16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 16.885J/ESD.35J Aircraft Systems Engineering Aerodynamics Primer Prof. Earll Murman 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Topics ?Geometry jargon ? Standard atmosphere ? Airflow variables ? Forces acting on aircraft ? Aerodynamic coefficients ? Lift curve ? Drag polar ? Reference: Anderson, John D. Jr. Introduction to Flight, McGraw Hill, 3rd ed. 1989. All figures in this primer are taken from this source unless otherwise noted. ? Note: other sources need to be added. 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Wing and Airfoil Nomenclature t = thickness c = chord t/c is an airfoil parameter t c V 8 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 More Wing Nomenclature b S c r c t / ? b = wing span ? S = wing area ? AR = aspect ratio=b 2 /S – For c avg = S/b, AR= b/c avg ? O = c t /c r = taper ratio ? / = leading edge sweep angle ? Twist is the difference in the angle of the tip and root airfoil section chord lines . 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Standard Atmosphere: The Environment for Aircraft Design ? The “standard atmosphere” is a reference condition. – Every day is different. ? Temperature T, pressure p, density U are functions of altitude h. ? Standard sea level conditions – p = 1.01325x10 5 N/m 2 = 2116.2 lb/ft 2 – T = 288.16 0 K = 518.7 0 R – U = 1.2250 kg/m 3 = 0.00278 slug/ft 3 ? Handy calculator http://aero.stanford.edu/StdAtm.html 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Flow Velocities ?V f called the freestream velocity – Units ft/sec, mph (1 mph = 1.47 fps), knot (1 kt = 1.69 fps=1.151 mph) ? a = speed of sound – Function of temperature: a 1 /a 2 = sqrt(T 1 /T 2 ) – Function of altitude (standard sea level a = 1116.4 ft/sec) ? Mach number is ratio of velocity to speed of sound, M=V/a –M f = V f / a f –M f < 1 is subsonic flight, M f > 1 is supersonic flight –M f close to 1 (approx 0.8 to 1.2) is transonic flight 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Pressures 21 ? For M < 0.3, pressure and velocity are related by Bernoulli equation – For M > 0.3, pressure and velocity (or Mach number) are related, but equation is more involved – Further restricted to no losses due to friction. ?p 1 + 0.5UV 1 2 = p 2 + 0.5UV 2 2 = p 0 – p called static pressure – 0.5UV 2 called dynamic pressure = q –p 0 called stagnation pressure – p + q somewhat like potential plus kinetic energy 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Pressure Coefficient ? Due to geometry of airfoil, the velocity, and therefore the pressure, vary. – Manifestation of lift ? It is convenient to express this as a pressure coefficient C p = (p - p f )/ q f ? From Bernoulli Eq and assuming density is constant (ok for M < 0.3), C p = 1 - (V/ V f ) 2 ? Pick out some features on figure at left Lift proportional to area under curve Pressure coefficient for a conventional airfoil: NACA 0012 airfoil at D = 3 0 . Lower surface U p p e r s u r fa c e C p x/c 1 0 -1 -2 +1 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Forces Wing imparts downward force on fluid, fluid imparts upward force on wing generating lift. Lift = Weight for steady level flight. Drag is balanced by thrust for non-accelerating flight. Aerodynamic leverage - lift is 10-30 times bigger than drag! For 1 pound of thrust get 10-30 pounds of lift. Aerodynamic leverage - lift is 10-30 times bigger than drag! For 1 pound of thrust get 10-30 pounds of lift. 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 L, D Definitions ? Resultant force on body resolved into Lift L and Drag D ? By definition, – L is perpendicular to relative wind – D is parallel to relative wind c /4 V 8 α L D Relative wind 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Force Coefficients ? It is convenient to use non-dimensional forms of the forces, called coefficients ? Allows scaling between different size aircraft (wind tunnel models vs full scale), different velocities, altitudes, etc. ? Can use different ways, e.g. – If C L , S, q are known, then L = C L Sq – If L=W and C L , S are known, then flight speed which gives level flight is C L L qS , C D D qS where q 1 2 U f V f 2 V f 2W U f C L S 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Lift Curve L if t s lope = C l, max α L=0 dC l d α α C l α stall 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Lift Generates A Vortex For wing to generate Lift Low Pressure High Pressure Kinetic energy in freestream redistributed to cross flow. It represents an unrecoverable loss called drag due to lift, or induced drag. 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Drag Due to Friction ? Friction due to fluid viscosity acting on total surface of aircraft causes a skin friction drag. 16.885J/ESD.35J - Sept 2003 Drag ? Independent of Lift – Skin friction – Pressure changes due to boundary layer – Flow separation due to shock (lecture 5) – Shock wave drag (lecture 5) ? Plus lift dependent – Induced (vortex drag) – Viscous and wave drag to do lift ? Total Drag C D 0 f (Re,M f ,shape) C D i C L 2 S AR e , e < 1 C D kC L 2 f (D,M f ,Re) C D C D 0  C L 2 S AR e kC L 2