Chapter 26
Signal
transduction
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Carriers and channels form water soluble paths through the membrane
26.3 Ion channels are selective
26.4 Neurotransmitters control channel activity
26.5 G proteins may activate or inhibit target proteins
26.6 G proteins function by dissociation of the trimer
26.7 Growth factor receptors are protein kinases
26.8 Receptors are activated by dimerization
26.9 Receptor kinases activate signal transduction pathways
26.10 The Ras/MAPK pathway
26.11 The activation of Ras
26.12 Activating MAP kinase pathways
26.13 What determines specificity in signaling?
26.14 Cyclic AMP and activation of CREB
26.15 The JAK-STAT pathway
26.16 TGFb signals through Smads
26.17 Structural subunits can be messengers
Amplification refers to the production of additional copies of a
chromosomal sequence,found as intrachromosomal or
extrachromosomal DNA.
Endocytosis is process by which proteins at the surface of the
cell are internalized,being transported into the cell within
membranous vesicles.
G proteins are guanine nucleotide-binding proteins,Trimeric G
proteins are associated with the plasma membrane,When
bound by GDP the trimer remains intact and is inert,When the
GDP is replaced by GTP,the a subunit is released from the bg
dimer,Either the a monomer or the bg dimer then activates or
represses a target protein,Monomeric G proteins are cytosolic
and work on the same principle that the form bound to GDP is
inactive,but the form bound to GTP is active.
26.1 Introduction
Receptor is a transmembrane protein,located in the plasma
membrane,that binds a ligand in a domain on the extracellular side,
and as a result has a change in activity of the cytoplasmic domain,
(The same term is sometimes used also for the steroid receptors,
which are transcription factors that are activated by binding ligands
that are steroids or other small molecules.)
Second messengers are small molecules that are generated when a
signal transduction pathway is activated,The classic second
messenger is cyclic AMP,which is generated when adenylate
cyclase is activated by a G protein (when the G protein itself was
activated by a transmembrane receptor).
Signal transduction describes the process by which a receptor
interacts with a ligand at the surface of the cell and then transmits a
signal to trigger a pathway within the cell.
26.1 Introduction
Figure 26.1 Overview,
information may be
transmitted from the
exterior to the interior of
the cell by movement of
a ligand or by signal
transduction.
26.1 Introduction
Figure 26.2 Three
means for transferring
material of various
sizes into the cell are
provided by ion
channels,receptor-
mediated ligand
transport,and receptor
internalization.
26.1 Introduction
Figure 26.3 A signal may
be transduced by
activating the kinase
activity of the
cytoplasmic domain of a
transmembrane receptor
or by dissociating a G
protein into subunits that
act on target proteins on
the membrane.
26.1 Introduction
Figure 26.4 A carrier (porter)
transports a solute into the cell by
a conformational change that
brings the solute-binding site from
the exterior to the interior,while
an ion channel is controlled by the
opening of a gate (which might in
principle be located on either side
of the membrane).
26.2 Carriers and channels
form water soluble paths
through the membrane
Figure 26.4 A carrier (porter)
transports a solute into the cell by
a conformational change that
brings the solute-binding site from
the exterior to the interior,while
an ion channel is controlled by the
opening of a gate (which might in
principle be located on either side
of the membrane).
26.2 Carriers and channels
form water soluble paths
through the membrane
Figure 26.5 A channel may be created by amphipathic helices,which present their hydrophobic
faces to the lipid bilayer,while juxtaposing their charged faces away from the bilayer,In this
example,the channel is lined with positive charges,which would encourage the passage of anions.
26.2 Carriers and channels form water
soluble paths through the membrane
Figure 26.6 A potassium channel has a pore consisting of unusual transmembrane
regions,with a gate whose mechanism of action resembles a ball and chain.
26.2 Carriers and channels form water
soluble paths through the membrane
Figure 26.7 The
pore of a
potassium
channel consists
of three regions.
26.2 Carriers and channels form water
soluble paths through the membrane
Figure 26.8 A model of
the potassium channel
pore shows electrostatic
charge (blue = positive,
white = neutral,red =
negative) and
hydrophobicity (=
yellow),Photograph
kindly provided by Rod
MacKinnon.
26.2 Carriers and channels form water soluble
paths through the membrane
Figure 26.9 The acetyl-choline
receptor consists of a ring of 5
subunits,protruding into the
extra-cellular space,and
narrowing to form an ion channel
through the membrane.
26.2 Carriers and
channels form water
soluble paths through
the membrane
G proteins are guanine nucleotide-binding proteins,Trimeric G proteins
are associated with the plasma membrane,When bound by GDP the
trimer remains intact and is inert,When the GDP is replaced by GTP,
the a subunit is released from the bg dimer,Either the a monomer or the
bg dimer then activates or represses a target protein,Monomeric G
proteins are cytosolic and work on the same principle that the form
bound to GDP is inactive,but the form bound to GTP is active.
Receptor is a transmembrane protein,located in the plasma membrane,
that binds a ligand in a domain on the extracellular side,and as a result
has a change in activity of the cytoplasmic domain,(The same term is
sometimes used also for the steroid receptors,which are transcription
factors that are activated by binding ligands that are steroids or other
small molecules.)
26.3 G proteins may activate or
inhibit target proteins
Second messengers are small molecules that are generated
when a signal transduction pathway is activated,The classic
second messenger is cyclic AMP,which is generated when
adenylate cyclase is activated by a G protein (when the G
protein itself was activated by a transmembrane receptor).
Serpentine receptor has 7 transmembrane segments,
Typically it activates a trimeric G protein.
26.3 G proteins may activate or
inhibit target proteins
Figure 26.10 Classes of G proteins are
distinguished by their effectors and are activated
by a variety of transmembrane receptors.
26.3 G proteins may activate or
inhibit target proteins
Figure 26.11 Activation of Gs
causes the a subunit to activate
adenylate cyclase.
26.3 G proteins may
activate or inhibit target
proteins
Oncogenes are genes whose products have
the ability to transform eukaryotic cells so
that they grow in a manner analogous to
tumor cells,Oncogenes carried by
retroviruses have names of the form v-onc.
26.4 Protein tyrosine kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.12 Effectors for receptor tyrosine
kinases include phospholipases and kinases that
act on lipids to generate second messengers.
26.4 Protein tyrosine kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.13 The principle
underlying signal transduction
by a tyrosine kinase receptor
is that ligand binding to the
extracellular domain triggers
dimerization; this causes a
conformational change in the
cytoplasmic domain that
activates the tyrosine kinase
catalytic activity.
26.4 Protein tyrosine kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.14 Binding of
ligand to the extracellular
domain can induce
aggregation in several ways,
The common feature is that
this causes new contacts to
form between the
cytoplasmic domains.
26.4 Protein tyrosine
kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.15
Several types of
proteins involved
in signaling have
SH2 and SH3
domains.
26.4 Protein tyrosine kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.16
Phosphorylation of
tyrosine in an SH2-
binding domain creates
a binding site for a
protein that has an
SH2 domain.
26.4 Protein tyrosine
kinases induce
phosphorylation
cascades
Figure 26.17 Autophosphorylation of the
cytosolic domain of the PDGF receptor
creates SH2-binding sites for several
proteins,Some sites can bind more than
one type of SH2 domain,Some SH2-
containing proteins can bind to more than
one site,The kinase domain consists of
two separated regions (shown in blue),
and is activated by the phosphorylation
site in it.
26.4 Protein tyrosine
kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.18 The crystal
structure of an SH2 domain
(purple strands) bound to a
peptide containing
phosphotyrosine shows that the
P-Tyr (white) fits into the SH2
domain,and the 4 C-terminal
amino acids in the peptide
(backbone yellow,side chains
green) also make contact,
Photograph kindly provided by
John Kuriyan.
26.4 Protein tyrosine kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.19 Autophosphorylation
triggers the kinase activity of the
cytoplasmic domain of a receptor,
The target protein may be
recognized by an SH2 domain,
The signal may subsequently be
passed along a cascade of kinases.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.20 A common signal
transduction cascade passes from a
receptor tyrosine kinase through an
adaptor to activate Ras,which triggers
a series of Ser/Thr phosphorylation
events,Finally,activated MAP
kinases enter the nucleus and
phosphorylate transcription factors,
Missing components are indicated by
successive arrows.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.29 Homologous proteins are found in signal
transduction cascades in a wide variety of organisms.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.21 The Ras cascade is
initiated by a series of activation
events that occur on the cytoplasmic
face of the plasma membrane.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.17 Autophosphorylation
of the cytosolic domain of the
PDGF receptor creates SH2-
binding sites for several proteins,
Some sites can bind more than one
type of SH2 domain,Some SH2-
containing proteins can bind to
more than one site,The kinase
domain consists of two separated
regions (shown in blue),and is
activated by the phosphorylation
site in it.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.22
Phosphorylation at
different sites on a
receptor tyrosine
kinase may either
activate or inactivate
the signal
transduction
pathway.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 6.37 Monomeric G proteins are active when bound to GTP and inactive
when bound to GDP,Their activity is controlled by other proteins; inactivating
functions are shown in blue,and activating functions are shown in red.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.23 The relative
amounts of Ras-GTP and Ras-
GDP are controlled by two
proteins,Ras-GAP inactivates
Ras by stimulating hydrolysis
of GTP,SOS (GEF) activates
Ras by stimulating replacement
of GDP by GTP,and is
responsible for recycling of Ras
after it has been inactivated.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.24 Discrete domains of Ras proteins are
responsible for guanine nucleotide binding,
effector function,and membrane attachment.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.25 The crystal
structure of Ras protein has
6 b strands,4 a helices,and
9 connecting loops,The
GTP is bound by a pocket
generated by loops L9,L7,
L2,and L1.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.26 Changes
in cell structure that
occur during growth or
transformation are
mediated via
monomeric G proteins.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK
pathway
Scaffold of a chromosome is a
proteinaceous structure in the
shape of a sister chromatid pair,
generated when chromosomes
are depleted of histones.
26.6 Activating MAP kinase pathways
Figure 26.20 A common signal
transduction cascade passes from
a receptor tyrosine kinase
through an adaptor to activate
Ras,which triggers a series of
Ser/Thr phosphorylation events,
Finally,activated MAP kinases
enter the nucleus and
phosphorylate transcription
factors,Missing components are
indicated by successive arrows.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.19
Autophosphorylation triggers
the kinase activity of the
cytoplasmic domain of a
receptor,The target protein
may be recognized by an SH2
domain,The signal may
subsequently be passed along
a cascade of kinases.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.21 The Ras
cascade is initiated by a
series of activation
events that occur on the
cytoplasmic face of the
plasma membrane.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.27 A signal
transduction cascade passes to
the nucleus by translocation of a
component of the pathway or of
a transcription factor,The factor
may translocate directly as a
result of phosphorylation or may
be released when an inhibitor is
phosphorylated.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.28 Pathways activated
by receptor tyrosine kinases and
by serpentine receptors converge
upon MEK.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.29 Homologous proteins are found in signal
transduction cascades in a wide variety of organisms.
26.6 Activating MAP kinase pathways
Figure 26.30 STE5 provides
a scaffold that is necessary
for MEKK,MEK,and
MAPK to assemble into an
active complex.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.31 JNK is a
MAP-like kinase that
can be activated by
UV light or via Ras.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.32 Three MAP
kinase pathways have
analogous components,
Crosstalk between the
pathways is shown by
grey arrows.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.33 When cyclic
AMP binds to the R subunit
of PKA,the C subunit is
released; some C subunits
diffuse to the nucleus,where
they phosphorylate CREB.
26.7 Cyclic AMP and
activation of CREB
Figure 26.10 Classes of G proteins are distinguished
by their effectors and are activated by a variety of
transmembrane receptors.
26.7 Cyclic AMP and activation of CREB
Figure 26.34 Cytokine
receptors associate with
and activate JAK
kinases,STATs bind to
the complex and are
phosphorylated,They
dimerize and
translocate to the
nucleus,The complex
binds to DNA and
activates transcription.
26.8 The JAK-STAT pathway
Figure 26.35 Activation
of TGFb receptors
causes phosphorylation
of a Smad,which is
imported into the nucleus
to activate transcription.
26.9 TGF signals
through Smads
Figure 26.36
Activation of a
complex at the
plasma membrane
triggers release of a
subunit that migrates
to the nucleus to
activate transcription.
26.10 Structural
subunits can be
messengers
Figure 29.31 Wg secretion is assisted by
porc,Wg activates the Dfz2 receptor,
which inhibits Zw3 kinase,Active Zw3
causes turnover of Arm,Inhibition of
Zw3 stabilizes Arm,allowing it to
translocate to the nucleus,In the nucleus,
Arm partners Pan,and activates target
genes (including engrailed),A similar
pathway is found in vertebrate cells
(components named in blue).
26.10 Structural subunits
can be messengers
1,Integral proteins of the plasma membrane offer
several means for communication between the
extracellular milieu and the cytoplasm.
2,Ions may be transported by carrier proteins,which
may utilize passive diffusion or may be connected to
energy sources to undertake active diffusion.
3,Receptors typically are group I proteins,with a
single transmembrane domain,consisting exclusively
of uncharged amino acids,connecting the extracellular
and cytosolic domains.
4,The phosphorylation creates a binding site for the
SH2 motif of a target protein.
26.11 Summary
5,One group of effectors consists of enzymes that generate
second messengers,most typically phospholipases and
kinases that generate or phosphorylate small lipids.
6,The connection from receptor tyrosine kinases to the
MAP kinase pathway passes through Ras.
7,An alternative connection to the MAP kinase cascade
exists from serpentine receptors,
8,The cyclic AMP pathway for activating transcription
proceeds by releasing the catalytic subunit of PKA in the
cytosol.
9,JAK-STAT pathways are activated by cytokine receptors.
26.11 Summary
Signal
transduction
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Carriers and channels form water soluble paths through the membrane
26.3 Ion channels are selective
26.4 Neurotransmitters control channel activity
26.5 G proteins may activate or inhibit target proteins
26.6 G proteins function by dissociation of the trimer
26.7 Growth factor receptors are protein kinases
26.8 Receptors are activated by dimerization
26.9 Receptor kinases activate signal transduction pathways
26.10 The Ras/MAPK pathway
26.11 The activation of Ras
26.12 Activating MAP kinase pathways
26.13 What determines specificity in signaling?
26.14 Cyclic AMP and activation of CREB
26.15 The JAK-STAT pathway
26.16 TGFb signals through Smads
26.17 Structural subunits can be messengers
Amplification refers to the production of additional copies of a
chromosomal sequence,found as intrachromosomal or
extrachromosomal DNA.
Endocytosis is process by which proteins at the surface of the
cell are internalized,being transported into the cell within
membranous vesicles.
G proteins are guanine nucleotide-binding proteins,Trimeric G
proteins are associated with the plasma membrane,When
bound by GDP the trimer remains intact and is inert,When the
GDP is replaced by GTP,the a subunit is released from the bg
dimer,Either the a monomer or the bg dimer then activates or
represses a target protein,Monomeric G proteins are cytosolic
and work on the same principle that the form bound to GDP is
inactive,but the form bound to GTP is active.
26.1 Introduction
Receptor is a transmembrane protein,located in the plasma
membrane,that binds a ligand in a domain on the extracellular side,
and as a result has a change in activity of the cytoplasmic domain,
(The same term is sometimes used also for the steroid receptors,
which are transcription factors that are activated by binding ligands
that are steroids or other small molecules.)
Second messengers are small molecules that are generated when a
signal transduction pathway is activated,The classic second
messenger is cyclic AMP,which is generated when adenylate
cyclase is activated by a G protein (when the G protein itself was
activated by a transmembrane receptor).
Signal transduction describes the process by which a receptor
interacts with a ligand at the surface of the cell and then transmits a
signal to trigger a pathway within the cell.
26.1 Introduction
Figure 26.1 Overview,
information may be
transmitted from the
exterior to the interior of
the cell by movement of
a ligand or by signal
transduction.
26.1 Introduction
Figure 26.2 Three
means for transferring
material of various
sizes into the cell are
provided by ion
channels,receptor-
mediated ligand
transport,and receptor
internalization.
26.1 Introduction
Figure 26.3 A signal may
be transduced by
activating the kinase
activity of the
cytoplasmic domain of a
transmembrane receptor
or by dissociating a G
protein into subunits that
act on target proteins on
the membrane.
26.1 Introduction
Figure 26.4 A carrier (porter)
transports a solute into the cell by
a conformational change that
brings the solute-binding site from
the exterior to the interior,while
an ion channel is controlled by the
opening of a gate (which might in
principle be located on either side
of the membrane).
26.2 Carriers and channels
form water soluble paths
through the membrane
Figure 26.4 A carrier (porter)
transports a solute into the cell by
a conformational change that
brings the solute-binding site from
the exterior to the interior,while
an ion channel is controlled by the
opening of a gate (which might in
principle be located on either side
of the membrane).
26.2 Carriers and channels
form water soluble paths
through the membrane
Figure 26.5 A channel may be created by amphipathic helices,which present their hydrophobic
faces to the lipid bilayer,while juxtaposing their charged faces away from the bilayer,In this
example,the channel is lined with positive charges,which would encourage the passage of anions.
26.2 Carriers and channels form water
soluble paths through the membrane
Figure 26.6 A potassium channel has a pore consisting of unusual transmembrane
regions,with a gate whose mechanism of action resembles a ball and chain.
26.2 Carriers and channels form water
soluble paths through the membrane
Figure 26.7 The
pore of a
potassium
channel consists
of three regions.
26.2 Carriers and channels form water
soluble paths through the membrane
Figure 26.8 A model of
the potassium channel
pore shows electrostatic
charge (blue = positive,
white = neutral,red =
negative) and
hydrophobicity (=
yellow),Photograph
kindly provided by Rod
MacKinnon.
26.2 Carriers and channels form water soluble
paths through the membrane
Figure 26.9 The acetyl-choline
receptor consists of a ring of 5
subunits,protruding into the
extra-cellular space,and
narrowing to form an ion channel
through the membrane.
26.2 Carriers and
channels form water
soluble paths through
the membrane
G proteins are guanine nucleotide-binding proteins,Trimeric G proteins
are associated with the plasma membrane,When bound by GDP the
trimer remains intact and is inert,When the GDP is replaced by GTP,
the a subunit is released from the bg dimer,Either the a monomer or the
bg dimer then activates or represses a target protein,Monomeric G
proteins are cytosolic and work on the same principle that the form
bound to GDP is inactive,but the form bound to GTP is active.
Receptor is a transmembrane protein,located in the plasma membrane,
that binds a ligand in a domain on the extracellular side,and as a result
has a change in activity of the cytoplasmic domain,(The same term is
sometimes used also for the steroid receptors,which are transcription
factors that are activated by binding ligands that are steroids or other
small molecules.)
26.3 G proteins may activate or
inhibit target proteins
Second messengers are small molecules that are generated
when a signal transduction pathway is activated,The classic
second messenger is cyclic AMP,which is generated when
adenylate cyclase is activated by a G protein (when the G
protein itself was activated by a transmembrane receptor).
Serpentine receptor has 7 transmembrane segments,
Typically it activates a trimeric G protein.
26.3 G proteins may activate or
inhibit target proteins
Figure 26.10 Classes of G proteins are
distinguished by their effectors and are activated
by a variety of transmembrane receptors.
26.3 G proteins may activate or
inhibit target proteins
Figure 26.11 Activation of Gs
causes the a subunit to activate
adenylate cyclase.
26.3 G proteins may
activate or inhibit target
proteins
Oncogenes are genes whose products have
the ability to transform eukaryotic cells so
that they grow in a manner analogous to
tumor cells,Oncogenes carried by
retroviruses have names of the form v-onc.
26.4 Protein tyrosine kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.12 Effectors for receptor tyrosine
kinases include phospholipases and kinases that
act on lipids to generate second messengers.
26.4 Protein tyrosine kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.13 The principle
underlying signal transduction
by a tyrosine kinase receptor
is that ligand binding to the
extracellular domain triggers
dimerization; this causes a
conformational change in the
cytoplasmic domain that
activates the tyrosine kinase
catalytic activity.
26.4 Protein tyrosine kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.14 Binding of
ligand to the extracellular
domain can induce
aggregation in several ways,
The common feature is that
this causes new contacts to
form between the
cytoplasmic domains.
26.4 Protein tyrosine
kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.15
Several types of
proteins involved
in signaling have
SH2 and SH3
domains.
26.4 Protein tyrosine kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.16
Phosphorylation of
tyrosine in an SH2-
binding domain creates
a binding site for a
protein that has an
SH2 domain.
26.4 Protein tyrosine
kinases induce
phosphorylation
cascades
Figure 26.17 Autophosphorylation of the
cytosolic domain of the PDGF receptor
creates SH2-binding sites for several
proteins,Some sites can bind more than
one type of SH2 domain,Some SH2-
containing proteins can bind to more than
one site,The kinase domain consists of
two separated regions (shown in blue),
and is activated by the phosphorylation
site in it.
26.4 Protein tyrosine
kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.18 The crystal
structure of an SH2 domain
(purple strands) bound to a
peptide containing
phosphotyrosine shows that the
P-Tyr (white) fits into the SH2
domain,and the 4 C-terminal
amino acids in the peptide
(backbone yellow,side chains
green) also make contact,
Photograph kindly provided by
John Kuriyan.
26.4 Protein tyrosine kinases induce
phosphorylation cascades
Figure 26.19 Autophosphorylation
triggers the kinase activity of the
cytoplasmic domain of a receptor,
The target protein may be
recognized by an SH2 domain,
The signal may subsequently be
passed along a cascade of kinases.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.20 A common signal
transduction cascade passes from a
receptor tyrosine kinase through an
adaptor to activate Ras,which triggers
a series of Ser/Thr phosphorylation
events,Finally,activated MAP
kinases enter the nucleus and
phosphorylate transcription factors,
Missing components are indicated by
successive arrows.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.29 Homologous proteins are found in signal
transduction cascades in a wide variety of organisms.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.21 The Ras cascade is
initiated by a series of activation
events that occur on the cytoplasmic
face of the plasma membrane.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.17 Autophosphorylation
of the cytosolic domain of the
PDGF receptor creates SH2-
binding sites for several proteins,
Some sites can bind more than one
type of SH2 domain,Some SH2-
containing proteins can bind to
more than one site,The kinase
domain consists of two separated
regions (shown in blue),and is
activated by the phosphorylation
site in it.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.22
Phosphorylation at
different sites on a
receptor tyrosine
kinase may either
activate or inactivate
the signal
transduction
pathway.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 6.37 Monomeric G proteins are active when bound to GTP and inactive
when bound to GDP,Their activity is controlled by other proteins; inactivating
functions are shown in blue,and activating functions are shown in red.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.23 The relative
amounts of Ras-GTP and Ras-
GDP are controlled by two
proteins,Ras-GAP inactivates
Ras by stimulating hydrolysis
of GTP,SOS (GEF) activates
Ras by stimulating replacement
of GDP by GTP,and is
responsible for recycling of Ras
after it has been inactivated.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.24 Discrete domains of Ras proteins are
responsible for guanine nucleotide binding,
effector function,and membrane attachment.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.25 The crystal
structure of Ras protein has
6 b strands,4 a helices,and
9 connecting loops,The
GTP is bound by a pocket
generated by loops L9,L7,
L2,and L1.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK pathway
Figure 26.26 Changes
in cell structure that
occur during growth or
transformation are
mediated via
monomeric G proteins.
26.5 The Ras/MAPK
pathway
Scaffold of a chromosome is a
proteinaceous structure in the
shape of a sister chromatid pair,
generated when chromosomes
are depleted of histones.
26.6 Activating MAP kinase pathways
Figure 26.20 A common signal
transduction cascade passes from
a receptor tyrosine kinase
through an adaptor to activate
Ras,which triggers a series of
Ser/Thr phosphorylation events,
Finally,activated MAP kinases
enter the nucleus and
phosphorylate transcription
factors,Missing components are
indicated by successive arrows.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.19
Autophosphorylation triggers
the kinase activity of the
cytoplasmic domain of a
receptor,The target protein
may be recognized by an SH2
domain,The signal may
subsequently be passed along
a cascade of kinases.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.21 The Ras
cascade is initiated by a
series of activation
events that occur on the
cytoplasmic face of the
plasma membrane.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.27 A signal
transduction cascade passes to
the nucleus by translocation of a
component of the pathway or of
a transcription factor,The factor
may translocate directly as a
result of phosphorylation or may
be released when an inhibitor is
phosphorylated.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.28 Pathways activated
by receptor tyrosine kinases and
by serpentine receptors converge
upon MEK.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.29 Homologous proteins are found in signal
transduction cascades in a wide variety of organisms.
26.6 Activating MAP kinase pathways
Figure 26.30 STE5 provides
a scaffold that is necessary
for MEKK,MEK,and
MAPK to assemble into an
active complex.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.31 JNK is a
MAP-like kinase that
can be activated by
UV light or via Ras.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.32 Three MAP
kinase pathways have
analogous components,
Crosstalk between the
pathways is shown by
grey arrows.
26.6 Activating MAP
kinase pathways
Figure 26.33 When cyclic
AMP binds to the R subunit
of PKA,the C subunit is
released; some C subunits
diffuse to the nucleus,where
they phosphorylate CREB.
26.7 Cyclic AMP and
activation of CREB
Figure 26.10 Classes of G proteins are distinguished
by their effectors and are activated by a variety of
transmembrane receptors.
26.7 Cyclic AMP and activation of CREB
Figure 26.34 Cytokine
receptors associate with
and activate JAK
kinases,STATs bind to
the complex and are
phosphorylated,They
dimerize and
translocate to the
nucleus,The complex
binds to DNA and
activates transcription.
26.8 The JAK-STAT pathway
Figure 26.35 Activation
of TGFb receptors
causes phosphorylation
of a Smad,which is
imported into the nucleus
to activate transcription.
26.9 TGF signals
through Smads
Figure 26.36
Activation of a
complex at the
plasma membrane
triggers release of a
subunit that migrates
to the nucleus to
activate transcription.
26.10 Structural
subunits can be
messengers
Figure 29.31 Wg secretion is assisted by
porc,Wg activates the Dfz2 receptor,
which inhibits Zw3 kinase,Active Zw3
causes turnover of Arm,Inhibition of
Zw3 stabilizes Arm,allowing it to
translocate to the nucleus,In the nucleus,
Arm partners Pan,and activates target
genes (including engrailed),A similar
pathway is found in vertebrate cells
(components named in blue).
26.10 Structural subunits
can be messengers
1,Integral proteins of the plasma membrane offer
several means for communication between the
extracellular milieu and the cytoplasm.
2,Ions may be transported by carrier proteins,which
may utilize passive diffusion or may be connected to
energy sources to undertake active diffusion.
3,Receptors typically are group I proteins,with a
single transmembrane domain,consisting exclusively
of uncharged amino acids,connecting the extracellular
and cytosolic domains.
4,The phosphorylation creates a binding site for the
SH2 motif of a target protein.
26.11 Summary
5,One group of effectors consists of enzymes that generate
second messengers,most typically phospholipases and
kinases that generate or phosphorylate small lipids.
6,The connection from receptor tyrosine kinases to the
MAP kinase pathway passes through Ras.
7,An alternative connection to the MAP kinase cascade
exists from serpentine receptors,
8,The cyclic AMP pathway for activating transcription
proceeds by releasing the catalytic subunit of PKA in the
cytosol.
9,JAK-STAT pathways are activated by cytokine receptors.
26.11 Summary
