanted to get rid of the controls, to get more power in the government. The Stuarts had been Kings of Scotland since the 14th century. When Elizabeth died childless, James VI of Scotland, descended from a sister of Henry VIII (Elizabeth’s nephew), was the heir to the English throne. He thus became king of both countries as James VI of Scotland and James I of England. Then England and Scotland were brought together under one king. And this was the real beginning of the unification of the two countries. Two years after James I came to England, he was the target of an assassination plot. A group of English Catholics planned to kill him by blowing up the House of Lords when he opened the parliament on 5, November 1605. The plot was called “Gunpowder Plot”. The plot originated from the long-standing grievance (委屈), since English Roman Catholics had been subjected to severe penal (刑罚的) laws during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. When James I came to the throne, many English Roman Catholic believers expected that some relief be given by the new king. But James I didn’t give any promise and made no change. So, Robert Catesby, a member of the Catholic gentry proposed to right the wrongs by blowing up the Parliament house and the king as a preliminary to a revolution. They hired Guy Fawkes to be the principal agent in the conspiracy. Guy Fawkes was a courageous and skillful adventurer and an expert in mine (地雷). But at the last moment, Fawkes was caught in the cellars of the parliament when he was preparing the explosives. He was found with matches in his hand and a barrel of gunpowder at his side. The whole of parliament was frightened, and the plotters were arrested or executed. Now, November 5th is still called Guy Fawkes Day. On this day a figure representing Guy Fawkes (effigy肖像) is burnt amid brilliant fireworks. James I believed that kings should be responsible only to God and not to any parliament. In his view, the king’s will was the only law. He thought that all reforms were dangerous, so he was against any reforms demanded by the puritans. From France, he took the doctrine of the “divine (神圣的) right of kings”. He was determined to make the English church under his control. As a result, he cruelly persecuted puritans and Catholics. He left most government business in the hand of his favorites. Because of his radical actions, the English public soon grew to resent his despotism, and class contradictions became tense in all respects. But on the other hand, James I was quite learned and full of vigor. He managed to continue his reign with little help from parliament until his death in 1625. When Charles I, the son of James I, took the crown in 1625, he went even farther than his father. (1) In order to strengthen his rule, he put most government business in the hands of his favorites. (2) He tried to impose taxes and collect more money from people, showing no respect for parliament’s proposals. (3) He killed many people who were against him. Charles I rule of the time was very cruel. In order to control the church, (4) he chose William Laud, who had Catholic sympathies, as his archbishop, because his wife was a Catholic. As a result, thousands of Protestants were persecuted, and many of them were forced to leave the country. Because of his cruelty, people were against him. Parliament refused to give the king money and tried to make Charles I follow their wishes by keeping him short of money. Charles I was forced to get money by increasing custom duties. Yet, the House of Commons said that this was illegal. Parliament passed “the Petition of Right”, forbidding the king to ask for money in any form without consent of parliament. Thus, the quarrels grew worse than ever between the king and parliament. From 1629 to 1640, Charles I dismissed the parliament twice. Then in August, 1642, Civil War began between the parliament and the King. The king’s supporters came mainly from the west and north. Most of them were Catholics and feudal lords. They were called by their enemies “Cavaliers”, which means “proud, upper-class horseman”. On the other hand, the supporters of parliament were mostly Londoners and the people in the southeast of England. Because the common people of London kept their hair very short, they were called “Roundheads”. As a result of the civil war, the parliament led by Oliver Cromwell defeated the King’s army in 1649. Charles I was captured and sentenced to death as a traitor, tyrant, murderer and enemy of the country. Then he was beheaded in front of his palace of Whitehall, London on January 30, 1649, and was buried at Windsor beside Henry VIII. 2. Northern Ireland—the Battle of the Boyne The Battle of the Boyne is an important engagement of the Glorious Revolution in England (1688-1689). It was fought on the banks of the Boyne River in Ireland on July 12, 1690. The battle was waged between troops of the exiled James II, former king of England, and the forces of the Netherlands ruler William of Orange. William of Orange had been proclaimed William III, king of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1689. To prevent James from regaining the throne, William led an army of about 35,000 men to Ireland and defeated James. As a result, James returned to exile in France. The Protestant order of Orangemen was established in Ireland in 1795. It was named after William of Orange. Then his victory on the Boyne was commemorated annually in Northern Ireland. 3. Scotland—Halloween Halloween is the holiday?observed?on the evening of October 31 in most areas of North America and in some areas of Western Europe. The holiday is symbolically associated with death and the supernatural. Halloween falls on the eve of All Saints’ Day, a holy day in the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. Originally, All Saints’ Day was a pagan festival of the dead. It was established by the Catholic Church in the 9th century to honor Christian saints. All Souls’ Day, a holy day established by the Catholic Church in the 10th century, is also closely linked to Halloween. All Souls’ Day, on November 2, is observed to help purify the spirits of the dead. Most?Halloween?festivities are based on folk beliefs concerning supernatural forces and spirits of the dead. Halloween decorations typically feature imagery associated with supernatural beings such as witches, werewolves (狼人), and ghosts. Images thought to symbolize bad omens (征兆)—such as black cats, bats, and spiders—are also commonly featured in Halloween decorations. Dressing?in?costume?is one of the most popular Halloween customs, especially among children. Traditional costumes usually represent witches, ghosts, and other supernatural beings. However, costumes inspired by contemporary popular culture, such as politicians or movie characters, have become increasingly common in recent years. Adults often favor costumes with satirical or humorous overtones (弦外之音). Trick-or-treating?is?another Halloween tradition, in which costumed children go from house to house asking for candy or treats (款待) from their neighbors. According to this custom, children greet each homeowner with the cry “Trick or Treat,” suggesting that some sort of prank (恶作剧) will be played unless treats are provided. Since the early 20th century, however, the threat of tricks has been largely ceremonial. Beginning in the 1970s, the practice of trick-or-treating went into a sharp decline after unsubstantiated rumors spread about homeowners distributing poisoned Halloween candy to children. Many parents also became concerned about their children wandering through the neighborhood after dark. Today, many parents accompany children when they go trick-or-treating. 4. Wales--Eisteddfod Eisteddfod (Welsh, “a sitting of learned men”) is the national music and literary festival held each summer in Wales to promote Welsh language, literature, music, and customs. The weeklong ceremony is a revival of the ancient Welsh custom of assembling bards for competition among themselves, for the regulation of poetry and music, and for the licensing (许可) of duly (恰当地) qualified candidates to the position of recognized bards. The assembly, now occurs on the second day (Tuesday) of the festival to confer degrees of four grades on the modern equivalent of the Welsh bards. Chapter 9 British Education System Time Allocation: 2 periods Focal Points: the purpose of the British education system, grammar school, public school, Old Universities, Open University. I. Introduction British society is increasingly middle class in numbers and outlook, and maintaining a high standard of living is a top priority. Material possessions, such as the family home, car, appliances, and clothes, are important, and many families take vacations abroad. The well-being of children is highly regarded, and British middle-class families often make substantial investments in order to provide the best education and life-enriching opportunities for their children. British people believe that proper education is indispensable (必不可少) to qualified citizens. This has become the common British belief. So British education aims to develop the abilities of individuals. In other words, the purpose of school is to provide children with literacy and the other basic skills they will need to become active members of society. (P106, paragraph 1) Britain has instituted compulsory schooling for many years. Parents are required by the law to ensure that their children receive efficient full-time education between the ages of 5 to 16. Thus we say that now all children have a minimum of 11 years compulsory full-time education. The parents are responsible for it. If a child fails to attend school, a School Attendance Officer (负责学龄儿童入学事物的教育官员) will come to his house to find out why and if there is no good reason, the parents may be prosecuted. (P110, paragraph 1-2) Generally speaking, children would first study in primary schools. When they reach the age of 11, they go on their education in second schools. The school year begins in Sept. and is divided into three terms, with holidays at Christmas, Easter (复活节 3月21日或者该日后月园后的第一个星期日) and in summer. The summer holidays are the longest, lasting throughout August and part of September. Education in Britain is not as highly centralized as it is in many other countries. The central Department of Education and Science in Whitehall guides, gives advice and inspects. This means it sends its inspectors round to schools to see that they are efficient. But the planning and organization of education in England and Wales is in the hands of the 163 Local Education Authorities (LEAs for short). All children are free to enter state-run schools. They need not pay any fees and can get textbooks and stationery free of charge. Certificates for the pupils after the secondary schools are not awarded by schools but by the examining boards. There are six examining boards in England. These six boards conduct public examinations for all schools. The public examinations are mainly the GCSE (the General Certificate of Secondary Education 中学毕业证书) exams and the GCE (the General Certificate of Education水平测试) exams. The GCE is intended for pupils who want to go on their education in Universities and Colleges, while the GCSE is designed for those pupils who are less academically able. The GCE has two levels: “O” level and “A” level. Students who win the GCE at “A” level can apply for admission to universities. These public examinations decide what kind of certificates pupils are to get and who can enter universities. Any child may leave school at 16 without attempting any of the public examinations. But an increasing number of boys and girls are taking either the exam. A pupil may also take GEC in some subjects and CSE in others. Schools supported by public funds are of two main kinds in England: county schools and voluntary schools. County schools are financed and maintained by local government. Voluntary schools, mostly established by religious denominations (派别), are managed by voluntary organizations with the financial help of local governments. When we talked about British Government, we know that the British Government is made up of three tiers: the central government, the county government and the district government. Or we may say the central government and the local government. As far as the education is concerned, the tasks of the central government and the local governments are clearly distinguished. The central government makes general education policies and provides financial support for universities. Yet the local governments are mainly responsible for providing primary and secondary education for school ages. But in 1989, the government introduced a National Curriculum. Now, all the teachers are told what to teach and their schools are now ranked according to how well they perform this task. (P.109 paragraph 3-4) One of the characteristics of the schools in the UK is that all school children must receive religious instruction and attend daily worship at school. To protect freedom of belief, the government allows local education authorities and schools to determine the content of their religious instruction according to the demand of the local community. The purpose is to cultivate the moral sense of pupils. (P.108, paragraph 1) II. Primary and Secondary Education Britain conducts compulsory education for all children. It begins at the age of five. Generally, children spend two years in infants’ schools, four years in primary schools, and five or more (seven) years in secondary schools. For primary schools, Britain has two kinds: the state-owned and private-owned. (P.110, paragraph 2) The children from state-owned primary schools will go on their secondary education in Grammar Schools, Secondary Modern Schools or the Comprehensive Secondary Schools. The private-owned primary schools in England are called preparatory schools. Children from private-owned primary schools, or to be exact the prep schools will mainly go on their education in Public Schools (private schools in England). The prep schools are not like the private-owned schools in other countries. A prep school normally runs five grades. The owner of a prep school is known as the headmaster who employs teachers to teach the pupils. After about 5 years of study at the prep school, the pupils reach the age of 13. Then they take a common entrance examination for admission to public schools with which prep schools are connected. The most famous public schools enroll the best pupils. In the UK, all children throughout the country must study the following subjects: English, Mathematics, Science, Religious education, History, Geography, Technology, Music, Art, Physical education and a foreign language. (P109, paragraph 3) As far as the secondary education is concerned, there are several different kinds of secondary schools: the grammar schools, the secondary modern schools, the comprehensive secondary schools and public schools. The Grammar Schools The grammar schools are well known in Britain. They are like the key schools in China. We know in Britain children usually spend 6 years on primary education. When they graduate from primary schools, they are usually eleven years old. According to the educational system for grammar schools, these children should take part in an examination called “eleven-plus” (选拔优秀小学生毕业考试). Those children who do well in the exam will enter the grammar schools. Those who do not so well will go to the secondary modern schools. Since grammar schools are like the key schools in our country, most children want to pass the exam so that they can study in grammar schools, or we may say so that they would be more promising in entering the universities in the future. So comparing with the secondary modern schools, the grammar schools are to train students academically. Moreover, the grammar schools are better equipped with better teachers. Most pupils from grammar schools have a good chance to enter institutions of higher learning. Many students can get the General Certificate of Education (GCE) at “A” (Advanced) level. If a student cannot pass the exam, he can continue his study in the school until he is 18. (P.111, paragraph 5) But of course, not all the pupils can get good marks in the examination of “eleven-plus”. So many pupils have to enter secondary modern schools. The Secondary Modern Schools The secondary modern schools are different from grammar schools. Secondary modern schools emphasize students’ practical skills. They are somewhat like our vocational schools (职业学校). But of course they also give students general education just like grammar schools. But their conditions are not good comparing with grammar schools. Pupils have to leave the schools when they are 16. So “eleven-plus” decides who will attend the grammar schools, or we can say who will enter colleges and universities. This arouses some disagreements. Many people say one examination cannot exactly tell which child is more academically talented. What’s more, they are too young to show their talents. To solve this problem, two measures are taken by the educational authorities. Firstly, the secondary modern schools divide their pupils into different classes according to the pupils’ level of study. E.g. they put the best pupils in one class, and try to teach them to pass certain exam to get a General Certificate of Education at “O” (Ordinary) level. If the pupils can reach the goal, they can be transferred to grammar schools. Secondly, a new kind of secondary school is established. This is what we called the Comprehensive Secondary Schools. The Comprehensive Secondary Schools The Comprehensive Secondary School system was established before 1960. This system provides that children start school when they are five years old. When they reach the age of eleven, they graduate from primary schools. They don’t need to take part in “eleven-plus”. All pupils can enter a new kind of secondary school—the Comprehensive Secondary School directly. Then these pupils spend another 6 years studying in the Comprehensive Secondary School. After they graduate from the secondary school, they take part in the examinations given by the public examining board. Those who don’t want to go on their education in colleges and universities can choose to win the CSE (the Certificate of Secondary Education) and then look for paid jobs. Those who want to go on their education can take part in the exam to win the General Certificate of Education at “O” level. The GCE is much more difficult than the CSE, and it is of higher level. After they win the GCE at “O” level, they can stay in the school for the advanced study for another two years until they reach the age of 18. Then, they can take part in another examination to win the GCE at “A” level to enter the universities and colleges. (P109, paragraph 2) (P. 111, paragraph 3) Public Schools Public schools are the second stage of the private educational system in Britain. Children who study in Public Schools should 1) pass the entrance examination, 2) be from prep schools and 3) be more than 13 years old. There are different public schools, famous ones and less famous ones. It is really difficult to enter the famous public schools like Eton (伊顿公学), which is situated in the east of London, Harrow (哈罗公学) in the northwestern part of London, and Rugby (拉格贝公学) in the center of London. Public schools conduct very good education for pupils. Many of the teachers are from Oxford and Cambridge. They are best-equipped secondary schools. So they enjoy a high prestige. Most of the important people in Britain are from public schools. Some of the public schools are several hundred years old. Although a public school pupil has to pay about ￡1,000 each term, yet, it’s not easy to enter. Sometimes, arrangements have to be made several years before the entrance. The public schools claim that pupils should learn to rely on themselves. They should not have the illusions about getting help from their privileged families. They should be prepared for the harsh competition in their future work. The common characteristics of the public schools are: Separate education for boys and girls. Boarding schools. Emphasizing prayers and daily ceremonies. Limiting connections between pupils and their families. Fostering obedience and competitiveness. Like the Cambridge and Oxford among the universities, public schools are the foundation-layer of the English schooling. III. Higher Education In the United Kingdom, there are 110 universities, 93 in England, 13 in Scotland, 2 in Wales and 2 in Northern Ireland. They are made up of colleges and are financed by the central government. Although universities are financed by the central government, they are not controlled by the central government. They are managed by local businessmen, by local politicians and some academics. Admission to universities is competitive. If a pupil wants to go on his education in colleges and universities, he should prepare his application to university in the third term of Year 12. Then in the first term of the Year 13, he should make his applications through one centralized organization known as UCAS (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service). He can apply to a maximum of six universities or institutions. Admission to the colleges and universities are on basis of A level results, schools & an interview. If a university or institution is impressed by the student’s UCAS form, they will send an offer of a place. But the final decision on which institution the student will actually attend will be taken when the A Level results are published in mid-August. If a student wants to have a chance to study in Oxford and Cambridge, he should obtain a good mark in an extra exam (called the STEP), which he can sit just after the A Level exams. Students have to pay for their education. They have to pay for their tuition, fees and living costs. There is only one privately funded university in the UK, the University of Buckingham. But how do the students pay for their education? Formally the universities were restricted to the rich only, because the poor students could not afford the high tuition of the higher education. Now, thanks to the many scholarships awarded both by the state and by local authorities, the universities are open to all intelligent pupils, both male and female. Besides most students, poor or rich, try to earn some money by taking part-time jobs, or taking full-time jobs during the summer holidays. British universities can be divided roughly into three main groups: The Old Universities The old universities are the universities founded before the year 1600. Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest of the British universities. 1) Oxford University Oxford University existed at Oxford as soon as the early 12th century. By the end of that century a university was well established, perhaps resulting from the barring of English students from the University of Paris about 1167. That’s to say, after 1167, English students are not allowed to enter the University of Paris. Oxford was modeled on the University of Paris, with initial faculties (系) of theology (神学), law, medicine, and the liberal arts. Oxford is English autonomous institution of higher learning. It lies 50 miles (80 km) north-northwest of London. The university had no buildings in its early years; lectures were given in hired halls or churches. The various colleges of Oxford were originally merely endowed boardinghouses for impoverished (贫穷的) scholars. They were intended primarily for masters or bachelors of Arts who needed financial assistance to enable them to continue study for a higher degree. The earliest of these colleges, University College, was founded in 1249. Balliol College was founded about 1263, and Merton College in 1264. During the early history of Oxford its reputation was based on theology and the liberal arts. But it also gave more serious treatment to the physical (自然) sciences than did the University of Paris. In the early 16th century professorships began to be endowed, and in the latter part of the 17th century interest in scientific studies increased substantially. During the Renaissance, Sir Thomas More and others enhanced the university's reputation. Since that time Oxford has traditionally held the highest reputation for scholarship and instruction in the classics, theology, and political science. In the 19th century the university's enrollment and its professorial staff were greatly expanded. The first women's college at Oxford, Lady Margaret Hall, was founded in 1878, and women were first admitted to full membership in the university in 1920. In the 20th century Oxford's curriculum was modernized. Science came to be taken much more seriously and professionally, and many new faculties (系) were added, including ones for modern languages, political science, and economics. Postgraduate studies also expanded greatly in the 20th century. The Oxford University Press, established in 1478, is one of the largest and most prestigious university publishers in the world. Many famous men and women were from the university including Margaret Thatcher. 2) Cambridge University Cambridge University is another English autonomous institution of higher learning at Cambridge. It is situated 50 miles (80 km) north of London. The start of the university is generally taken as 1209, when scholars from Oxford migrated to Cambridge to escape Oxford's riots of "town and gown (大学全体师生)" (townspeople versus scholars). To avert possible troubles, the authorities in Cambridge allowed only scholars under the supervision of a master to remain in the town. It was partly to provide an orderly place of residence that the first college, Peterhouse, was founded in 1284 by a bishop. Over the next three centuries another 15 colleges were founded, and in 1318 Cambridge received formal recognition. Cambridge remained fairly insignificant until about 1502, when a professorship (教授之职) of divinity (神) was founded--the oldest in the university. In 1546 Henry VIII founded Trinity College (which was and still remains the largest of the Cambridge colleges). Many of the college buildings are rich in history and tradition. King's College Chapel, begun in 1446, is one of Britain's most magnificent buildings. *** Two features of Oxford and Cambridge are widely admired. One is that all students live in college during at least part of their course to foster a community spirit. The other feature is the tutorial system. Each student gets personal tuition once a week in his tutor’s own room. In this way, students are not compelled to attend general lectures. On the other hand, the lectures therefore must be of higher quality if they are to attract a large student audience. The Redbrick Universities The Redbrick Universities include all the provincial universities of the period 1850-1930 as well as London University. Because the favorite building material of the period between 1850-1930 is red brick, and all the universities of the time were built in red brick. Thus, they were called the Redbrick Universities. The new Universities. The New Universities are all the universities founded since the Second World War (1945). The characteristic of the new universities is that each one has its own independent approach to teaching. Besides the formal universities, there are also other kinds of higher education, such as polytechnics (理工专科学校), vocational schools etc. In 1963, Open University was established and became famous. It is a newly started university, which makes use of televisions, radios and correspondence courses. It is open to everyone and doesn’t demand the same formal qualifications as the other universities. The courses are followed in students’ spare time. Lectures are broadcast on TV and radio, and students correspond with their tutors by post. There are also some classes in the evenings. At the end of the course, successful students are awarded a university degree. Compared to the United States, fewer people go on to higher education in Britain, and there is more emphasis on segregating pupils at the lower levels on the basis of ability. Most British schools are funded by the central government, with local governments providing supplemental funding. England and Wales have a national curriculum of core courses for students 5 to 16 years old, and schools are inspected by the Office for Standards in Education. National tests at the ages of 7, 11, and 14 assess students’ progress. Schools must provide religious education and daily collective worship for all pupils, although parents can withdraw their children from these. Full-time school begins at age 5 in Great Britain and at age 4 in Northern Ireland. In addition, about half of 3- and 4-year-olds are enrolled in specialized nursery schools or in nursery classes at primary schools. In Britain, the term form is used to designate grade; old boys and old girls refer to people who have graduated from a school. Private schools or independent schools are called public schools, a term that means just the opposite in the United States. What are called public schools in the United States are called state schools in Britain. When a person is sent down from school, it means he or she has been thrown out. Grammar schools are university preparatory schools, most of which have been replaced by comprehensive schools catering to students of all academic abilities. Secondary modern schools provide vocational education rather preparation for university entrance. Exercise: What is the common belief of the British people as far as British education is concerned? ( The common belief is that proper education is indispensable (必不可少) to qualified citizens. What are the two main kinds of schools supported from public funds in England? (county schools and voluntary schools) What are the main tasks of the central government? ( making the general policies, providing financial support for universities) What are the main tasks of local authorities? ( providing primary and secondary education for school ages) What are the main tasks of education authorities? (the quality of teachers and public examinations) What is the pupil-teacher ratio in primary and secondary schools? (19:1) What is the student-staff ratio in institutions of higher learning? (9:1) What are the two levels of bachelors’ degree in Britain? (Honor and Pass) How many universities are there in the UK? (46) Chapter 10 British Society: Housing, class and Race Time Allocation: 2 periods Focal Points: four main types of British home, class system in the British society, ethnic relations in British. British houses are made with concrete blocks or concrete-like building materials because the dampness of the climate causes wood to rot. Central heating is now widespread; previously, individual fires or heating devices were used. In general, British people are much more tolerant of the damp chill and less tolerant of heat over 26°C (80°F). Clothes reflect the climate, and woolen goods, particularly tweeds, are famous products. British people tend to buy fewer but better-quality pieces of clothing and keep them longer, although this cannot be said for the rapidly changing fashions of youth culture. British cooking has a reputation for overcooked vegetables and unhealthy fried foods. This situation has improved considerably in recent years, and foreign foods, particularly those from southern Europe and Asia, have become popular. Perhaps the most famous British specialties are roast beef with Yorkshire pudding (a type of popover baked in meat drippings); shepherd’s pie, made with minced lamb and mashed potatoes; and scones served with thick, clotted cream. Other favorite foods include fish and chips, steak and kidney pie, Cornish pasties, Welsh rarebit, kippers (salted and smoked herring or salmon), and, in Scotland, haggis (stuffed sheep’s stomach).