Lesson 2
Packaging Functions
第 2课 包装的功能
content
? Introduction
? The Contain Function
? The Protect/Preserve Function
? Food Preservation
? The Transport Function
? The Inform/Sell Function
Introduction
1,The four main functions of a
package
Contain
Protect/Preserve
Transport
Inform/Sell
Introduction
2,Definitions of different packaging
levels
? Primary package,The first wrap or containment of the
product that directly holds the product for sale,
? Secondary package,A wrap or containment of the primary
package,
? Distribution package(shipper),A wrap or containment
whose prime purpose is to protect the product during distribution
and to provide for efficient handling,
? Unit load,A number of distribution packages bound together
and unitized into a single entity for purposes of mechanical
handling,storage,and shipping,
Introduction
Figure 2.1 Packaging can have many levels,
All levels of the system must work together
动画
Introduction
3,Packages are often defined by their
intended destination
? Consumer package,A package that will ultimately
reach the consumer as a unit of sale from a
merchandising outlet,
? Industrial package,A package for delivering goods from
manufacturer to manufacturer,Industrial packaging usually,but
not always,contains goods or materials for further processing,
The Contain Function
Considerations pertaining to thecontain
function of packaging
? The product’s physical form,
mobile fluid viscous fluid solid/fluid mixture
gas/fluid mixture granular material paste
free-flowing non-free-flowing powder solid unit
discrete items multicomponent mix
The Contain Function
? The product’s nature,
corrosive corrodible flammable
volatile perishable fragile
aseptic toxic abrasive
odorous subject to odor transfer easily marked
sticky hygroscopic under pressure
irregular in shape
The Protect/Preserve Function
1,Considerations related to the
protect/preserve function
?,Protect” refers to the prevention of physical damage,
Specifics on what will cause loss of value (damage)
must be known,
?,Preserve” refers to stopping or inhibiting chemical and
biological change and to the extension of food shelf life
beyond the product’s natural life or the maintenance of
sterility in food or medical products,
The Protect/Preserve Function
2,Examples of protective packaging problems
Table 2.1 Examples of protective packaging problems
and concerns
Condition Quantification or DesignRequirement
Vibration Determine resonant frequencies
Mechanical shock Determine fragility factor (drop height)
Abrasion Eliminate or isolate relative movement
Deformation Determine safe compressive load
Temperature Determine critical values
Relative humidity Determine critical values
Water Design liquid barrier
Tampering Design appropriate systems
The Protect/Preserve Function
3,Examples of preservation packaging
problems
Table 2.2 Typical preservation packaging problems
and concerns
Condition Quantification or Design Requirement
Oxygen Determine required barrier level
Carbon dioxide Determine required barrier level
Other volatiles Determine nature and barrier level
Light Design opaque package
Spoilage Determine nature/chemistry
Incompatibility Determine material incompatibilities
Loss of sterility Determine mechanism
Biological deterioration Determine nature
Deterioration over time Determine required shelf life
Food Preservation
? The Nature of Food
1,The nature of food
? Food is derived from animal or vegetable sources,Its
organic nature makes it an unstable commodity in its
natural form,
? Various means can increase the natural shelf life of
foods,thus reducing dependence on season and
location,
Food Preservation
2,Spoilage mechanisms
? Food spoilage can occur by three means,
a) Internal biological deterioration
b) External biological deterioration
c) Abiotic deterioration
?,Taste” refers only to the sweet,sour,salty,and bitter
sensations by the taste sensors located on our tongue
? Essential oils or,sensory active agents” and sense of
smell by sensors located in our nasal passages
? What we perceive as a food product’s flavor is a
combination of what we detect with our sense of taste
combined with what we detect with our sense of smell,
Preservation of essential oils retains the food’s full
flavor at retail,
Food Preservation
? Essential oils are volatile.Volatiles can permeate
packaging materials and making the problem of
contamination or isolation even more difficult,
? Water vapor is similar to an essential oil in that it
readily permeates many packaging materials,
? The creation of high-barrier packaging systems is
partly in response to the need for packaging that will
either hold desirable gases and volatiles in the
package or prevent undesirable volatiles from
entering the package,
? Temperature can promote undesirable changes that
are abiotic in nature,
Food Preservation
? Meat products
? - Meats are an ideal medium for microorganisms
because they contain all the necessary nutrients to
sustain growth,In addition to biological action,fatty
tissue is susceptible to oxidation,and the entire mass
can lose water,
? - Reduced temperature retards microorganism
activity,slows evaporation and slows chemical
reactions such as those associated with oxidation,
Food Preservation
? Fish
? - The preservation of fish is a difficult challenge
because of three main factors,
? Psychrophilic bacteria may be present,
? Many fish oils are unsaturated and are easily oxidized,
? Typical fish proteins are not as stable as red meat proteins,
? - Chilling does not affect the activity of psychrophilic
bacteria,Frozen fish is typically kept at much lower
temperatures (-300C/) than other frozen foods in
order to ensure the control of psychrophilic bacteria,
Food Preservation
? Produce
? - Harvested fruits and vegetables continue to respire
and mature,
? - They contain large amounts of water and will wither
if water loss is excessive,
? - Peas,green beans,and leafy vegetables have high
respiration rates compared with those of apples
oranges,and pears,
? - Potatoes,turnips and pumpkins respire slowly and
are easy to store,Moisture loss is more rapid with
lettuce than with a turnip because of the large
available surface area,
Food Preservation
? - Most fruits have an optimum ripening
temperature,usually about 200C,Few fruits will
ripen below 50C,
? - Freezing of many produce items will damage
cell structure,and breakdown is very rapid after
thawing,
? - Modified atmosphere packaging used(CO2,O2)
? - Bananas can remain in a mature but green
state for up to six months in atmospheres of 92%
nitrogen,5% oxygen,3% carbon dioxide and no
ethylene,
Food Preservation
? - Atmosphere and temperature control are key
requirements for extending the shelf life of fresh
produce,
Trade-offs for many produce items,
90%RH+perforated plastic wrap; or
Selecting packaging films with high gas-
transmission rates,
i.e,precut salad bags(the shelf life of about ten
days),excellent moisture barrier and very low
oxygen barrier,
Food Preservation
? Barrier Packaging
Figure 2.2 A barrier packaging material is one that
slows down or stops the movement
of selected gaseous substances into or out of a package
Food Preservation
? - Stopping the movement of a gas requires barrier
packaging,
? - This packaging construction either retains
desirable gases and volatiles inside the package or
prevents undesirable gases and volatiles from
entering the package,
? - Of the materials a packager can choose from,
only glass and metal provide absolute barriers to all
gases and volatiles,
Food Preservation
? - The term "high barrier" plastic is a relative,
nonspecific term and should not be taken to mean
"absolute" barrier,
? - Barrier packaging can harm some products,
Fresh produce,for example,continues to respire
after harvesting and would shortly consume all the
oxygen in an oxygen-barrier package,This would
lead to reduced shelf life,Plastic bags for produce
commonly have vent holes punched in them to
allow for a free exchange of atmospheric gases,
Food Preservation
3,Microorganisms and their preferred
environments for propagation
? Microorganisms
? - A large part of food preservation depends on the control of
microorganisms,
? - Bacteria or microbes are unicellular microscopic organisms
that reproduce by binary fission,
? - Certain bacterial species can form spores that are highly
resistant to killing,
? - Molds or fungi are multicellular and unicellular plantlike
organisms,
? - Yeasts are similar organisms that reproduce by budding,The
propagation and spread of molds and yeasts is typically
slower than for bacteria because of the reproduction method,
Food Preservation
? Microorganisms ’preferred environments
for propagation
? - By manipulating the four principal environmental
factors that regulate microorganism growth,
microorganisms can be controlled or eliminated,
temperature
moisture
acidity (pH)
nutrient source
Food Preservation
? – Microorganisms are often classified by their
preferred reproduction environment,
Mesophyllic,Prefer ambient conditions,20-450C
Psychrophilic,Prefer cool conditions,10-250C
Thermophilic,tolerate heat; will propagate at 30 to 750C
Aerobic,need oxygen to propagate
Anaerobic,propagate only in the absence of oxygen
Food Preservation
? - Some microorganisms act only on the food,They
do little harm when ingested
? - Pathogenic organisms can cause sickness or
death,falling into basic classes,
? Those that produce harmful toxins as by-products in the food
they infest,
? Those that infest the food and then grow in the human body
to produce illnesses,
Food Preservation
4,Six basic methods,which are used alone or
in combination,can extend the normal
biological shelf life of food,
? Reduced temperatures ? Thermal processing
? Water reduction ? Chemical preservation
? Modified atmospheres ? Irradiation
? - Each method can slow the natural biological
maturation and spoilage of a food product,reduce
biological activity or inhibit the chemical activity that
leads to abiotic spoilage,
? - Each method requires its own unique blend of
packaging materials and technology,
Food Preservation
? Reduced Temperature and Freezing
? - Reducing temperatures below the ambient
temperature has many beneficial effects that will lead
to a longer shelf life,Doing so
? Slows chemical activity
? Slows loss of volatiles
? Reduces or stops biological activity
? - Bacteria and molds stop developing at about -80C,
and by -180C,chemical and microorganism activity
stops for most practical purposes,
Food Preservation
? - Freezing kills some microorganisms,but not to the
extent of commercial usefulness,
? - Ice crystal formation is greatest between 0 and
-5℃, Ice crystals can pierce cell walls,destroying
the texture of many fruits and vegetables,Rapid
freezing reduces this damage,
? - Freezer conditions will cause ice to sublimate,and
serious food dehydration( freezer burn) will occur,
Snug,good moisture-barrier packaging with a
minimum of free air space will reduce freezer
dehydration,Complete filling of the package is
desirable,
Food Preservation
? - Frozen food packages materials must remain flexible at
freezer temperatures,provide a good moisture barrier
and conform closely to the product,
? - When paperboard is used as part of the package,it
should be heavily waxed or coated with polyethylene to
give protection against the inevitable moisture present in
the freezing process,
? - Poultry packaging in high-barrier PVDC bags is an
excellent example of an ideal freezer pack,Prepared
birds,placed into bags,pass through a vacuum machine
that draws the bag around the bird like a second skin,
The tight barrier prevents water loss and freezer burn for
extended periods,as well as preventing passage of
oxygen that would oxidize fats and oils,
Food Preservation
? Thermal Processing
? - Heat can destroy microorganisms,The degree of
treatment depends on the,
? Nature of the microorganism to be destroyed
? Acidity (pH) of the food
? Physical nature of the food
? Heat tolerance of the food
? Container type and dimensions
Food Preservation
? - Pasteurization,a mild heat treatment of 60 to
700C,kill most,but not all,microorganisms
present,Pasteurization is used when
? More severe heating would harm the product
? Dangerous organisms are not very heat resistant (such as
some yeasts)
? Surviving organisms can be controlled by other means
? Surviving organisms do not pose a health threat
Food Preservation
? Aseptic packaging
? -,Hot filling” refers to product filling at elevated
temperatures up to 100℃,used to maintain sterility
in products such as jams,syrups and juices,
? - Some products can tolerate high temperatures for
short time periods,
? - UHT processing of milk and fruit juices uses
temperatures in the range of 135 to 150℃,but for a
few seconds or less,The high temperature is
enough to kill most pathogens,
Food Preservation
? - UHT is the basis of most flexible aseptic drink
packaging,The term,aseptic” as applied to
packaging refers to any system wherein the product
and container are sterilized separately and then
combined and sealed under aseptic conditions,
? In the 1940s,metal cans were sterilized and filled with
puddings,sauces,and soups (the Dole Process),In
the 1970s,aseptic packaging was adapted to
institutional bag-in-box systems,
? - Advantages,eliminating the need for the elevated
temperatures and pressures used in conventional
canning methods; Eliminating the need for extreme
sterilizing conditions allows aseptic packaging
materials to have lower physical strengths and lower
temperature tolerance,
Food Preservation
? - Commercial systems,such as Tetra Pak,
Combibloc,and Bosch,use hydrogen peroxide
to sterilize simple paper,foil and polyethylene
laminates,and then fill the formed package with
UHT-treated product,
? - Normal canning,
? Only maintains nominal cleanliness in the food and the
container,
? Subjected to temperatures (110 to 130℃ ) high enough to
kill pathogens and achieve commercial sterility,
Food Preservation
? Generally,the less acid the food,the longer the cook times
needed to ensure destruction of Clostridium botulinum,Foods
with acidities high enough to prevent harmful pathogens from
propagating can be heat-processed by immersion in boiling
water,
? Overcooking gives some foods their,canned” taste or texture,
? - The retortable pouch is a laminate of polyester (for
toughness),foil (for an oxygen barrier) and a heat-
sealable polyolefin,Its largest customer is the
military,
Food Preservation
? Water Reduction
? - Drying is an old and well-established method of
preserving food,
? - The essential feature of drying is that moisture
content is reduced below that required for the support
of microorganisms,
? - An added advantage is reduced bulk and reduction
of other chemical activity,
? - Methods,by simple heat drying or by the addition of
salt or sugar,
i.e.,Concentrated salt and sugar solutions tie up
free water and make it unavailable to microorganisms,
Jams and marmalades having high sugar contents do
not require refrigeration for this reason,
Food Preservation
? - Equilibrium relative humidity (E.R.H) is the
atmospheric humidity condition under which a
food will neither gain nor lose moisture to the air,
? - Aw,the water activity,
? A food with an Aw of 0.5 is at an equilibrium
relative humidity of 50%,Table 2.3 lists the
moisture content and the desired E.R.H for some
common foods,
Food Preservation
Table 2.3 Typical moisture content and E.R.H ranges
Product Typical Moisture(%) E.R.H
Potato chips,instant coffee 3% or less 10 to 20%
Crackers,breakfast cereals 3 to 7% 20 to 30%
Cereal grains,nuts,dried fruit 7 to 20% 30 to 60%
Salt 75%
Sugar 85%
Food Preservation
? - Very low-E.R.H,foods are hygroscopic and will
draw available moisture from the air,These foods
require a barrier package that will not permit the
entry of atmospheric moisture,
? 1,Dried foods such as potato chips and instant coffee
require packaging materials with high moisture-barrier
properties,Potato chips are also rich in oil (about 30%),so that
they also need a high oxygen barrier,In-package desiccants
and oxygen scavengers are sometimes used to increase the
shelf life of very sensitive products,
? 2,Dried foods with E.R.H,values of 20 to 30% have less
stringent moisture-barrier requirements and are easier to
package,Depending on the food,oxygen or other barriers may
still be needed,
Food Preservation
? 3,Foods with an E.R.H,of 30 to 60% can often be stored for
long periods with little or no barrier packaging since their
E.R.H,corresponds to typical atmospheric conditions,If the
food has a high oil content,oxygen barriers may be needed,
Bacteriological activity is rarely a problem with low- or
reduced-moisture foods since one of the essentials of
bacterial growth has been removed,
? 4,High E.R.H,foods lose moisture under typical
atmospheric conditions,A cake with an E.R.H,of 90% would
soon establish a relative humidity of 90% inside a sealed
package,creating ideal conditions for mold growth,The
packaging challenge is to control moisture loss,retarding it
as much as possible,but not to the extent that a high
humidity is established within the package,
Food Preservation
? Chemical Preservatives
? - Various natural and synthetic chemicals and
antioxidants are used
? - They are used in conjunction with other
preservation methods,
? - The use of most of them is strictly controlled by law,
? - Chemical preservatives work in various ways,
Food Preservation
? 1.Some,such as lactic,acetic,propionic,sorbic and benzoic
acids,produce acid environments,
? 2,Others,such as alcohol,are specific bacteriostats,Carbon
dioxide,found in beers and carbonated beverages creates an
acid environment and is also a bacteriostat,
? 3,Smoking and curing of meat and fish is partly a drying
process and partly chemical preservation,
? 4,Aliphatic and aromatic wood distillation products (many
related to creosote) are acidic and have variable
bacteriostatic effects,Varying amounts of salt pretreatment
accompanies most smoking,
? 5,Antioxidants and oxygen absorbers can reduce oxidation,
Food Preservation
? Modified Atmosphere Packaging
? - MAP recognizes that many food degradation
processes have a relationship with the surrounding
atmosphere,- MAP involves the introduction of a
gas mixture other than air into a package
? - CAP is used in storage and warehousing where
the atmosphere can be monitored and adjusted,
? - Vacuum packaging is one type of MAP,It has
the effect of eliminating some or all oxygen that
might contribute to degradation,
Food Preservation
Disadvantages,fruits and vegetables have respiratory
functions that must be continued; red meat will turn brown or
purple without oxygen; pressures created by the external
atmosphere surrounding a vacuum-packaged product can
physically crush delicate products or squeeze water out of
moist products,
? - Ambient air is about 20% oxygen and 80%
nitrogen,with a trace of carbon dioxide,
Food Preservation
Table 2.4 Typical modified atmospheres for selected
food products
Product Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen
Red meat 40% 20% 40%
White meats/pasta ---- 50% 50%
Fish 20% 80% ----
Produce 5% ---- 95%
Baked goods 1% 60% 39%
Food Preservation
? - O2 is biologically active,and for most products,is
associated with respiration and oxidation,
? - Co2 in high concentrations is a natural
bacteriostat,Levels of 20% and higher are used to
create conditions unfavorable to most
microorganisms,
? - N2 is biologically inert,“filler” gas or to displace
oxygen,
? - Most packaging materials used in MAP for
everything other than produce must have good gas-
barrier properties to all three gases,
Food Preservation
? - A package containing only carbon dioxide and
nitrogen is a system where atmospheric oxygen is
trying to penetrate the package and establish an
equilibrium partial pressure,The integrity of all
seals is of paramount importance,
? - The natural respiration of a fruit or vegetable
consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide
and moisture,Ventilated or low-barrier packaging
is needed to ensure a supply of oxygen and to rid
the package of excess moisture,
? - MAP has increased natural shelf life by 2 to 10
times,
Food Preservation
? Irradiation
? - Radiation is energy categorized by wavelength and
includes radio waves,microwaves,infrared radiation,
visible light,ultraviolet light and X rays,
? - These types of radiation increase in energy from
radio to X rays; the shorter the wavelength,the greater
the energy,
? - Given sufficient energy,waves can penetrate
substances,With more energy still,they will interact
with the molecules of the penetrated substance,
? - Short-wavelength radiations have enough energy to
cause energy to ionization of molecules,mainly water,
Food Preservation
? - Ionization can disrupt complex molecules and leads
to the death of living organisms,
? - Irradiation has been used to increase the keeping
quality of various foods,Cobalt 60,a radioactive
isotope,is the principal source of ionizing radiation
(gamma rays),
? - All safety precautions pertaining to radioactive
hazards must be observed,It should be noted that
while the energy source is radioactive,gamma rays
cannot make other substances radioactive,
? - Irradiation is a unique process in that it is carried out
at ambient temperatures and can penetrate
packaging material or products,
Food Preservation
? - Irradiation of consumable food is an issue that is
not fully resolved,and the process is carefully
controlled in most countries,
? - Food irradiation is prohibited in some countries
and highly regulated in most,However,the use of
irradiation to achieve sterility for medical devices,
packaging materials and personal care products
does not present a problem and is a useful
technology,
? - Labeling is another contentious issue,The
irradiation symbol must be accompanied by a
statement such as,treated by irradiation” or
“irradiated”,
Food Preservation
The international food irradiation symbol
The Transport Function
? The transport function and examples of
transport modes
? - The transport function entails the effective
movement of goods from the point of production to the
point of final consumption,
? - This involves various transport modes,handling
techniques and storage conditions,
? - In addition to the general physical rigors of
distribution,there are a number of carrier rules that
will influence package design,
? Examples of some of the information required to
design successful distribution packaging appear in
Table 2.5,
The Transport Function
Table 2.5 Typical transport handling and
storage information
truck rail aircraft
cargo ship storage duration storage conditions
handling methods unitizing methods specific shipping unit
weight considerations stock-picking dimension limits
carrier rules environmentally controlled storage
The Transport Function
? - Transportation and distribution is generally
regarded as an activity that is hazardous to the
product being moved,
? - Packaging contributes to the safe,economical,
and efficient storage of a product,Good package
design take into account the implications of
transport and warehousing,not just for the
distribution package and unitized load,but for
every level of packaging,
The Transport Function
2.,Persona”
? - A good package is said to have a,persona”,or
personality,If the designer has done an effective job,
that persona will appeal to the targeted audience,
? - The targeted audience itself needs to be identified
and studied,This is the realm of demographics and
psychographics,
The Inform/Sell Function
1,Package communication roles
? - The communication role of packaging is perhaps
the most complex of the packaging functions to
understand,measure and implement because of the
many levels at which this communication must work,
? - Law or customs dictate certain messages without
much leeway in their presentation,Examples of such
message are,
? Specific name of the product (what is this?)
? Quantity contained
? Address of the responsible body
The Inform/Sell Function
3,How a package communicates
? Selected material
? Shape and size
? Color
? Predominant typography
? Recognizable symbols or icons
? Illustrations
The Inform/Sell Function
? - All of the communication channels must be
balanced and supportive of one another to produce a
persona with appeal and instant recognition,
? - All supporting material,such as promotions and
advertisements,must agree with the image projected
by the package,
? - Producing a well-balanced package persona
requires an intimate familiarity with not just the
structural qualities of packaging materials,but also
the emotional qualities that they project,
? - A thorough understanding of the various printing
processes and the specialized decorating techniques
used to create particular effects or decorate unusual
surfaces is essential,
Packaging Functions
第 2课 包装的功能
content
? Introduction
? The Contain Function
? The Protect/Preserve Function
? Food Preservation
? The Transport Function
? The Inform/Sell Function
Introduction
1,The four main functions of a
package
Contain
Protect/Preserve
Transport
Inform/Sell
Introduction
2,Definitions of different packaging
levels
? Primary package,The first wrap or containment of the
product that directly holds the product for sale,
? Secondary package,A wrap or containment of the primary
package,
? Distribution package(shipper),A wrap or containment
whose prime purpose is to protect the product during distribution
and to provide for efficient handling,
? Unit load,A number of distribution packages bound together
and unitized into a single entity for purposes of mechanical
handling,storage,and shipping,
Introduction
Figure 2.1 Packaging can have many levels,
All levels of the system must work together
动画
Introduction
3,Packages are often defined by their
intended destination
? Consumer package,A package that will ultimately
reach the consumer as a unit of sale from a
merchandising outlet,
? Industrial package,A package for delivering goods from
manufacturer to manufacturer,Industrial packaging usually,but
not always,contains goods or materials for further processing,
The Contain Function
Considerations pertaining to thecontain
function of packaging
? The product’s physical form,
mobile fluid viscous fluid solid/fluid mixture
gas/fluid mixture granular material paste
free-flowing non-free-flowing powder solid unit
discrete items multicomponent mix
The Contain Function
? The product’s nature,
corrosive corrodible flammable
volatile perishable fragile
aseptic toxic abrasive
odorous subject to odor transfer easily marked
sticky hygroscopic under pressure
irregular in shape
The Protect/Preserve Function
1,Considerations related to the
protect/preserve function
?,Protect” refers to the prevention of physical damage,
Specifics on what will cause loss of value (damage)
must be known,
?,Preserve” refers to stopping or inhibiting chemical and
biological change and to the extension of food shelf life
beyond the product’s natural life or the maintenance of
sterility in food or medical products,
The Protect/Preserve Function
2,Examples of protective packaging problems
Table 2.1 Examples of protective packaging problems
and concerns
Condition Quantification or DesignRequirement
Vibration Determine resonant frequencies
Mechanical shock Determine fragility factor (drop height)
Abrasion Eliminate or isolate relative movement
Deformation Determine safe compressive load
Temperature Determine critical values
Relative humidity Determine critical values
Water Design liquid barrier
Tampering Design appropriate systems
The Protect/Preserve Function
3,Examples of preservation packaging
problems
Table 2.2 Typical preservation packaging problems
and concerns
Condition Quantification or Design Requirement
Oxygen Determine required barrier level
Carbon dioxide Determine required barrier level
Other volatiles Determine nature and barrier level
Light Design opaque package
Spoilage Determine nature/chemistry
Incompatibility Determine material incompatibilities
Loss of sterility Determine mechanism
Biological deterioration Determine nature
Deterioration over time Determine required shelf life
Food Preservation
? The Nature of Food
1,The nature of food
? Food is derived from animal or vegetable sources,Its
organic nature makes it an unstable commodity in its
natural form,
? Various means can increase the natural shelf life of
foods,thus reducing dependence on season and
location,
Food Preservation
2,Spoilage mechanisms
? Food spoilage can occur by three means,
a) Internal biological deterioration
b) External biological deterioration
c) Abiotic deterioration
?,Taste” refers only to the sweet,sour,salty,and bitter
sensations by the taste sensors located on our tongue
? Essential oils or,sensory active agents” and sense of
smell by sensors located in our nasal passages
? What we perceive as a food product’s flavor is a
combination of what we detect with our sense of taste
combined with what we detect with our sense of smell,
Preservation of essential oils retains the food’s full
flavor at retail,
Food Preservation
? Essential oils are volatile.Volatiles can permeate
packaging materials and making the problem of
contamination or isolation even more difficult,
? Water vapor is similar to an essential oil in that it
readily permeates many packaging materials,
? The creation of high-barrier packaging systems is
partly in response to the need for packaging that will
either hold desirable gases and volatiles in the
package or prevent undesirable volatiles from
entering the package,
? Temperature can promote undesirable changes that
are abiotic in nature,
Food Preservation
? Meat products
? - Meats are an ideal medium for microorganisms
because they contain all the necessary nutrients to
sustain growth,In addition to biological action,fatty
tissue is susceptible to oxidation,and the entire mass
can lose water,
? - Reduced temperature retards microorganism
activity,slows evaporation and slows chemical
reactions such as those associated with oxidation,
Food Preservation
? Fish
? - The preservation of fish is a difficult challenge
because of three main factors,
? Psychrophilic bacteria may be present,
? Many fish oils are unsaturated and are easily oxidized,
? Typical fish proteins are not as stable as red meat proteins,
? - Chilling does not affect the activity of psychrophilic
bacteria,Frozen fish is typically kept at much lower
temperatures (-300C/) than other frozen foods in
order to ensure the control of psychrophilic bacteria,
Food Preservation
? Produce
? - Harvested fruits and vegetables continue to respire
and mature,
? - They contain large amounts of water and will wither
if water loss is excessive,
? - Peas,green beans,and leafy vegetables have high
respiration rates compared with those of apples
oranges,and pears,
? - Potatoes,turnips and pumpkins respire slowly and
are easy to store,Moisture loss is more rapid with
lettuce than with a turnip because of the large
available surface area,
Food Preservation
? - Most fruits have an optimum ripening
temperature,usually about 200C,Few fruits will
ripen below 50C,
? - Freezing of many produce items will damage
cell structure,and breakdown is very rapid after
thawing,
? - Modified atmosphere packaging used(CO2,O2)
? - Bananas can remain in a mature but green
state for up to six months in atmospheres of 92%
nitrogen,5% oxygen,3% carbon dioxide and no
ethylene,
Food Preservation
? - Atmosphere and temperature control are key
requirements for extending the shelf life of fresh
produce,
Trade-offs for many produce items,
90%RH+perforated plastic wrap; or
Selecting packaging films with high gas-
transmission rates,
i.e,precut salad bags(the shelf life of about ten
days),excellent moisture barrier and very low
oxygen barrier,
Food Preservation
? Barrier Packaging
Figure 2.2 A barrier packaging material is one that
slows down or stops the movement
of selected gaseous substances into or out of a package
Food Preservation
? - Stopping the movement of a gas requires barrier
packaging,
? - This packaging construction either retains
desirable gases and volatiles inside the package or
prevents undesirable gases and volatiles from
entering the package,
? - Of the materials a packager can choose from,
only glass and metal provide absolute barriers to all
gases and volatiles,
Food Preservation
? - The term "high barrier" plastic is a relative,
nonspecific term and should not be taken to mean
"absolute" barrier,
? - Barrier packaging can harm some products,
Fresh produce,for example,continues to respire
after harvesting and would shortly consume all the
oxygen in an oxygen-barrier package,This would
lead to reduced shelf life,Plastic bags for produce
commonly have vent holes punched in them to
allow for a free exchange of atmospheric gases,
Food Preservation
3,Microorganisms and their preferred
environments for propagation
? Microorganisms
? - A large part of food preservation depends on the control of
microorganisms,
? - Bacteria or microbes are unicellular microscopic organisms
that reproduce by binary fission,
? - Certain bacterial species can form spores that are highly
resistant to killing,
? - Molds or fungi are multicellular and unicellular plantlike
organisms,
? - Yeasts are similar organisms that reproduce by budding,The
propagation and spread of molds and yeasts is typically
slower than for bacteria because of the reproduction method,
Food Preservation
? Microorganisms ’preferred environments
for propagation
? - By manipulating the four principal environmental
factors that regulate microorganism growth,
microorganisms can be controlled or eliminated,
temperature
moisture
acidity (pH)
nutrient source
Food Preservation
? – Microorganisms are often classified by their
preferred reproduction environment,
Mesophyllic,Prefer ambient conditions,20-450C
Psychrophilic,Prefer cool conditions,10-250C
Thermophilic,tolerate heat; will propagate at 30 to 750C
Aerobic,need oxygen to propagate
Anaerobic,propagate only in the absence of oxygen
Food Preservation
? - Some microorganisms act only on the food,They
do little harm when ingested
? - Pathogenic organisms can cause sickness or
death,falling into basic classes,
? Those that produce harmful toxins as by-products in the food
they infest,
? Those that infest the food and then grow in the human body
to produce illnesses,
Food Preservation
4,Six basic methods,which are used alone or
in combination,can extend the normal
biological shelf life of food,
? Reduced temperatures ? Thermal processing
? Water reduction ? Chemical preservation
? Modified atmospheres ? Irradiation
? - Each method can slow the natural biological
maturation and spoilage of a food product,reduce
biological activity or inhibit the chemical activity that
leads to abiotic spoilage,
? - Each method requires its own unique blend of
packaging materials and technology,
Food Preservation
? Reduced Temperature and Freezing
? - Reducing temperatures below the ambient
temperature has many beneficial effects that will lead
to a longer shelf life,Doing so
? Slows chemical activity
? Slows loss of volatiles
? Reduces or stops biological activity
? - Bacteria and molds stop developing at about -80C,
and by -180C,chemical and microorganism activity
stops for most practical purposes,
Food Preservation
? - Freezing kills some microorganisms,but not to the
extent of commercial usefulness,
? - Ice crystal formation is greatest between 0 and
-5℃, Ice crystals can pierce cell walls,destroying
the texture of many fruits and vegetables,Rapid
freezing reduces this damage,
? - Freezer conditions will cause ice to sublimate,and
serious food dehydration( freezer burn) will occur,
Snug,good moisture-barrier packaging with a
minimum of free air space will reduce freezer
dehydration,Complete filling of the package is
desirable,
Food Preservation
? - Frozen food packages materials must remain flexible at
freezer temperatures,provide a good moisture barrier
and conform closely to the product,
? - When paperboard is used as part of the package,it
should be heavily waxed or coated with polyethylene to
give protection against the inevitable moisture present in
the freezing process,
? - Poultry packaging in high-barrier PVDC bags is an
excellent example of an ideal freezer pack,Prepared
birds,placed into bags,pass through a vacuum machine
that draws the bag around the bird like a second skin,
The tight barrier prevents water loss and freezer burn for
extended periods,as well as preventing passage of
oxygen that would oxidize fats and oils,
Food Preservation
? Thermal Processing
? - Heat can destroy microorganisms,The degree of
treatment depends on the,
? Nature of the microorganism to be destroyed
? Acidity (pH) of the food
? Physical nature of the food
? Heat tolerance of the food
? Container type and dimensions
Food Preservation
? - Pasteurization,a mild heat treatment of 60 to
700C,kill most,but not all,microorganisms
present,Pasteurization is used when
? More severe heating would harm the product
? Dangerous organisms are not very heat resistant (such as
some yeasts)
? Surviving organisms can be controlled by other means
? Surviving organisms do not pose a health threat
Food Preservation
? Aseptic packaging
? -,Hot filling” refers to product filling at elevated
temperatures up to 100℃,used to maintain sterility
in products such as jams,syrups and juices,
? - Some products can tolerate high temperatures for
short time periods,
? - UHT processing of milk and fruit juices uses
temperatures in the range of 135 to 150℃,but for a
few seconds or less,The high temperature is
enough to kill most pathogens,
Food Preservation
? - UHT is the basis of most flexible aseptic drink
packaging,The term,aseptic” as applied to
packaging refers to any system wherein the product
and container are sterilized separately and then
combined and sealed under aseptic conditions,
? In the 1940s,metal cans were sterilized and filled with
puddings,sauces,and soups (the Dole Process),In
the 1970s,aseptic packaging was adapted to
institutional bag-in-box systems,
? - Advantages,eliminating the need for the elevated
temperatures and pressures used in conventional
canning methods; Eliminating the need for extreme
sterilizing conditions allows aseptic packaging
materials to have lower physical strengths and lower
temperature tolerance,
Food Preservation
? - Commercial systems,such as Tetra Pak,
Combibloc,and Bosch,use hydrogen peroxide
to sterilize simple paper,foil and polyethylene
laminates,and then fill the formed package with
UHT-treated product,
? - Normal canning,
? Only maintains nominal cleanliness in the food and the
container,
? Subjected to temperatures (110 to 130℃ ) high enough to
kill pathogens and achieve commercial sterility,
Food Preservation
? Generally,the less acid the food,the longer the cook times
needed to ensure destruction of Clostridium botulinum,Foods
with acidities high enough to prevent harmful pathogens from
propagating can be heat-processed by immersion in boiling
water,
? Overcooking gives some foods their,canned” taste or texture,
? - The retortable pouch is a laminate of polyester (for
toughness),foil (for an oxygen barrier) and a heat-
sealable polyolefin,Its largest customer is the
military,
Food Preservation
? Water Reduction
? - Drying is an old and well-established method of
preserving food,
? - The essential feature of drying is that moisture
content is reduced below that required for the support
of microorganisms,
? - An added advantage is reduced bulk and reduction
of other chemical activity,
? - Methods,by simple heat drying or by the addition of
salt or sugar,
i.e.,Concentrated salt and sugar solutions tie up
free water and make it unavailable to microorganisms,
Jams and marmalades having high sugar contents do
not require refrigeration for this reason,
Food Preservation
? - Equilibrium relative humidity (E.R.H) is the
atmospheric humidity condition under which a
food will neither gain nor lose moisture to the air,
? - Aw,the water activity,
? A food with an Aw of 0.5 is at an equilibrium
relative humidity of 50%,Table 2.3 lists the
moisture content and the desired E.R.H for some
common foods,
Food Preservation
Table 2.3 Typical moisture content and E.R.H ranges
Product Typical Moisture(%) E.R.H
Potato chips,instant coffee 3% or less 10 to 20%
Crackers,breakfast cereals 3 to 7% 20 to 30%
Cereal grains,nuts,dried fruit 7 to 20% 30 to 60%
Salt 75%
Sugar 85%
Food Preservation
? - Very low-E.R.H,foods are hygroscopic and will
draw available moisture from the air,These foods
require a barrier package that will not permit the
entry of atmospheric moisture,
? 1,Dried foods such as potato chips and instant coffee
require packaging materials with high moisture-barrier
properties,Potato chips are also rich in oil (about 30%),so that
they also need a high oxygen barrier,In-package desiccants
and oxygen scavengers are sometimes used to increase the
shelf life of very sensitive products,
? 2,Dried foods with E.R.H,values of 20 to 30% have less
stringent moisture-barrier requirements and are easier to
package,Depending on the food,oxygen or other barriers may
still be needed,
Food Preservation
? 3,Foods with an E.R.H,of 30 to 60% can often be stored for
long periods with little or no barrier packaging since their
E.R.H,corresponds to typical atmospheric conditions,If the
food has a high oil content,oxygen barriers may be needed,
Bacteriological activity is rarely a problem with low- or
reduced-moisture foods since one of the essentials of
bacterial growth has been removed,
? 4,High E.R.H,foods lose moisture under typical
atmospheric conditions,A cake with an E.R.H,of 90% would
soon establish a relative humidity of 90% inside a sealed
package,creating ideal conditions for mold growth,The
packaging challenge is to control moisture loss,retarding it
as much as possible,but not to the extent that a high
humidity is established within the package,
Food Preservation
? Chemical Preservatives
? - Various natural and synthetic chemicals and
antioxidants are used
? - They are used in conjunction with other
preservation methods,
? - The use of most of them is strictly controlled by law,
? - Chemical preservatives work in various ways,
Food Preservation
? 1.Some,such as lactic,acetic,propionic,sorbic and benzoic
acids,produce acid environments,
? 2,Others,such as alcohol,are specific bacteriostats,Carbon
dioxide,found in beers and carbonated beverages creates an
acid environment and is also a bacteriostat,
? 3,Smoking and curing of meat and fish is partly a drying
process and partly chemical preservation,
? 4,Aliphatic and aromatic wood distillation products (many
related to creosote) are acidic and have variable
bacteriostatic effects,Varying amounts of salt pretreatment
accompanies most smoking,
? 5,Antioxidants and oxygen absorbers can reduce oxidation,
Food Preservation
? Modified Atmosphere Packaging
? - MAP recognizes that many food degradation
processes have a relationship with the surrounding
atmosphere,- MAP involves the introduction of a
gas mixture other than air into a package
? - CAP is used in storage and warehousing where
the atmosphere can be monitored and adjusted,
? - Vacuum packaging is one type of MAP,It has
the effect of eliminating some or all oxygen that
might contribute to degradation,
Food Preservation
Disadvantages,fruits and vegetables have respiratory
functions that must be continued; red meat will turn brown or
purple without oxygen; pressures created by the external
atmosphere surrounding a vacuum-packaged product can
physically crush delicate products or squeeze water out of
moist products,
? - Ambient air is about 20% oxygen and 80%
nitrogen,with a trace of carbon dioxide,
Food Preservation
Table 2.4 Typical modified atmospheres for selected
food products
Product Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Nitrogen
Red meat 40% 20% 40%
White meats/pasta ---- 50% 50%
Fish 20% 80% ----
Produce 5% ---- 95%
Baked goods 1% 60% 39%
Food Preservation
? - O2 is biologically active,and for most products,is
associated with respiration and oxidation,
? - Co2 in high concentrations is a natural
bacteriostat,Levels of 20% and higher are used to
create conditions unfavorable to most
microorganisms,
? - N2 is biologically inert,“filler” gas or to displace
oxygen,
? - Most packaging materials used in MAP for
everything other than produce must have good gas-
barrier properties to all three gases,
Food Preservation
? - A package containing only carbon dioxide and
nitrogen is a system where atmospheric oxygen is
trying to penetrate the package and establish an
equilibrium partial pressure,The integrity of all
seals is of paramount importance,
? - The natural respiration of a fruit or vegetable
consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide
and moisture,Ventilated or low-barrier packaging
is needed to ensure a supply of oxygen and to rid
the package of excess moisture,
? - MAP has increased natural shelf life by 2 to 10
times,
Food Preservation
? Irradiation
? - Radiation is energy categorized by wavelength and
includes radio waves,microwaves,infrared radiation,
visible light,ultraviolet light and X rays,
? - These types of radiation increase in energy from
radio to X rays; the shorter the wavelength,the greater
the energy,
? - Given sufficient energy,waves can penetrate
substances,With more energy still,they will interact
with the molecules of the penetrated substance,
? - Short-wavelength radiations have enough energy to
cause energy to ionization of molecules,mainly water,
Food Preservation
? - Ionization can disrupt complex molecules and leads
to the death of living organisms,
? - Irradiation has been used to increase the keeping
quality of various foods,Cobalt 60,a radioactive
isotope,is the principal source of ionizing radiation
(gamma rays),
? - All safety precautions pertaining to radioactive
hazards must be observed,It should be noted that
while the energy source is radioactive,gamma rays
cannot make other substances radioactive,
? - Irradiation is a unique process in that it is carried out
at ambient temperatures and can penetrate
packaging material or products,
Food Preservation
? - Irradiation of consumable food is an issue that is
not fully resolved,and the process is carefully
controlled in most countries,
? - Food irradiation is prohibited in some countries
and highly regulated in most,However,the use of
irradiation to achieve sterility for medical devices,
packaging materials and personal care products
does not present a problem and is a useful
technology,
? - Labeling is another contentious issue,The
irradiation symbol must be accompanied by a
statement such as,treated by irradiation” or
“irradiated”,
Food Preservation
The international food irradiation symbol
The Transport Function
? The transport function and examples of
transport modes
? - The transport function entails the effective
movement of goods from the point of production to the
point of final consumption,
? - This involves various transport modes,handling
techniques and storage conditions,
? - In addition to the general physical rigors of
distribution,there are a number of carrier rules that
will influence package design,
? Examples of some of the information required to
design successful distribution packaging appear in
Table 2.5,
The Transport Function
Table 2.5 Typical transport handling and
storage information
truck rail aircraft
cargo ship storage duration storage conditions
handling methods unitizing methods specific shipping unit
weight considerations stock-picking dimension limits
carrier rules environmentally controlled storage
The Transport Function
? - Transportation and distribution is generally
regarded as an activity that is hazardous to the
product being moved,
? - Packaging contributes to the safe,economical,
and efficient storage of a product,Good package
design take into account the implications of
transport and warehousing,not just for the
distribution package and unitized load,but for
every level of packaging,
The Transport Function
2.,Persona”
? - A good package is said to have a,persona”,or
personality,If the designer has done an effective job,
that persona will appeal to the targeted audience,
? - The targeted audience itself needs to be identified
and studied,This is the realm of demographics and
psychographics,
The Inform/Sell Function
1,Package communication roles
? - The communication role of packaging is perhaps
the most complex of the packaging functions to
understand,measure and implement because of the
many levels at which this communication must work,
? - Law or customs dictate certain messages without
much leeway in their presentation,Examples of such
message are,
? Specific name of the product (what is this?)
? Quantity contained
? Address of the responsible body
The Inform/Sell Function
3,How a package communicates
? Selected material
? Shape and size
? Color
? Predominant typography
? Recognizable symbols or icons
? Illustrations
The Inform/Sell Function
? - All of the communication channels must be
balanced and supportive of one another to produce a
persona with appeal and instant recognition,
? - All supporting material,such as promotions and
advertisements,must agree with the image projected
by the package,
? - Producing a well-balanced package persona
requires an intimate familiarity with not just the
structural qualities of packaging materials,but also
the emotional qualities that they project,
? - A thorough understanding of the various printing
processes and the specialized decorating techniques
used to create particular effects or decorate unusual
surfaces is essential,
