Bahl, I.J. “Solid State Circuits”
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
43
Solid State Circuits
43.1Introduction
43.2Amplifiers
43.3Oscillators
43.4Multipliers
43.5Mixers
43.6Control Circuits
43.7Summary and Future Trends
43.1 Introduction
Over the past two decades, microwave active circuits have evolved from individual solid state transistors and
passive elements housed in conventional waveguides and/or coaxial lines to fully integrated planar assemblies,
including active and passive components and interconnections, generically referred to as a microwave integrated
circuit (MIC). The hybrid microwave integrated circuit (HMIC) consists of an interconnect pattern and
distributed circuit components printed on a suitable substrate, with active and lumped circuit components (in
packaged or chip form) attached individually to the printed interconnect circuit by the use of soldering and
wire bonding techniques. The solid state active elements are either silicon or gallium arsenide (or other III–V
compound) devices. More recently, the solid state monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) approach
has become commonplace. In MMICs, all interconnections and components, both active and passive, are
fabricated simultaneously on a semi-insulating semiconductor substrate (usually gallium arsenide, GaAs) using
deposition and etching processes, thereby eliminating discrete components and wire bond interconnects. The
term MMIC is used for circuits operating in the millimeter wave (30–300 GHz) region of the frequency spectrum
as well as the microwave (1–30 GHz) region. Major advantages of MMICs include low cost, small size, low
weight, circuit design flexibility, broadband performance, elimination of circuit tweaking, high-volume man-
ufacturing capability, package simplification, improved reproducibility, improved reliability, and multifunction
performance on a single chip.
Microwave circuits use two types of active devices: two-terminal devices, referred to as diodes, such as
Schottky, Gunn, tunnel, impact avalanche and transit time (IMPATT), varactor, and PIN, and three-terminal
devices, referred to as transistors, such as bipolar junction transistor (BJT), metal semiconductor field effect
transistor (MESFET), high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), heterostructure FET (HFET), and heterojunc-
tion bipolar transistor (HBT). Microwave circuits using these devices include amplifiers, oscillators, multipli-
ers, mixers, switches, phase shifters, attenuators, modulators, and many others used for receiver or transmitter
applications covering microwave and millimeter wave frequency bands. New devices, microwave computer-
aided design (CAD) tools, and automated testing have played a significant role in the advancement of these
circuits during the past decade. The theory and performance of most of these circuits have been well documented
[Kollberg, 1984; Bhartia and Bahl, 1984; Pucel, 1985; Maas, 1986; Bahl and Bhartia, 1988; Goyal, 1989; Ali et al.,
1989; Chang, 1990; Vendelin et al., 1990; Ali and Gupta, 1991; Chang, 1994]. Solid state circuits are extensively
used in such applications as radar, communication, navigation, electronic warfare (EW), smart weapons,
I. J. Bahl
ITT Gallium Arsenide
Technology Center
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
consumer electronics, and microwave instruments and equipment. This section will briefly describe the per-
formance status of amplifiers, oscillators, multipliers, mixers, and microwave control circuits.
43.2 Amplifiers
Amplifier circuits have received maximum attention in solid state circuits development. The two-terminal device
amplifiers, such as parametric, tunnel, Gunn, and IMPATT, are normally called reflection-type circuits, or negative
resistance amplifiers. A diagram for these amplifiers is shown in Fig. 43.1(a). Parametric amplifiers are narrow-
band (<10%) and have very good noise figure. Tunnel-diode amplifiers are high-gain, low-noise figure, and
low-power circuits. Octave bandwidth of such amplifiers is possible. The performance of Gunn-diode amplifiers
is quite similar to tunnel-diode amplifiers. IMPATT-diode amplifiers are high power and high efficiency. They
are moderately noisy, and bandwidths up to an octave are possible.
The basic circuit configuration for three-terminal device amplifiers is shown in Fig. 43.1(b). Several different
types of amplifiers developed using transistors are low noise, power, high linearity, broadband, high efficiency,
logarithmic, limiting, transimpedance, and variable gain. The silicon bipolar transistor performs very well up
to about 4 GHz, with reliable performance, high power, high gain, and low cost. The GaAs MESFETs perform
better than the bipolar transistors above 4 GHz. They are broadband, have a wide dynamic range, are highly
reliable, and are low cost. Both low-noise and medium-power MESFET amplifiers are available. They compete
with uncooled parametric amplifiers as well as moderate-power IMPATTs. HEMTs find a niche in low-noise
and high-frequency applications. The noise figure of HEMT amplifiers is better than that of uncooled para-
metric amplifiers up to 100 GHz, as shown in Fig. 43.2.
Various techniques are used to realize small signal or low-power broadband amplifiers. Five of them are
shown in Fig. 43.3. The distributed approach provides the unique capability of excellent gain-bandwidth
product, low VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio), and moderately low noise figure. This technique has been
successfully used in monolithic ultrabroadband amplifiers. The performance of such amplifiers using various
transistor devices is given in Table 43.1.
The performance of solid state power amplifiers is shown in Fig. 43.4. Currently, IMPATT and Gunn diodes
provide maximum power above 10 GHz, whereas bipolar junction transistor and MESFET technologies offer
the most promise to generate higher power levels below 10 GHz. In particular, IMPATT devices have been
operated over the complete millimeter wave band and have shown good continuous wave (CW) and pulsed
power efficiency and reliability.
During the past decade significant progress has been made in monolithic power amplifiers operating over
both the narrowband and broadband [Williams and Bahl, 1992; Tserng and Saunier, 1991]. Power levels as
high as 12 W from a single MMIC chip at C-band with 60% power-added efficiency (PAE) have been demon-
strated. A 6-W MMIC chip has been developed at X-band. A 2-W power output has been obtained at 30 GHz.
FIGURE 43.1 Amplifier circuits configurations. (a) Two-terminal negative resistance type requires a circulator to isolate
the input and output ports. (b) Three-terminal transistor type requires input and output matching networks.
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
In the high- efficiency area, a C-band MMIC amplifier with 70% PAE, 8-dB gain, and 1.7-W power output has
been demonstrated. For broadband amplifiers having an octave or more bandwidth, MMIC technology has
been exclusively used and is quite promising. Figure 43.5 depicts power performance for single-chip MMIC
amplifiers spanning microwave and millimeter wave frequencies. The state of the art in high efficiency and
broadband power MMIC amplifiers is summarized in Tables 43.2 and 43.3, respectively. Note that the high-
efficiency examples included in Table 43.2 all exceed 40% PAE.
43.3 Oscillators
Solid state oscillators represent the basic microwave energy source and have the advantages of light weight and
small size compared with microwave tubes. As shown in Fig. 43.6, a typical microwave oscillator consists of a
MESFET as an active device (a diode can also be used) and a passive frequency-determining resonant element,
such as a microstrip, surface acoustic wave (SAW), cavity resonator, or dielectric resonator for fixed tuned
oscillators and a varactor or a yttrium iron garnet (YIG) sphere for tunable oscillators. These oscillators have
the capability of temperature stabilization and phase locking. Dielectric resonator oscillators provide stable
operation from 1 to 100 GHz as fixed frequency sources. In addition to their good frequency stability, they are
simple in design, have high efficiency, and are compatible with MMIC technology. Gunn and IMPATT oscillators
provide higher power levels and cover microwave and millimeter wave bands. The transistor oscillators using
MESFETs, HEMTS, and HBTs provide highly cost-effective, miniature, reliable, and low-noise sources for use
up to the millimeter wave frequency range, while BJT oscillators reach only 20 GHz. Compared to a GaAs
MESFET oscillator, a BJT or a HBT oscillator typically has 6 to 10 dB lower phase noise very close to the carrier.
Figure 43.7 shows the performance of various solid state oscillators. Higher power levels for oscillators are
obtained by connecting high-power amplifiers at the output of medium-power oscillators.
43.4 Multipliers
Microwave frequency multipliers are used to generate microwave power at levels above those obtainable with
fundamental frequency oscillators. Several different nonlinear phenomena can be used to achieve frequency
FIGURE 43.2 Comparison of noise performance of various solid state amplifiers; the InP HEMT LNA, which is also
compatible with MMIC technology, is a clear choice for receiver applications where cryogenic cooling is precluded. (Source:
D. Willems and I. Bahl, “Advances in Monolithic Microwave and Millimeter Wave Integrated Circuits,” IEEE Int. Circuits
and Systems Symp. Digest, pp. 783–786. ? 1992 IEEE. With permission.)
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
multiplication, e.g., nonlinear reactance in varactors and step-recovery diodes and nonlinear resistance in
Schottky barrier diodes and three-terminal devices (BJT, MESFET, HEMT, HBT).
Varactor multipliers offer the best frequency multiplier performance. Varactor multipliers (pulsed) have
achieved power output in excess of 100 and 10 W at 4 and 10 GHz, respectively [Bahl and Bhartia, 1988].
Table 43.4 shows the best performance measured in the millimeter wave range and above.
43.5 Mixers
Mixers convert (heterodyne) the input frequency to a new frequency, where filtering and/or gain is easier to
implement, in contrast to detectors, which are used to provide an output signal that contains the amplitude
or amplitude variation information of the input signal. A mixer is basically a multiplier, which requires two
FIGURE 43.3 Broadband amplifier configurations. Balanced has low noise figure and better cascadability, feedback has
small size, active match is more suitable for monolithic approach, and distributed is good for multioctave bandwidths.
RF
In
RF
Out
Identical Amplifier Stages
90? Hybrids
Matching
Network
Matching
Network
MN MN
MN
Balanced
Feedback
Active Match
Resistive/
Reactive Match
Distributed
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
signals and uses any solid state device that exhibits nonlinear properties. Mixing is achieved by applying an RF
and a high-power local oscillator signal to a nonlinear element, which can be a diode or a transistor.
As illustrated in Fig. 43.8, there are many types of mixers: one diode (single ended), two diodes (balanced
or antiparallel), four diodes (double balanced), and eight diodes (double-double balanced). Mixers can also be
realized using the nonlinearities associated with transistors that provide conversion gain. The most commonly
used mixer configuration in the microwave frequency band is the double-balanced mixer, which has better
isolation between the ports and better spurious response. However, the single and balanced mixers place lower
power requirements on the local oscillator and have lower conversion loss.
Subharmonic mixing (where the local oscillator frequency is approximately half that needed in conventional
mixers) has been extensively used at millimeter wave frequencies. This technique is quite useful when reliable
stable local oscillators are either unavailable or prohibitively expensive at high frequencies. Figure 43.9 gives
the performance of millimeter wave mixers.
TABLE 43.1 Broadband Single-Chip Distributed MMIC Amplifier Performance
Frequency Noise
Range (GHz) Gain (dB) Figure (dB) Device Used
0.5–26.5 6 5.2 0.32 mm GaAs HEMT
0.5–50 6 — 0.32 mm GaAs HEMT
2–18 9 5.7 0.5 mm dual gate FET
2–20 9.5 3.5 0.2 mm GaAs HEMT
2–24 6 — 2 mm SABM GaAs HBT
5–40 9 4.0 0.25 mm GaAs HEMT
5–60 8 — 0.25 mm GaAs HEMT
5–100 5 — 0.1 mm InP HEMT
6–18 10.5 — 0.4 mm GaAs MESFET
9–70 3.5 7.0 0.2 mm GaAs PHEMT
SABM, self-aligned base ohmic metal; PHEMT, pseudomorphic HEMT.
Source: D. Willems and I. Bahl, “Advances in Monolithic Microwave and Millimeter
Wave Integrated Circuits,” IEEE Int. Circuits and Systems Symp. Digest, pp. 783–786.
? 1992 IEEE. With permission.
FIGURE 43.4 Power performance of microwave power amplifiers.
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
FIGURE 43.5 Performance status of single-chip power MMIC amplifiers using MESFET, HFET, HEMT, and HBT
technologies.
TABLE 43.2 Single-Chip High-Efficiency Power MMIC Performance
Frequency No. of
(GHz) Stages P
O
(W) PAE (%) Gain (dB)
5.2 1 12.0* 60 9
5.5 1 1.7 70 8
8.5 2 3.2 52 —
10.0 1 5.0 48 7
10.0 1 6.0 44 6
11.5 2 3.0 42 12
Source: D. Willems and I. Bahl, “Advances in Monolithic Microwave and
Millimeter Wave Integrated Circuits,” IEEE Int. Circuits and Systems Symp.
Digest, pp. 783–786. ? 1992 IEEE. With permission.
*W.L. Pribble and E.L. Griffin, “An ion-implanted 13W C-band MMIC
with 60% peak power added efficiency,” IEEE 1996 Microwave and Millime-
ter-Wave Monolithic Circuits Symposium Digest, pp. 25–28.
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
TABLE 43.3 Single-Chip Broadband Power MMIC Performance
Frequency No. of
(GHz) Configuration Stages Gain (dB)
P
O
(W)
PAE(%)
1.5–9.0 Reactive match 2 5 0.5 14
2.0–8.0 Distributed 1 5 1.0 —
2.0–20.0 Distributed 1 4 0.8 15
3.5–8.0 Reactive match 2 10 2.0 20
6–17 Distributed/reactive 4 16 0.8 11
6–20 Distributed 1 11 0.25 —
7–10.5 Reactive match 2 12.5 3.0 35
7.7–12.2 Reactive match 2 8.0 3.0 14
12–16 Reactive match 3 18 1.8 18
14–33 Distributed 1 4 0.1 —
Source: D. Willems and I. Bahl, “Advances in Monolithic Microwave and Mil-
limeter Wave Integrated Circuits,” IEEE Int. Circuits and Systems Symp. Digest,
pp. 783–786. ? 1992 IEEE. With permission.
FIGURE 43.6 Basic configuration of a dielectric resonator oscillator. The feedback element is used to make the active
device unstable, the matching network allows transfer of maximum power to the load, and the dielectric resonator provides
frequency stability.
FIGURE 43.7 Maximum CW power obtained from solid state microwave oscillators.
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
43.6 Control Circuits
Control components are widely used in communication, radar, EW, instrument, and other systems for con-
trolling the signal flow or to adjust the phase and amplitude of the signal [Bahl and Bhartia, 1988; Chang, 1990;
Sharma, 1989; Sokolov, 1991]. PIN diodes and MESFETs are extensively used in HMICs and MMICs, respec-
tively, for microwave control circuits, such as switches, phase shifters, attenuators, and limiters. PIN diode
circuits have low loss and can handle higher power levels than do MESFET components; conversely, the latter
have great flexibility in the design of integrated subsystems, consume negligible power, and are low cost.
Figure 43.10 shows various control configurations being developed using PIN and MESFET devices. Either
device can be used in these circuits.
The most commonly used configuration for microwave switches is the single-pole double throw (SPDT) as
shown in Fig. 43.10(a), which requires a minimum of two switching devices (diodes or transistors). Table 43.5
provides typical performance for broadband SPDT switches developed using GaAs MESFET monolithic tech-
nology. Table 43.5 also summarizes performance for phase shifters and attenuators, which are described briefly
below.
There are four main types of solid state digitally controlled phase shifters: switched line, reflection, loaded
line, and low-pass/high-pass, as shown in Fig. 43.10(b). The switched-line and low-pass/high-pass configura-
tions, which are most suitable for broadband applications and compact size, are not suitable for analog
operation. Reflection and loaded-line phase shifters are inherently narrowband; however, the loaded-line small
bit phase shifters, 22.5 degrees or less, can be designed to have up to an octave bandwidth. Phase shifters using
the vector-modulator concept have also been developed in monolithic form.
Voltage-controlled variable attenuators are important control elements and are widely used for automatic
gain control circuits. They are indispensable for temperature compensation of gain variation in broadband
TABLE 43.4 Summary of State-of-the-Art Performance for Millimeter Wave Frequency Multipliers
Tunable Output
Minimum Output Maximum Output
Maximum
Mount Operating Band Effic. Power Effic. Power Freq. Pump Power
Type (GHz) (%) (mW) (%) (mW) (GHz) (mW) Notes
a
Doubler 180–120 9.5 18 14.0 26.6 188 and 105 190 2, 3, 9
180–120 10.7 16 15.5 23.2 100 150 1, 2, 3
180–120 10 7 16 11 104 70 1, 4, 3
100 — — 25 20 100 80 6, 4
110–170 10 8 15 12.0 120 80 1, 2, 3
140–150 10 8 22 17.6 145 80 1, 2, 3, 5
190–260 10 8 27 21.5 215 80 1, 2, 3
200 — — 19 18 200 150 6, 4
400 — — 8.5 10.44 300 5.1 1, 2, 3, 7
500–600 7 0.7 — — — 10 1, 2, 8
Tripler 85–115 4 1.2 8 2.4 106 28 1, 2, 8
96–120 1.8 1.8 8.2 8.2 110 100 1, 2, 3
105 — — 25 18 105 72 6, 4
200–290 2.5 2.0 7.5 6 225 80 1, 2, 3
190–240 1 0.3 10 3 230 30 1, 2, 8
260–350 1.8 1.5 3.75 3.0 340 80 2, 3, 6
300 — — 2 2 300 100 6, 4
450 — — 1 0.079 450 6.3 1, 2, 3, 7
′ 6 balanced 310–350 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.75 345 190 1, 2, 3, 6, 9
doubler/tripler
a
1, Crossed waveguide mount; 2, tuning and bias optimized at each operating frequency; 3, microstrip low-pass filter;
4, fixed tuning and bias; 5, narrowbanded version of NRAO 110- to 170-GHz doubler; 6, quasi-optical mount; 7, limited
pump power available; 8, coaxial low-pass filter; 9, two-diode balanced cross guide mounts.
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
FIGURE 43.8 Basic mixer configurations: (a) single ended, (b) balanced, (c) double balanced, and (d) double-double
balanced.
FIGURE 43.9 Single-sideband (SSB) conversion loss of millimeter wave mixers. Subharmonic type mixers have higher
conversion loss but are generally less expensive.
2.0
20 60 100 140 180 220 260
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
Subharmonic Mixer
RF FREQUENCY (GHz)
SSB CONVERSION LOSS (db)
Fundamental Mixer
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
amplifiers. Both PIN diodes and GaAs MESFET devices are used for variable attenuators. Figure 43.10(c) shows
a variable attenuator configuration using MESFETs in the passive mode. Apart from the use of MESFETs in
the passive mode, active MESFET amplifier circuits may also be used for variable attenuation circuits. Dual-
gate MESFET amplifiers with controlled voltage applied to the second gate are ideal for this purpose and
provide a lower noise figure than the passive attenuators.
A limiter, whose basic configuration is shown in Fig. 43.10(d), is an important control component used at
microwave frequencies. An ideal limiter has no attenuation when low power is incident upon it but has an
attenuation that increases with increasing power (above a threshold level) to maintain constant output power.
Limiters are also used to protect the receivers from other nearby radar transmitters. Schottky and PIN diodes
FIGURE 43.10 Microwave control circuits: (a) SPDT switch configurations, (b) basic phase shifter types, (c) schematic of
a MESFET attenuator, and (d) basic limiter circuit using two rectifying diodes.
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
are commonly used to realize these components. Because they are used at the front ends of receivers, low loss
is one of the basic requirements.
43.7 Summary and Future Trends
In this section we have briefly described the performance of microwave and millimeter wave solid state circuits.
Currently the discrete silicon bipolar transistors, IMPATT diodes, and GaAs MESFETs are most widely used in
solid state circuits and bipolar transistors, and IMPATT diodes are still the most powerful solid state sources
below S-band and 10 to 300 GHz, respectively. The MESFET is the workhorse for microwave circuits up to 40
GHz. The HEMT applications are similar to the MESFET, including amplifiers, oscillators, frequency multipli-
ers, mixers, and control circuits, and above 50 GHz, this device is exclusively used for power and low-noise
amplifiers. The HBTs applications include high-efficiency amplifiers, ultrabroadband dc amplifiers, low-noise
oscillators, frequency multipliers, and mixers.
During the past decade, GaAs monolithic technology has made tremendous progress in producing single
and multifunction microwave and millimeter wave circuits using MESFETs, HEMTs, and HBTs. This technology
is exerting a profound impact in producing low-cost and high-volume solid state circuits. Since monolithic
circuits have the advantage of bandwidth and reproducibility over discrete devices because of wire bond
elimination, the growth in millimeter wave solid state circuits will be based on this technology, and a cost
reduction by a factor greater than 10 is expected in the near future. Wherever possible, the two-terminal devices
such as IMPATT and Gunn diodes will be replaced by the transistors. Future trends in solid state circuits also
include their optical control, tuning, and stabilization.
Defining Terms
Amplifier: Active two-port device with signal of higher amplitude than the input signal while retaining the
essential signal characteristics of the input signal.
Attenuator: Two-port device with output signal of lower amplitude than the input signal while retaining the
essential signal characteristics of the input signal.
Bandwidth (BW): A measure of the frequency range over which the circuit performs to specified parameters
such as gain, noise figure, power output, etc.
Computer Aided Design (CAD): A design tool that constitutes circuit simulators and optimization pro-
grams/algorithms to aid the design of microwave circuits to meet the specified performance goals.
Dual-Gate MESFET: This device is similar in operation to MESFET but possesses two gates: an RF gate and
a control gate, instead of a single RF gate.
Gain: The ratio of the output signal to the input signal of an amplifier.
Hybrid microwave integrated circuit (HMIC): A planar assembly that combines different circuit functions
formed by strip or microstrip transmission lines printed onto a dielectric substrate and incorporating
discrete semiconductor solid state devices and passive distributed or lumped circuit elements, intercon-
nected with wire bonds.
TABLE 43.5 Performance of GaAs FET Control Monolithic ICs
MaximumMinimum Minimum Minimum
Insertion Return RMS Minimum Dynamic MaximumSwitching
Frequency Loss Loss Error Isolation Range Power Speed Size
Circuit Function (GHz) (dB) (dB) (deg.) (dB) (dB) (dBm) (ns) (mm2)
Broadband SPDT switch DC-20 12.0 17 — 24 — 25 0.4 1.27 ′ 1.27
DC-40 13.0 17 — 23 — 25 0.8 0.84 ′ 1.27
2 ′ 2 Switch matrix DC-20 13.5 10 — 30 — — — 2.03 ′ 1.78
6-Bit phase shifter 5–6 16.0 10 ±2.0 — — — 5.0 9.43 ′ 4.20
3-Bit phase shifter 6–18 11.5 13 ±8.5————2.2 ′ 1.25
Variable attenuator DC-50 14.2 19 — — 30 — 1.0 1.52 ′ 0.65
Multibit attenuator DC-20 15.0 12 — — 75 26 — 2.55 ′ 1.57
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Limiter: A circuit in which the output power is prevented from exceeding a predetermined value.
Mixer: A three-port device in which the output signal is a harmonic of the add mixture of an input signal and
a local oscillator signal. An up converter is a mixer in which the output signal frequency is above the input
signal. A down converter is a mixer in which the output signal frequency is below the input signal.
Monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC): An MMIC is formed by fabricating all active and passive
circuit elements or components and interconnections onto or into the surface of a semi-insulating
semiconducting substrate by deposition and etching schemes such as epitaxy, ion implantation, sputter-
ing, evaporation, and/or diffusion, and utilizing photolithographic processes for pattern definition, thus
eliminating the need for internal wire bond interconnects.
Multiplier: A two-port device in which the output signal is a harmonic of the input signal.
Noise Figure: The noise figure of any linear two-port circuit is defined as the signal-to-room temperature
thermal noise ratio at the input divided by the signal-to-noise ratio at the output.
Oscillator: An active one-port device which produces a nominally frequency stable constant amplitude signal.
PIN Diode: A two-port semiconductor device in which a p doped contact is isolated from an n-doped contact
by an intrinsic region forming an anisotropic junction.
Phase Shifter: A circuit that provides a shift in the phase of the output signal with respect to a reference value.
Return Loss: Ratio of reflected power to input power of a signal port.
Switch: A circuit designed to close or open one or more transmission paths for the microwave signals.
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR): Ratio of maximum voltage amplitude to the minimum voltage
amplitude at the specified port.
Related Topics
25.1 Integrated Circuit Technology ? 25.3 Application-Specific Integrated Circuits ? 37.2 Waveguides
References
E. L. Kollberg (Ed.), Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Mixers, New York: IEEE Press, 1984.
P. Bhartia and I. J. Bahl, Millimeter Wave Engineering and Applications, New York: John Wiley, 1984.
R. A. Pucel (Ed.), Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits, New York: IEEE Press, 1985.
S. A. Maas, Microwave Mixers, Norwood, Mass.: Artech House, 1986.
I. J. Bahl and P. Bhartia, Microwave Solid State Circuit Design, New York: John Wiley, 1988.
R. Goyal (Ed.), Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits: Technology and Design, Norwood, Mass.: Artech House,
1989.
F. Ali, I. Bahl, and A. Gupta (Eds.), Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Heterostructure Transistors and Their
Applications, Norwood, Mass.: Artech House, 1989.
K. Chang (Ed.), Handbook of Microwave and Optical Components, vol. 2, New York: John Wiley, 1990.
G. D. Vendelin, A. M. Pavio, and U. L. Rohde, Microwave Circuit Design Using Linear and Nonlinear Techniques,
New York: John Wiley, 1990.
F. Ali and A. Gupta (Eds.), HEMTs and HBTs: Devices, Fabrication and Circuits, Norwood, Mass.: Artech House,
1991.
K. Chang, Microwave Solid-State Circuits and Applications, New York: John Wiley, 1994.
D. Willems and I. Bahl, “Advances in monolithic microwave and millimeter wave integrated circuits,” IEEE Int.
Circuits and System Symp. Digest, pp. 783–786, 1992.
H. Q. Tserng and P. Saunier, “Advances in power MMIC amplifier technology in space communications,” Proc.
SPIE-Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits for Sensors, Radar, and Communications Systems, pp. 74–85,
1991.
A. K. Sharma, “Solid-state control devices: State of the art,” Microwave Journal, 1989 State of the Art Reference,
pp. 95–112, Sept. 1989.
V. Sokolov, “Phase shifters technology assessment: Prospects and applications,” Proc. SPIE-Monolithic Microwave
Integrated Circuits for Sensors, Radar and Communications Systems, vol. 1475, pp. 228–332, 1991.
D. Fisher and I. Bahl, Gallium Arsenide IC Applications Handbook, San Diego: Academic Press, 1995.
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
Further Information
The monthly journal IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques routinely publishes articles on the
design and performance of solid state circuits. Special issues published in July 1982, January and February 1983,
March 1984, and September 1989 exclusively deal with this topic.
IEEEMicrowave and Millimeter-Wave Monolith Circuits Symposium Digests, published every year since 1982,
include comprehensive information on the design and performance of monolithic microwave and millimeter-
wave solid state circuits.
Books included in the references of this chapter discuss thoroughly the design, circuit implementation, and
performance of solid state circuits.
? 2000 by CRC Press LLC
