18.338J/16.394J: The Mathematics of Infinite Random Matrices Numerical Methods in Random Matrices Per-Olof Persson Handout #7, Tuesday, September 28, 2004 1 Largest Eigenvalue Distributions In this section, the distributions of the largest eigenvalue of matrices in the β-ensembles are studied. His- tograms are created first by simulation, then by solving the Painlev′e II nonlinear differential equation. 1.1 Simulation The Gaussian Unitary Ensemble (GUE) is defined as the Hermitian n×n matrices A, where the diagonal elements xjj and the upper triangular elements xjk = ujk +ivjk are independent Gaussians with zero-mean, and braceleftBigg Var(xjj) = 1, 1 ≤ j ≤ n, Var(ujk) = Var(vjk) = 12, 1 ≤ j < k ≤ n. (1) Since a sum of Gaussians is a new Gaussian, an instance of these matrices can be created conveniently in MATLAB: A=randn(n)+i*randn(n); A=(A+A’)/2; The largest eigenvalue of this matrix is about 2√n. To get a distribution that converges as n → ∞, the shifted and scaled largest eigenvalue λ′max is calculated as λ′max = n16 parenleftbigλmax ?2√nparenrightbig. (2) It is now straight-forward to compute the distribution for λ′max by simulation: for ii=1:trials A=randn(n)+i*randn(n); A=(A+A’)/2; lmax=max(eig(A)); lmaxscaled=n^(1/6)*(lmax-2*sqrt(n)); % Store lmax end % Create and plot histogram The problem with this technique is that the computational requirements and the memory requirements grow fast with n, which should be as large as possible in order to be a good approximation of infinity. Just storing the matrix A requires n2 double-precision numbers, so on most computers today n has to be less than 104. Furthermore, computing all the eigenvalues of a full Hermitian matrix requires a computing time proportional to n3. This means that it will take many days to create a smooth histogram by simulation, even for relatively small values of n. To improve upon this situation, another matrix can be studied that has the same eigenvalue distribution as A above. In [1], it was shown that this is true for the following symmetric matrix when β = 2: Hβ ~ 1√2 ? ?? ?? ?? N(0,2) χ(n?1)β χ(n?1)β N(0,2) χ(n?2)β ... ... ... χ2β N(0,2) χβ χβ N(0,2) ? ?? ?? ??. (3) Here, N(0,2) is a zero-mean Gaussian with variance 2, and χd is the square-root of a χ2 distributed number with d degrees of freedom. Note that the matrix is symmetric, so the subdiagonal and the superdiagonal are always equal. This matrix has a tridiagonal sparsity structure, and only 2n double-precision numbers are required to store an instance of it. The time for computing the largest eigenvalue is proportional to n, either using Krylov subspace based methods or the method of bisection [2]. In MATLAB, the built-in function eigs can be used, although that requires dealing with the sparse matrix structure. There is also a large amount of overhead in this function, which results in a relatively poor performance. Instead, the function maxeig is used below to compute the eigenvalues. This is not a built-in function in MATLAB, but it can be downloaded from http://www.mit.edu/~persson/mltrid. It is based on the method of bisection, and requires just two ordinary MATLAB vectors as input, corresponding to the diagonal and the subdiagonal. It also turns out that only the first 10n13 components of the eigenvector corresponding to the largest eigenvalue are significantly greater than zero. Therefore, the upper-left ncutoff by ncutoff submatrix has the same largest eigenvalue (or at least very close), where ncutoff ≈ 10n13. (4) Matrices of size n = 1012 can then easily be used since the computations can be done on a matrix of size only 10n13 = 105. Also, for these large values of n the approximation χ2n ≈ n is accurate. A histogram of the distribution for n = 109 can now be created using the code below. n=1e9; nrep=1e4; beta=2; cutoff=round(10*n^(1/3)); d1=sqrt(n-1:-1:n+1-cutoff)’/2/sqrt(n); ls=zeros(1,nrep); for ii=1:nrep d0=randn(cutoff,1)/sqrt(n*beta); ls(ii)=maxeig(d0,d1); end ls=(ls-1)*n^(2/3)*2; histdistr(ls,-7:0.2:3) where the function histdistr below is used to histogram the data. It assumes that the histogram boxes are equidistant. function [xmid,H]=histdistr(ls,x) dx=x(2)-x(1); H=histc(ls,x); H=H(1:end-1); ?6 ?4 ?2 0 2 40 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Normalized and Scaled Largest Eigenvalue Probability β=1 ?6 ?4 ?2 0 2 40 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Normalized and Scaled Largest Eigenvalue Probability β=2 ?6 ?4 ?2 0 2 40 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Normalized and Scaled Largest Eigenvalue Probability β=4 Figure 1: Probability distribution of scaled largest eigenvalue (105 repetitions, n = 109) H=H/sum(H)/dx; xmid=(x(1:end-1)+x(2:end))/2; bar(xmid,H) grid on The resulting distribution is shown in Figure 1, together with distributions for β = 1 and β = 4. The plots also contain solid curves representing the “true solutions” (see next section). 1.2 Painlev′e II Instead of using simulation to plot the distributions of the largest eigenvalues, it can be computed from the solution of the Painlev′e II nonlinear differential equation [3]: q′′ = sq +2q3 (5) with the boundary condition q(s) ~ Ai(s), as s →∞. (6) The probability distribution f2(s), corresponding to β = 2, is then given by f2(s) = ddsF2(s), (7) where F2(s) = exp parenleftbigg ? integraldisplay ∞ s (x?s)q(x)2 dx parenrightbigg . (8) The distributions for β = 1 and β = 4 are the derivatives of F1(s)2 = F2(s)e? R∞ s q(x)dx (9) and F4 parenleftbigg s 223 parenrightbigg2 = F2(s) parenleftBigg e12 R∞ s q(x)dx + e? 1 2 R∞ s q(x)dx 2 parenrightBigg2 . (10) To solve this numerically using MATLAB, first rewrite (5) as a first-order system: d ds parenleftbiggq q′ parenrightbigg = parenleftbigg q′ sq +2q3 parenrightbigg . (11) This can be solved as an initial-value problem starting at s = s0 = sufficiently large positive number, and integrating along the negative s-axis. The boundary condition (6) then becomes the initial values braceleftbigg q(s 0) = Ai(s0) q′(s0) = Ai′(s0). (12) Although the distributions can be computed from q(s) as a post-processing step, it is most convenient to add a few variables and equations to the ODE system. When computing F2(s), the quantity I(s) =integraltext ∞ s (x?s)q(x) 2 dx is required. Differentiate this twice to get I′(s) = ? integraldisplay ∞ s q(x)2 dx (13) and I′′(s) = q(s)2. (14) Add these equations and the variables I(s),I′(s) to the ODE system, and the solver will do the integration. This is not only easier and gives less code, it will also give a much more accurate solution since the same tolerance requirements are imposed on I(s) as on the solution q(s). In a similar way, the quantity J(s) = integraltext∞s q(x)dx is needed when computing F1(s) and F4(s). This is handled by adding the variable J(s) and the equation J′(s) = ?q(s). The final system now has the form d ds ? ?? ?? ? q q′ I I′ J ? ?? ?? ? = ? ?? ?? ? q′ sq +2q3 I′ q2 ?q ? ?? ?? ? (15) with the initial condition ? ?? ?? ? q(s0) q′(s0) I(s0) I′(s0) J(s0) ? ?? ?? ? = ? ?? ?? ? Ai(s0) Ai′(s0)integraltext ∞ s0 (x?s0)Ai(x) 2 dx Ai(s0)2integraltext ∞ s0 Ai(x)dx ? ?? ?? ? . (16) This problem can be solved in just a few lines of MATLAB code using the built-in Runge-Kutta based ODE solver ode45. First define the system of equations as an inline function deq=inline(’[y(2); s*y(1)+2*y(1)^3; y(4); y(1)^2; -y(1)]’,’s’,’y’); Next specify the integration interval and the desired output times. s0=5; sn=-8; sspan=linspace(s0,sn,1000); The initial values can be computed as y0=[airy(s0); airy(1,s0); ... quadl(inline(’(x-s0).*airy(x).^2’,’x’,’s0’),s0,20,1e-25,0,s0); ... airy(s0)^2; quadl(inline(’airy(x)’),s0,20,1e-18)]; where the quadl function is used to numerically approximate the integrals in (16). Now, the integration tolerances can be set and the system integrated: opts=odeset(’reltol’,1e-13,’abstol’,1e-15); [s,y]=ode45(deq,sspan,y0,opts); The five dependent variables are now in the columns of the MATLAB variable y. Using these, F2(s),F1(s), and F4(s) become F2=exp(-y(:,3)); F1=sqrt(F2.*exp(-y(:,5))); F4=sqrt(F2).*(exp(y(:,5)/2)+exp(-y(:,5)/2))/2; s4=s/2^(2/3); The probability distributions f2(s),f1(s), and f4(s) could be computed by numerical differentiation: f2=gradient(F2,s); f1=gradient(F1,s); f4=gradient(F4,s4); but it is more accurate to first do the differentiation symbolically: f2(s) = ?I′(s)F2(s) (17) f1(s) = 12F 1(s) (f2(s) + q(s)F2(s))e?J(s) (18) f4(s) = 121 34F4(s) parenleftBig f2(s) parenleftBig 2+ eJ(s) + e?J(s) parenrightBig + F2(s)q(s) parenleftBig e?J(s) ?eJ(s) parenrightBigparenrightBig (19) and evaluate these expressions: f2=-y(:,4).*F2; f1=1/2./F1.*(f2+y(:,1).*F2).*exp(-y(:,5)); f4=1/2^(1/3)/4./F4.*(f2.*(2+exp(y(:,5))+exp(-y(:,5)))+ ... F2.*y(:,1).*(exp(-y(:,5))-exp(y(:,5)))); Finally, plot the curves: plot(s,f1,s,f2,s4,f4) legend(’\beta=1’,’\beta=2’,’\beta=4’) xlabel(’s’) ylabel(’f_\beta(s)’,’rotation’,0) grid on The result can be seen in Figure 2. ?8 ?6 ?4 ?2 0 2 4 6?0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 s fβ(s) β=1 β=2 β=4 Figure 2: The probability distributions f1(s), f2(s), and f4(s), computed using the Painlev′e II solution. 2 Eigenvalue Spacings Distributions Another quantity with an interesting probability distribution is the spacings of the eigenvalues of random matrices. It turns out that the eigenvalues are almost uniformly distributed, which means that every random matrix gives a large number of spacings. The distributions can then be efficiently computed by simulation. Two other methods are used to compute the spacings distribution – the solution of the Painlev′e V nonlinear differential equation and the eigenvalues of the Prolate matrix. Finally, the results are compared with the spacings of the zeros along the critical line of the Riemann zeta function. 2.1 Simulation As before, the simulations are made with matrices from the Gaussian Unitary Ensemble. The normalized spacings of the eigenvalues λ1 ≤ λ2 ≤ ... ≤ λN are computed according to δ′k = λk+1 ?λkpiβ radicalBig 2βn?λ2k, k ≈ n/2, (20) where β = 2 for the GUE. The distribution of the eigenvalues is almost uniform, with a slight deviation at the two ends of the spectrum. Therefore, only half of the eigenvalues are used, and one quarter of the eigenvalues at each end is discarded. Again, to allow for a more efficient simulation, the tridiagonal matrix (3) is used instead of the full Hermitian matrix. In this case, all the eigenvalues are computed, which can be done in a time proportional to n2. While this could in principle be done using the MATLAB sparse matrix structure and the eigs function, the more efficient trideig function is used below to compute all the eigenvalues of a symmetric tridiagonal matrix. It can be downloaded from http://www.mit.edu/~persson/mltrid. The histogram can now be computed by simulation with the following lines of code. Note that the function chi2rnd from the Statistics Toolbox is required. n=1000; nrep=1000; beta=2; ds=zeros(1,nrep*n/2); for ii=1:nrep l=trideig(randn(n,1),sqrt(chi2rnd((n-1:-1:1)’*beta)/2)); d=diff(l(n/4:3*n/4))/beta/pi.*sqrt(2*beta*n-l(n/4:3*n/4-1).^2); ds((ii-1)*n/2+1:ii*n/2)=d; end histdistr(ds,0:0.05:5); The resulting histogram can be found in Figure 3. The figure also shows the expected curve as a solid line. 2.2 Painlev′e V The probability distribution p(s) for the eigenvalue spacings when β = 2 can be computed with the solution to the Painlev′e V nonlinear differential equation (see [4] for details): (tσ′′)2 +4(tσ′ ?σ)parenleftbigtσ′ ?σ +(σ′)2parenrightbig= 0 (21) with the boundary condition σ(t) ≈?tpi ? parenleftbiggt pi parenrightbigg2 , as t → 0+. (22) Then p(s) is given by p(s) = d 2 ds2E(s) (23) 0 1 2 3 4 5 60 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 Normalized Consecutive spacings Probability Random Matrix Eigenvalue Distribution Figure 3: Probability distribution of consecutive spacings of random matrix eigenvalues (1000 repetitions, n = 1000) where E(s) = exp parenleftbiggintegraldisplay pis 0 σ(t) t dt parenrightbigg . (24) Explicit differentiation gives p(s) = 1s2 parenleftbigpisσ′(pis)?σ(pis) + σ(pis)2parenrightbigE(s). (25) The second-order differential equation (21) can be written as a first-order system of differential equations: d dt parenleftbiggσ σ′ parenrightbigg = parenleftbigg σ′ ?2tradicalbig(σ ?tσ′)(tσ′ ?σ +(σ′)2) parenrightbigg . (26) This is solved as an initial-value problem starting at t = t0 =very small positive number. The value t = 0 has to be avoided because of the division by t in the system of equations. This is not a problem, since the boundary condition (22) provides an accurate value for σ(t0) (as well as E(t0/pi)). The boundary conditions for the system (26) then become braceleftBigg σ(t0) = ?t0pi ?parenleftbigt0piparenrightbig2 σ′(t0) = ?1pi ? 2t0pi . (27) To be able to compute E(s) using (24), the variable I(t) = integraldisplay t 0 σ(t′) t′ dt ′ (28) is added to the system, as well as the equation ddtI = σt . The corresponding initial value is I(t0) ≈ integraldisplay t0 0 parenleftbigg ?1pi ? tpi2 parenrightbigg dt = ?t0pi ? t 20 2pi2. (29) Putting it all together, the final system is d dt ? ? σ σ′ I ? ?= ? ? σ′ ?2tradicalbig(σ ?tσ′)(tσ′ ?σ +(σ′)2) σ t ? ? (30) with boundary condition ? ? σ(t0) σ′(t0) I(t0) ? ?= ? ??? t0 pi ? parenleftbigt 0 pi parenrightbig2 ?1pi ? 2t0pi ?t0pi ? t202pi2 ? ??. (31) This system is defined as an inline function in MATLAB: desig=inline([’[y(2); -2/t*sqrt((y(1)-t*y(2))*’ ... ’(t*y(2)-y(1)+y(2)^2)); y(1)/t]’],’t’,’y’); Specify the integration interval and the desired output times: t0=1e-12; tn=16; tspan=linspace(t0,tn,1000); Set the initial condition: y0=[-t0/pi-(t0/pi)^2; -1/pi-2*t0/pi; -t0/pi-t0^2/2/pi^2]; 0 5 10 15 20?70 ?60 ?50 ?40 ?30 ?20 ?10 0 t σ(t) 0 1 2 3 4 5 60 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 s E(s), p(s) Figure 4: Painlev′e V (left), E(s) and p(s) (right). Finally, set the integration tolerances and call the solver: opts=odeset(’reltol’,1e-13,’abstol’,1e-14); [t,y]=ode45(desig,tspan,y0,opts); The solution components are now in the columns of y. Use these to evaluate E(s) and p(s): s=t/pi; E=exp(y(:,3)); p=1./s.^2.*E.*(t.*y(:,2)-y(:,1)+y(:,1).^2); p(1)=2*s(1); % Fix due to cancellation A plot of p(s) can be made with the command plot(s,p) grid on and it can be seen in Figure 4. Plots are also shown of E(s) and σ(t). 2.3 The Prolate Matrix Another method to calculate the distribution of the eigenvalue spacings is to compute the eigenvalues λi of the operator f(y) → integraldisplay 1 ?1 Q(x,y)f(y)dy, Q(x,y) = sin((x?y)pit)(x?y)pi . (32) Then E(2t) =producttexti(1?λi), and p(s) can be computed as before. To do this, first define the infinite symmetric Prolate matrix: A∞ = ? ?? a0 a1 ... a1 a0 ... ... ... ... ? ?? (33) with a0 = 2w, ak = (sin2piwk)/pik for k = 1,2,..., and 0 < w < 12. A discretization of Q(x,y) is achieved by setting w = t/n and extracting the upper-left n×n submatrix An of A∞. Below, the full matrix An is used, and all the eigenvalues are computed in n3 time using the eig function. However, An commutes with the following symmetric tridiagonal matrix [5], and therefore has the same eigenvectors: Tn = ? ?? ?? ?? α1 β1 β1 α2 β2 ... ... ... βn?2 αn?1 βn?1 βn?1 αn ? ?? ?? ?? (34) where braceleftbigg αk = parenleftbign+12 ?kparenrightbig2 cos2piw βk = 12k(n?k). (35) It is then in principle possible to use the new techniques described in [6] to compute all the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of Tn in n2 time, and then get the eigenvalues of An by dot products. This is not done in this example. The code for computing E(s) is shown below. This time, p(s) is evaluated by numerical differentiation since no information about the derivative of E(s) is available. s=0:0.01:5; n=100; E0=zeros(size(s)); for ii=1:length(s) Q=gallery(’prolate’,n,s(ii)/2/n); E0(ii)=prod(1-eig(Q)); end p0=gradient(gradient(E0,s),s); To improve the accuracy in E(s), Richardson extrapolation can be used. This is done as follows, where the values are assumed to converge as 1/n2: % ... Compute s and E using Painleve V in previous section Es=zeros(length(t),0); E1=zeros(size(s)); for n=20*2.^(0:3) for ii=1:length(s) Q=gallery(’prolate’,n,s(ii)/2/n); E1(ii)=prod(1-eig(Q)); end Es=[Es,E1]; end for ii=1:3 max(abs(Es-E(:,ones(1,size(Es,2))))) Es=Es(:,2:end)+diff(Es,1,2)/(2^(ii+1)-1); end max(abs(Es-E)) The errors max0≤s≤5|E1(s)?E(s)| are shown in Table 1, for n = 20,40,80, and 160. The error after all extrapolations is of the same order as the “exact solution” using Painlev′e V. 2.4 Riemann Zeta Zeros It has been observed that the zeros of the Riemann zeta function along the critical line Re(z) = 12 behave similar to the eigenvalues of random matrices in the GUE. Here, the distribution of the scaled spacings of the N Error 0 Error 1 Error 2 Error 3 20 0.2244 40 0.0561 0.7701 80 0.0140 0.0483 0.5486 160 0.0035 0.0032 0.0323 2.2673 ·10?3 ·10?7 ·10?8 ·10?11 Table 1: Difference between Prolate solution E1(s) and Painlev′e V solution E(s) after 0, 1, 2, and 3 Richardson extrapolations. zeros is compared to the corresponding distribution for eigenvalues computed using the Painlev′e V equation from the previous chapters. Define the nth zero γn = nth as ζ parenleftbigg1 2 + iγn parenrightbigg = 0, 0 < γ1 < γ2 < ... (36) Compute a normalized spacing: ?γn = γnav spacing near γ n = γn · bracketleftbigglogγ n/2pi 2pi bracketrightbigg . (37) Zeros of the Riemann zeta function can be downloaded from [7]. Assuming that the MATLAB variable gamma contains the zeros, and the variable offset the offset, these two lines compute the consecutive spacings ?γn+1 ? ?γn and plot the histogram: delta=diff(gamma)/2/pi.*log((gamma(1:end-1)+offset)/2/pi); histdistr(delta,0:0.05:5.0); The result can be found in Figure 5, along with the Painlev′e V distribution. The curves are indeed in good agreement, although the number of samples here is a little to low to get a perfect match. References [1] Ioana Dumitriu and Alan Edelman. Matrix models for beta ensembles. Journal of Mathematical Physics, 2002. [2] Lloyd N. Trefethen and David Bau. Numerical Linear Algebra. SIAM, 1997. [3] Craig A. Tracy and Harold Widom. The distribution of the largest eigenvalue in the Gaussian ensembles. In “Calogero-Moser-Sutherland Models” (Ed. J.F. van Diejen, L. Vinet), CRM Ser. in Math. Phys. (4), Springer-Verlag, New York, 2000, 461–472. [4] Craig A. Tracy and Harold Widom. Introduction to random matrices. In ”Geometric and Quantum Aspects of Integrable Systems” (Ed. G. F. Helminck), Lecture Notes in Physics 424 (1993) 103-130, Springer-Verlag. [5] D. Slepian. Prolate spheroidal wave functions, Fourier analysis, and uncertainty V: The discrete case. Technical Report 57, Bell System Tech. J., 1978. [6] I. Dhillon. A new algorithm for the symmetric tridiagonal eigenvalue/- eigenvector problem, 1997. PhD. thesis, University of California, Berkeley. [7] Andrew Odlyzko. Tables of zeros of the riemann zeta function. 0 1 2 3 4 5 60 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 Normalized Consecutive spacings Probability Riemann Zeta Zero Distribution Figure 5: Probability distribution of consecutive spacings of Riemann zeta zeros (30,000 zeros, n ≈ 1012,1021,1022)