环境地质学 Environmental Geology
环境地质学
Environmental Geology
主讲人,万新南 教授
Prof,Wan xinnan
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
2、时空中的地球
Earth in Space and Time
1）早期的太阳系 The Early Solar System
Billions of years ago,out of a swirling mass
of gas and dust,evolved a system of varied planets
hurtling around a nuclear-powered star-our solar
system,One of these planets,and one only,give
rise to complex life forms,Over time,a tremendous
diversity of life forms and ecological system
developed,while the planet too evolved and
changed,its interior churning搅拌,its landmasses
shifting漂移,its surface constantly being reshaped
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
2、时空中的地球
Earth in Space and Time
1）、早期的太阳系 The Early Solar System
Billions of years ago,out of a swirling mass of
gas and dust,evolved a system of varied planets
hurtling around a nuclear-powered star-our solar
system,One of these planets,and one only,give rise to
complex life forms,Over time,a tremendous diversity of
life forms and ecological system developed,while the
planet too evolved and changed,its interior churning搅
拌,its landmasses shifting漂移,its surface constantly
being reshaped
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
2、时空中的地球
Earth in Space and Time
2） 九大行星的形成 The planets
The compositions of the planets formed depended
largely on how near they were to the hot sun,The planets
formed nearest to the sun contained mainly high-
temperature materials,metallic iron and a few minerals
with very high melting temperatures,with little water or
gas,Somewhat farther out,where temperatures were
lower,the developing planets incorporated much larger
amounts of lower-temperature minerals,including some
that contain water locked within their crystal structures,
(This development later made it possible for the earth to
have liquid water at its surface.) Still farther from the sun,
temperatures were so low that nearly all of the materials
in the original gas cloud condensed－ even materials like
methane and ammonia,which are gases at normal earth
surface temperatures and pressures.
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
2、时空中的地球
Earth in Space and Time
3、地球与其它星体的比较
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
2、时空中的地球
Earth in Space and Time
4）、地球的结构与组成
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4） 地球的构造与组成
2,时空中的地球 Earth in Space and Time
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
A,(地球的初始无序形态：无海洋、无大气）
The early earth was very different from what it is today,lacking the modern
oceans and atmosphere and having a much different surface from its present
one,probably more closely resembling the barren,cratered surface of the
moon,The planet was heated by several processes,the impact of the
colliding dust particles and meteorites as they came together to form the
earth,compression of the interior by gravity (that materials heat up when
compressed can be demonstrated by pumping up a bicycle tire and then
feeling the barrel of the pump① ),and energy release from decay of the
small amounts of several naturally radioactive elements that the earth
contains.
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
B,(地球的初始无序形态－三类热源、使之熔化、分异）
These three heat sources combined to raise the earth’s internal
temperature enough that parts of it,perhaps eventually most of it,melted,
although it was probably never molten all at once,Dense materials,like
metallic iron,would have tended to sink toward the middle of the earth,As
cooling progressed,lighter,low-density mineral crystallized and floated out
toward the surface,The eventual result was an earth differentiated into
several major compositional zones; the central core; the surrounding mantle;
and a thin crust at the surface (fig1.1.1),The process was complete before 4
billion years ago.（四十亿年前）
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
C,早期大气层的形成（ The earth’s early atmosphere）
quite different from the modern one,aside from the effects of modern pollution,
（ 1）、（无大气层、缺氧） The first atmosphere had little or no free oxygen in it,It
probably consisted dominantly of nitrogen and carbon dioxide ( the gas most
commonly released from volcanoes,aside from water② ) with minor amounts of
such gases as methane,ammonia,and various sulfur gases,
（ 2）、（人类不能生存） Humans could not have survived in this early atmosphere,
（ 3）、（藻类造氧说） Oxygen-breathing life of any kind could not exist before the
first simple plants-the single-celled blue-green algae藻 -appeared in large numbers
to modify the atmosphere,Their remains are found in rocks several billion years old,
They manufacture food by photosynthesis,using sunlight for energy,consuming
carbon dioxide,and releasing oxygen as a by-product,In time,enough oxygen
accumulated that the atmosphere could support oxygen-breathing organisms.
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
D、地球与地球表面岩石年龄的确定
（ 1）,Arranging Events in Order （事件排序法）
（ 2）,[Correlation] Fossils play a role in the determination or relative ages,too,
The concept that fossils could be the remains of older life forms dates back at least
to the ancient Greeks,but for some time it fell out of favor不再、失去, The idea was
seriously revived复苏 in the 1700s,and around the year 1800,William Smith put
forth the Law of Faunal Succession（生物层序法）,
(3),[Uniformitarianism] Geologic processes were the focus of another early
worker--the physician,farmer,and part-time geologist James Hutton,Hutton is
widely credited with developing and popularizing the concept of uniformitarianism①
均变说, Uniformitarianism is sometimes described briefly by the phrase“the present
is the key to the past.” （均变说）
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
D、地球与地球表面岩石年龄的确定
（ 4）,[ Radioactive Decay and Dating] As noted above,one key property of
any particular radioisotope is that it decays at a constant,characteristic rate,with a
distinct half-life,which can be determined in the laboratory,One can then,in
principle,use the relative amounts of a decaying isotope (parent) and the product
isotope into which it decays (daughter) to find the age of the sample,Fig.A.7
illustrates the fundamental idea,Suppose that parent isotope A decays to daughter
B with a half-life of 1 million years,（放射性测年）
（ 5）,[Radiometric and Relative Ages Combined] Radiometric dates放射性测
年 (dates determined using radioisotopic methods) are sometimes imprecisely
called,absolute” ages to distinguish them from the relative ages determined as
described earlier,For various reasons,accurate radiometric dates cannot be
determined for many rocks and fossils,so,absolute” and relative dating methods
are often used in conjunction,（放射性测年与相对年龄法结合）
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
E、地质时代表 Geologic time
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4） 地球上的生物演化 Earth,then and now
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
3、人口 Nature and Rate
of Population Growth
? Growth Rates,
Causes and Consequences
? Growth Rate and Doubling Time
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
3、人口 Nature and Rate
of Population Growth
? 世界总人口与人口分布
? 亚洲与中国人口
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
3、人口 Nature and Rate
of Population Growth
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
Atomic Structure
All natural and most synthetic substances on earth are made from the
ninety naturally occurring chemical elements,An atom is the smallest particle
into which an element can be divided while still retaining the chemical
characteristics of that element (fig 3.1),The nucleus,at the center of the atom,
contains one or more particles with a positive electrical charge (protons质子 )
and usually some particles of similar mass that have no charge (neutrons中子
),Circling the nucleus核 are the negatively charged electrons.
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
Elements and Isotopes
4,With the exception of the simplest hydrogen atoms,all nuclei
contain neutrons,and the number of neutrons is similar to or somewhat
greater than the number of protons,The number of neutrons in atoms of one
element is not always the same,The sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons in a nucleus is the atom's atomic mass number,Atoms
of a given element with different atomic mass numbers—in other words,with
the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons—are distinct
isotopes of that element,Some elements have only a single isotope,while
others may have ten or more,(The
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
Chemical Symbols
8,Each chemical element is denoted by a one-or two-letter symbol,
Many of these symbols make sense in terms of the English name for
the element--O for oxygen,He for helium,Si for silicon,and so on,
Other symbols reflect the fact that,in earlier centuries,scientists were
generally versed in Latin or Greek,The symbols Fe for iron and Pb for
lead,for example,and derived from ferrum and plumbum,respectively,
the Latin names for these elements.
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
Minerals Defined
11,A mineral is naturally occurring,inorganic,solid element or
compound with a definite chemical composition and a regular internal
crystal structure,Naturally occurring,as distinguished from synthetic,
means that minerals do not include the thousands of chemical
substances invented by humans,Inorganic means not produced solely
by living organisms or by biological processes,That minerals must be
solid means that the ice of a glacier is a mineral,but liquid water is not,
Chemically,minerals may consist either of one element-like diamonds,
which are pure carbon--or they may be compounds of two or more
elements,Some mineral compositions are very complex,consisting of
ten elements or more,Minerals have a definite chemical composition
or a compositional range within which they fall,The presence of
certain elements in certain proportions is one of
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
Identifying Characteristics of Minerals
12,The two fundamental characteristics of a mineral that together
distinguish it from all other minerals are its chemical composition and
its crystal structure,No two minerals are identical in both respects,
though they may be the same in one,For example,diamond and
graphite (the,lead” in a lead pencil) are chemical the same--both are
made up pure carbon,Their physical properties,however,are vastly
different because of the differences in their internal crystalline
structures,In a diamond,each carbon atom is firmly bonded to every
adjacent carbon atom in every direction,In graphite石墨,the carbon
atoms are bonded strongly in two dimensions into sheets,but the
sheets are only weakly held together in the third
环境地质学
Environmental Geology
主讲人,万新南 教授
Prof,Wan xinnan
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
2、时空中的地球
Earth in Space and Time
1）早期的太阳系 The Early Solar System
Billions of years ago,out of a swirling mass
of gas and dust,evolved a system of varied planets
hurtling around a nuclear-powered star-our solar
system,One of these planets,and one only,give
rise to complex life forms,Over time,a tremendous
diversity of life forms and ecological system
developed,while the planet too evolved and
changed,its interior churning搅拌,its landmasses
shifting漂移,its surface constantly being reshaped
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
2、时空中的地球
Earth in Space and Time
1）、早期的太阳系 The Early Solar System
Billions of years ago,out of a swirling mass of
gas and dust,evolved a system of varied planets
hurtling around a nuclear-powered star-our solar
system,One of these planets,and one only,give rise to
complex life forms,Over time,a tremendous diversity of
life forms and ecological system developed,while the
planet too evolved and changed,its interior churning搅
拌,its landmasses shifting漂移,its surface constantly
being reshaped
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
2、时空中的地球
Earth in Space and Time
2） 九大行星的形成 The planets
The compositions of the planets formed depended
largely on how near they were to the hot sun,The planets
formed nearest to the sun contained mainly high-
temperature materials,metallic iron and a few minerals
with very high melting temperatures,with little water or
gas,Somewhat farther out,where temperatures were
lower,the developing planets incorporated much larger
amounts of lower-temperature minerals,including some
that contain water locked within their crystal structures,
(This development later made it possible for the earth to
have liquid water at its surface.) Still farther from the sun,
temperatures were so low that nearly all of the materials
in the original gas cloud condensed－ even materials like
methane and ammonia,which are gases at normal earth
surface temperatures and pressures.
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
2、时空中的地球
Earth in Space and Time
3、地球与其它星体的比较
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
2、时空中的地球
Earth in Space and Time
4）、地球的结构与组成
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4） 地球的构造与组成
2,时空中的地球 Earth in Space and Time
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
A,(地球的初始无序形态：无海洋、无大气）
The early earth was very different from what it is today,lacking the modern
oceans and atmosphere and having a much different surface from its present
one,probably more closely resembling the barren,cratered surface of the
moon,The planet was heated by several processes,the impact of the
colliding dust particles and meteorites as they came together to form the
earth,compression of the interior by gravity (that materials heat up when
compressed can be demonstrated by pumping up a bicycle tire and then
feeling the barrel of the pump① ),and energy release from decay of the
small amounts of several naturally radioactive elements that the earth
contains.
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
B,(地球的初始无序形态－三类热源、使之熔化、分异）
These three heat sources combined to raise the earth’s internal
temperature enough that parts of it,perhaps eventually most of it,melted,
although it was probably never molten all at once,Dense materials,like
metallic iron,would have tended to sink toward the middle of the earth,As
cooling progressed,lighter,low-density mineral crystallized and floated out
toward the surface,The eventual result was an earth differentiated into
several major compositional zones; the central core; the surrounding mantle;
and a thin crust at the surface (fig1.1.1),The process was complete before 4
billion years ago.（四十亿年前）
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
C,早期大气层的形成（ The earth’s early atmosphere）
quite different from the modern one,aside from the effects of modern pollution,
（ 1）、（无大气层、缺氧） The first atmosphere had little or no free oxygen in it,It
probably consisted dominantly of nitrogen and carbon dioxide ( the gas most
commonly released from volcanoes,aside from water② ) with minor amounts of
such gases as methane,ammonia,and various sulfur gases,
（ 2）、（人类不能生存） Humans could not have survived in this early atmosphere,
（ 3）、（藻类造氧说） Oxygen-breathing life of any kind could not exist before the
first simple plants-the single-celled blue-green algae藻 -appeared in large numbers
to modify the atmosphere,Their remains are found in rocks several billion years old,
They manufacture food by photosynthesis,using sunlight for energy,consuming
carbon dioxide,and releasing oxygen as a by-product,In time,enough oxygen
accumulated that the atmosphere could support oxygen-breathing organisms.
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
D、地球与地球表面岩石年龄的确定
（ 1）,Arranging Events in Order （事件排序法）
（ 2）,[Correlation] Fossils play a role in the determination or relative ages,too,
The concept that fossils could be the remains of older life forms dates back at least
to the ancient Greeks,but for some time it fell out of favor不再、失去, The idea was
seriously revived复苏 in the 1700s,and around the year 1800,William Smith put
forth the Law of Faunal Succession（生物层序法）,
(3),[Uniformitarianism] Geologic processes were the focus of another early
worker--the physician,farmer,and part-time geologist James Hutton,Hutton is
widely credited with developing and popularizing the concept of uniformitarianism①
均变说, Uniformitarianism is sometimes described briefly by the phrase“the present
is the key to the past.” （均变说）
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
D、地球与地球表面岩石年龄的确定
（ 4）,[ Radioactive Decay and Dating] As noted above,one key property of
any particular radioisotope is that it decays at a constant,characteristic rate,with a
distinct half-life,which can be determined in the laboratory,One can then,in
principle,use the relative amounts of a decaying isotope (parent) and the product
isotope into which it decays (daughter) to find the age of the sample,Fig.A.7
illustrates the fundamental idea,Suppose that parent isotope A decays to daughter
B with a half-life of 1 million years,（放射性测年）
（ 5）,[Radiometric and Relative Ages Combined] Radiometric dates放射性测
年 (dates determined using radioisotopic methods) are sometimes imprecisely
called,absolute” ages to distinguish them from the relative ages determined as
described earlier,For various reasons,accurate radiometric dates cannot be
determined for many rocks and fossils,so,absolute” and relative dating methods
are often used in conjunction,（放射性测年与相对年龄法结合）
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
E、地质时代表 Geologic time
5） 地球的演化 Earth,then and now
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4） 地球上的生物演化 Earth,then and now
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
3、人口 Nature and Rate
of Population Growth
? Growth Rates,
Causes and Consequences
? Growth Rate and Doubling Time
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
3、人口 Nature and Rate
of Population Growth
? 世界总人口与人口分布
? 亚洲与中国人口
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
3、人口 Nature and Rate
of Population Growth
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
Atomic Structure
All natural and most synthetic substances on earth are made from the
ninety naturally occurring chemical elements,An atom is the smallest particle
into which an element can be divided while still retaining the chemical
characteristics of that element (fig 3.1),The nucleus,at the center of the atom,
contains one or more particles with a positive electrical charge (protons质子 )
and usually some particles of similar mass that have no charge (neutrons中子
),Circling the nucleus核 are the negatively charged electrons.
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
Elements and Isotopes
4,With the exception of the simplest hydrogen atoms,all nuclei
contain neutrons,and the number of neutrons is similar to or somewhat
greater than the number of protons,The number of neutrons in atoms of one
element is not always the same,The sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons in a nucleus is the atom's atomic mass number,Atoms
of a given element with different atomic mass numbers—in other words,with
the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons—are distinct
isotopes of that element,Some elements have only a single isotope,while
others may have ten or more,(The
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
Chemical Symbols
8,Each chemical element is denoted by a one-or two-letter symbol,
Many of these symbols make sense in terms of the English name for
the element--O for oxygen,He for helium,Si for silicon,and so on,
Other symbols reflect the fact that,in earlier centuries,scientists were
generally versed in Latin or Greek,The symbols Fe for iron and Pb for
lead,for example,and derived from ferrum and plumbum,respectively,
the Latin names for these elements.
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
Minerals Defined
11,A mineral is naturally occurring,inorganic,solid element or
compound with a definite chemical composition and a regular internal
crystal structure,Naturally occurring,as distinguished from synthetic,
means that minerals do not include the thousands of chemical
substances invented by humans,Inorganic means not produced solely
by living organisms or by biological processes,That minerals must be
solid means that the ice of a glacier is a mineral,but liquid water is not,
Chemically,minerals may consist either of one element-like diamonds,
which are pure carbon--or they may be compounds of two or more
elements,Some mineral compositions are very complex,consisting of
ten elements or more,Minerals have a definite chemical composition
or a compositional range within which they fall,The presence of
certain elements in certain proportions is one of
环境地质学 Environmental Geology
4,地球物质的化学组成
Rock and Minerals in earth
Identifying Characteristics of Minerals
12,The two fundamental characteristics of a mineral that together
distinguish it from all other minerals are its chemical composition and
its crystal structure,No two minerals are identical in both respects,
though they may be the same in one,For example,diamond and
graphite (the,lead” in a lead pencil) are chemical the same--both are
made up pure carbon,Their physical properties,however,are vastly
different because of the differences in their internal crystalline
structures,In a diamond,each carbon atom is firmly bonded to every
adjacent carbon atom in every direction,In graphite石墨,the carbon
atoms are bonded strongly in two dimensions into sheets,but the
sheets are only weakly held together in the third
