2013-3-1 1
Chapter 7,
Project Quality
Management
2013-3-1 2
Learning Objectives
? Understand the importance of project quality management and the
role of the project manager in assuring quality
? Define quality and how it relates to various aspects of information
technology projects
? Discuss quality experts’ view of modern quality management
? Describe what is involved in quality planning,quality assurance,
and quality control on projects
? Explain quality control tool and techniques such as Pareto charts,
statistical sampling,quality control charts,six sigma,and the seven
run rule
? Compare the different types of testing for information technology
projects and how they relate to quality
? Describe key issues relating to improving quality in information
technology projects
2013-3-1 3
Chapter Outline
? Quality of IT Projects
? What is Project Quality Management?
? Modern Quality Management
? Quality Planning
? Quality Assurance
? Quality Control
? Tools and Techniques for Quality Control
? Pareto Analysis
? Statistical Sampling and Standard Deviation
? Quality Control Charts,Six Sigma,and the Seven Run Rule
? Testing
2013-3-1 4
Chapter Outline
? Improving Information Technology Project Quality
? Leadership
? The Cost of Quality
? Organizational Influences,Workplace Factors,and Quality
? Maturity Models
? Software Quality Function Deployment Model
? Capability Maturity Model
? Project Management Maturity Model
2013-3-1 5
7.1 Quality of IT Projects
2013-3-1 6
Opening Case
? Read the opening case on pp,174-175
? What are some of the quality problems
in this case?
? Which problems would be most difficult
to fix?
? How would you proceed if you were
Scott Daniels?
2013-3-1 7
Quality of IT Projects
? Many people joke about the poor
quality of IT products
? People seem to accept systems being
down occasionally or needing to reboot
their PCs
? There are many examples in the news
about quality problems related to IT
? But quality is very important in many IT
projects
2013-3-1 8
7.2 What Is Project Quality
Management?
2013-3-1 9
Project Quality Management
? The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) defines quality as the
totality of characteristics of an entity that
bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied
needs
? Other experts define quality based on
? conformance to requirements,meeting written
specifications
? fitness for use,ensuring a product can be used as
it was intended
2013-3-1 10
Need to Understand Stakeholder
Expectations and View of Quality
? One of your neighbors just bought an
“expensive” car,How much did it cost?
? You had to wait in line a,long time.” How
long did you wait?
? You applied for a job,and the response letter
said they’d get back to you,in the near
future.” When will they get back to you?
? Your boss is,really old.” How old is he/she?
2013-3-1 11
Project Quality Management
Processes
? Quality planning,identifying which quality
standards are relevant to the project and how
to satisfy them
? Quality assurance,evaluating overall
project performance to ensure the project will
satisfy the relevant quality standards
? Quality control,monitoring specific project
results to ensure that they comply with the
relevant quality standards while identifying
ways to improve overall quality
2013-3-1 12
7.3 Modern Quality Management
2013-3-1 13
Modern Quality Management
? Modern quality management
? requires customer satisfaction
? prefers prevention to inspection
? recognizes management responsibility for
quality
? Noteworthy quality experts include
Deming,Juran,Crosby,Ishikawa,
Taguchi,and Feigenbaum
2013-3-1 14
Quality Experts
? Deming(戴明 ) was famous for his work in rebuilding
Japan and his 14 points
? Juran(朱兰 ) wrote the Quality Control Handbook and
10 steps to quality improvement
? Crosby(克鲁斯比 ) wrote Quality is Free and
suggested that organizations strive for zero defects
? Ishikawa(石川馨 ) developed the concept of quality
circles and using fishbone diagrams
? Taguchi(田口宏一 ) developed methods for optimizing
the process of engineering experimentation
? Feigenbaum(菲根堡姆 ) developed the concept of
total quality control
2013-3-1 15
Sample Fishbone or Ishikawa
Diagram
2013-3-1 16
Malcolm Baldrige Award and
ISO 9000
? The Malcolm Baldrige Quality Award
was started in 1987 to recognize
companies with world-class quality
? ISO 9000 provides minimum
requirements for an organization to
meet their quality certification
standards
2013-3-1 17
7.4 Quality Planning
2013-3-1 18
Quality Planning
? It is important to design in quality and
communicate important factors that directly
contribute to meeting the customer’s
requirements
? Design of experiments helps identify which
variables have the most influence on the overall
outcome of a process
? Many scope aspects of IT projects affect quality
like functionality,features,system outputs,
performance,reliability,and maintainability
2013-3-1 19
7.5 Quality Assurance
2013-3-1 20
Quality Assurance
? Quality assurance includes all the activities
related to satisfying the relevant quality
standards for a project
? Another goal of quality assurance is continuous
quality improvement
? Benchmarking can be used to generate ideas
for quality improvements
? Quality audits help identify lessons learned that
can improve performance on current or future
projects
2013-3-1 21
7.6 Quality Control
2013-3-1 22
Quality Control
? The main outputs of quality control are
? acceptance decisions
? rework
? process adjustments
? Some tools and techniques include
? pareto analysis
? statistical sampling
? quality control charts
? testing
2013-3-1 23
7.7 Tools and Techniques for
Quality Control
2013-3-1 24
1.Pareto Analysis
? Pareto analysis involves identifying the
vital few contributors that account for the
most quality problems in a system
? Also called the 80-20 rule,meaning that
80% of problems are often due to 20% of
the causes
? Pareto diagrams are histograms that help
identify and prioritize problem areas
2013-3-1 25
Sample Pareto Diagram
2013-3-1 26
2.Statistical Sampling and
Standard Deviation
? Statistical sampling involves choosing
part of a population of interest for
inspection
? The size of a sample depends on how
representative you want the sample to
be
? Sample size formula,
Sample size =,25 X (certainty Factor/acceptable error)2
2013-3-1 27
Commonly Used Certainty Factors D e s i r e d C e r ta i n ty C e r ta i n ty Fac to r
95% 1,9 6 0
90% 1,6 4 5
80% 1,2 8 1
95% certainty,Sample size = 0.25 X (1.960/.05) 2 = 384
90% certainty,Sample size = 0.25 X (1.645/.10)2 = 68
80% certainty,Sample size = 0.25 X (1.281/.20)2 = 10
2013-3-1 28
Standard Deviation
? Standard deviation measures how much
variation exists in a distribution of data
? A small standard deviation means that data
cluster closely around the middle of a
distribution and there is little variability
among the data
? A normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve
that is symmetrical about the mean or
average value of a population
2013-3-1 29
Normal Distribution and Standard
Deviation
2013-3-1 30
Sigma and Defective Units
S p ec i f i cat i on Ran ge
(in + / - S i gm as )
P er ce n t of
P op u l ation
W i th i n Ran ge
Def ec tive Un i ts
P er B i l l i on
1 68.27 317,300,000
2 95.45 45,400,000
3 99.73 2,700,000
4 99.9937 63,000
5 99.999943 57
6 99.9999998 2
-Note:,Six sigma” often refers to +/-3 sigma,meaning 2.7 million
defects per billion units produced,or 2.7defects per million
-Class inputs on Six sigma?
2013-3-1 31
3.Quality Control Charts,Six Sigma,
and the Seven Run Rule
? A control chart is a graphic display of data that
illustrates the results of a process over time,It
helps prevent defects and allows you to determine
whether a process is in control or out of control
? Operating at a higher sigma value,like 6 sigma,
means the product tolerance or control limits have
less variability
? The seven run rule states that if seven data points
in a row are all below the mean,above the mean,or
increasing or decreasing,then the process needs to
be examined for non-random problems
2013-3-1 32
Sample Quality Control Chart
2013-3-1 33
4,Testing
? Many IT professionals think of testing
as a stage that comes near the end of
IT product development
? Testing should be done during almost
every phase of the IT product
development life cycle
2013-3-1 34
Testing Tasks in the Software
Development Life Cycle
2013-3-1 35
Types of Tests
? A unit test is done to test each individual
component (often a program) to ensure it is
as defect free as possible
? Integration testing occurs between unit
and system testing to test functionally
grouped components
? System testing tests the entire system as
one entity
? User acceptance testing is an
independent test performed by the end user
prior to accepting the delivered system
2013-3-1 36
Gantt Chart for Building Testing into a
Systems Development Project Plan
2013-3-1 37
7.8 Improving IT Project
Quality
2013-3-1 38
Improving IT Project Quality
? Several suggestions for improving
quality for IT projects include
? Leadership that promotes quality
? Understanding the cost of quality
? Focusing on organizational influences and
workplace factors that affect quality
? Following maturity models to improve
quality
2013-3-1 39
1.Leadership
?, It is most important that top
management be quality-minded,In the
absence of sincere manifestation of
interest at the top,little will happen
below.” (Juran,1945)
? A large percentage of quality problems
are associated with management,not
technical issues
2013-3-1 40
2.The Cost of Quality
? The cost of quality is
? the cost of conformance or delivering
products that meet requirements and
fitness for use
? the cost of nonconformance or taking
responsibility for failures or not meeting
quality expectations
2013-3-1 41
Costs Per Hour of Downtime Caused
by Software Defects
Bu sin e ss C o st p e r H o ur D o wnt im e
A u to m a te d te lle r m a c h in e s ( m e d iu m - size d b a n k ) $ 1 4,5 0 0
Pa c k a g e s h ip p in g s e r v ic e $ 2 8,2 5 0
T e le p h o n e tic k e t s a le s $ 6 9,0 0 0
Ca ta lo g s a le s c e n te r $ 9 0,0 0 0
A ir lin e r e se r v a tio n c e n te r ( sm a ll a ir lin e ) $ 8 9,5 0 0
2013-3-1 42
Five Cost Categories Related to Quality
? Prevention cost,the cost of planning and executing
a project so it is error-free or within an acceptable
error range
? Appraisal cost,the cost of evaluating processes and
their outputs to ensure quality
? Internal failure cost,cost incurred to correct an
identified defect before the customer receives the
product
? External failure cost,cost that relates to all errors
not detected and corrected before delivery to the
customer
? Measurement and test equipment costs,capital
cost of equipment used to perform prevention and
appraisal activities
2013-3-1 43
3.Organization Influences,Workplace
Factors,and Quality
? Study by DeMarco and Lister showed that
organizational issues had a much greater influence
on programmer productivity than the technical
environment or programming languages
? Programmer productivity varied by a factor of one to
ten across organizations,but only by 21% within the
same organization
? Study found no correlation between productivity and
programming language,years of experience,or
salary
? A dedicated and a quiet work environment were key
factors to improving programmer productivity
2013-3-1 44
4,Maturity Models
? Maturity models are frameworks for
helping organization improve their
processes and systems
? Software Quality Function Deployment
Model focuses on defining user requirements
and planning software projects
? The Software Engineering Institute’s Capability
Maturity Model provides a generic path to
process improvement for software development
? Several groups are working on project
management maturity models
2013-3-1 45
Project Management Maturity Model
1,Ad-Hoc,The project management process is described as
disorganized,and occasionally even chaotic,The organization
has not defined systems and processes,and project success
depends on individual effort,There are chronic cost and
schedule problems,
2,Abbreviated,There are some project management processes
and systems in place to track cost,schedule,and scope,
Project success is largely unpredictable and cost and schedule
problems are common,
3,Organized,There are standardized,documented project
management processes and systems that are integrated into
the rest of the organization,Project success is more
predictable,and cost and schedule performance is improved,
2013-3-1 46
Project Management Maturity Model
4,Managed,Management collects and uses detailed
measures of the effectiveness of project
management,Project success is more uniform,
and cost and schedule performance conforms to
plan,
5,Adaptive,Feedback from the project management
process and from piloting innovative ideas and
technologies enables continuous improvement,
Project success is the norm,
2013-3-1 47
Project Management Maturity by Industry
Group and Knowledge Area
2013-3-1 48
Companies Striving to Improve
Maturity Levels
? Many consulting firms and other
organizations are now available to help
measure current maturity levels and make
suggestions for improving
? The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) from
from SEI is very popular
? PMI is working on a standard for
measuring project management maturity
2013-3-1 49
Quick Quiz
? 1.Define quality and what is meant by stated and implied needs,
? 2.Who created fishbone diagrams,and what are they used for?
? 3.Which is better,3 sigma,4 sigma,5 sigma,or 6 sigma?
?ANSWER,Quality is the totality of characteristics of an entity that
bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs,Stated needs are
formally communicated either verbally or in writing,Implied needs
mean the product is fit for use or can be used as it was intended,
?ANSWER,Ishikawa developed fishbone diagrams,and they are
used to trace complaints about quality problems back to the
responsible production operations to find the root cause,
? ANSWER,6 sigma,There are less defective units as sigma
increases,
Chapter 7,
Project Quality
Management
2013-3-1 2
Learning Objectives
? Understand the importance of project quality management and the
role of the project manager in assuring quality
? Define quality and how it relates to various aspects of information
technology projects
? Discuss quality experts’ view of modern quality management
? Describe what is involved in quality planning,quality assurance,
and quality control on projects
? Explain quality control tool and techniques such as Pareto charts,
statistical sampling,quality control charts,six sigma,and the seven
run rule
? Compare the different types of testing for information technology
projects and how they relate to quality
? Describe key issues relating to improving quality in information
technology projects
2013-3-1 3
Chapter Outline
? Quality of IT Projects
? What is Project Quality Management?
? Modern Quality Management
? Quality Planning
? Quality Assurance
? Quality Control
? Tools and Techniques for Quality Control
? Pareto Analysis
? Statistical Sampling and Standard Deviation
? Quality Control Charts,Six Sigma,and the Seven Run Rule
? Testing
2013-3-1 4
Chapter Outline
? Improving Information Technology Project Quality
? Leadership
? The Cost of Quality
? Organizational Influences,Workplace Factors,and Quality
? Maturity Models
? Software Quality Function Deployment Model
? Capability Maturity Model
? Project Management Maturity Model
2013-3-1 5
7.1 Quality of IT Projects
2013-3-1 6
Opening Case
? Read the opening case on pp,174-175
? What are some of the quality problems
in this case?
? Which problems would be most difficult
to fix?
? How would you proceed if you were
Scott Daniels?
2013-3-1 7
Quality of IT Projects
? Many people joke about the poor
quality of IT products
? People seem to accept systems being
down occasionally or needing to reboot
their PCs
? There are many examples in the news
about quality problems related to IT
? But quality is very important in many IT
projects
2013-3-1 8
7.2 What Is Project Quality
Management?
2013-3-1 9
Project Quality Management
? The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) defines quality as the
totality of characteristics of an entity that
bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied
needs
? Other experts define quality based on
? conformance to requirements,meeting written
specifications
? fitness for use,ensuring a product can be used as
it was intended
2013-3-1 10
Need to Understand Stakeholder
Expectations and View of Quality
? One of your neighbors just bought an
“expensive” car,How much did it cost?
? You had to wait in line a,long time.” How
long did you wait?
? You applied for a job,and the response letter
said they’d get back to you,in the near
future.” When will they get back to you?
? Your boss is,really old.” How old is he/she?
2013-3-1 11
Project Quality Management
Processes
? Quality planning,identifying which quality
standards are relevant to the project and how
to satisfy them
? Quality assurance,evaluating overall
project performance to ensure the project will
satisfy the relevant quality standards
? Quality control,monitoring specific project
results to ensure that they comply with the
relevant quality standards while identifying
ways to improve overall quality
2013-3-1 12
7.3 Modern Quality Management
2013-3-1 13
Modern Quality Management
? Modern quality management
? requires customer satisfaction
? prefers prevention to inspection
? recognizes management responsibility for
quality
? Noteworthy quality experts include
Deming,Juran,Crosby,Ishikawa,
Taguchi,and Feigenbaum
2013-3-1 14
Quality Experts
? Deming(戴明 ) was famous for his work in rebuilding
Japan and his 14 points
? Juran(朱兰 ) wrote the Quality Control Handbook and
10 steps to quality improvement
? Crosby(克鲁斯比 ) wrote Quality is Free and
suggested that organizations strive for zero defects
? Ishikawa(石川馨 ) developed the concept of quality
circles and using fishbone diagrams
? Taguchi(田口宏一 ) developed methods for optimizing
the process of engineering experimentation
? Feigenbaum(菲根堡姆 ) developed the concept of
total quality control
2013-3-1 15
Sample Fishbone or Ishikawa
Diagram
2013-3-1 16
Malcolm Baldrige Award and
ISO 9000
? The Malcolm Baldrige Quality Award
was started in 1987 to recognize
companies with world-class quality
? ISO 9000 provides minimum
requirements for an organization to
meet their quality certification
standards
2013-3-1 17
7.4 Quality Planning
2013-3-1 18
Quality Planning
? It is important to design in quality and
communicate important factors that directly
contribute to meeting the customer’s
requirements
? Design of experiments helps identify which
variables have the most influence on the overall
outcome of a process
? Many scope aspects of IT projects affect quality
like functionality,features,system outputs,
performance,reliability,and maintainability
2013-3-1 19
7.5 Quality Assurance
2013-3-1 20
Quality Assurance
? Quality assurance includes all the activities
related to satisfying the relevant quality
standards for a project
? Another goal of quality assurance is continuous
quality improvement
? Benchmarking can be used to generate ideas
for quality improvements
? Quality audits help identify lessons learned that
can improve performance on current or future
projects
2013-3-1 21
7.6 Quality Control
2013-3-1 22
Quality Control
? The main outputs of quality control are
? acceptance decisions
? rework
? process adjustments
? Some tools and techniques include
? pareto analysis
? statistical sampling
? quality control charts
? testing
2013-3-1 23
7.7 Tools and Techniques for
Quality Control
2013-3-1 24
1.Pareto Analysis
? Pareto analysis involves identifying the
vital few contributors that account for the
most quality problems in a system
? Also called the 80-20 rule,meaning that
80% of problems are often due to 20% of
the causes
? Pareto diagrams are histograms that help
identify and prioritize problem areas
2013-3-1 25
Sample Pareto Diagram
2013-3-1 26
2.Statistical Sampling and
Standard Deviation
? Statistical sampling involves choosing
part of a population of interest for
inspection
? The size of a sample depends on how
representative you want the sample to
be
? Sample size formula,
Sample size =,25 X (certainty Factor/acceptable error)2
2013-3-1 27
Commonly Used Certainty Factors D e s i r e d C e r ta i n ty C e r ta i n ty Fac to r
95% 1,9 6 0
90% 1,6 4 5
80% 1,2 8 1
95% certainty,Sample size = 0.25 X (1.960/.05) 2 = 384
90% certainty,Sample size = 0.25 X (1.645/.10)2 = 68
80% certainty,Sample size = 0.25 X (1.281/.20)2 = 10
2013-3-1 28
Standard Deviation
? Standard deviation measures how much
variation exists in a distribution of data
? A small standard deviation means that data
cluster closely around the middle of a
distribution and there is little variability
among the data
? A normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve
that is symmetrical about the mean or
average value of a population
2013-3-1 29
Normal Distribution and Standard
Deviation
2013-3-1 30
Sigma and Defective Units
S p ec i f i cat i on Ran ge
(in + / - S i gm as )
P er ce n t of
P op u l ation
W i th i n Ran ge
Def ec tive Un i ts
P er B i l l i on
1 68.27 317,300,000
2 95.45 45,400,000
3 99.73 2,700,000
4 99.9937 63,000
5 99.999943 57
6 99.9999998 2
-Note:,Six sigma” often refers to +/-3 sigma,meaning 2.7 million
defects per billion units produced,or 2.7defects per million
-Class inputs on Six sigma?
2013-3-1 31
3.Quality Control Charts,Six Sigma,
and the Seven Run Rule
? A control chart is a graphic display of data that
illustrates the results of a process over time,It
helps prevent defects and allows you to determine
whether a process is in control or out of control
? Operating at a higher sigma value,like 6 sigma,
means the product tolerance or control limits have
less variability
? The seven run rule states that if seven data points
in a row are all below the mean,above the mean,or
increasing or decreasing,then the process needs to
be examined for non-random problems
2013-3-1 32
Sample Quality Control Chart
2013-3-1 33
4,Testing
? Many IT professionals think of testing
as a stage that comes near the end of
IT product development
? Testing should be done during almost
every phase of the IT product
development life cycle
2013-3-1 34
Testing Tasks in the Software
Development Life Cycle
2013-3-1 35
Types of Tests
? A unit test is done to test each individual
component (often a program) to ensure it is
as defect free as possible
? Integration testing occurs between unit
and system testing to test functionally
grouped components
? System testing tests the entire system as
one entity
? User acceptance testing is an
independent test performed by the end user
prior to accepting the delivered system
2013-3-1 36
Gantt Chart for Building Testing into a
Systems Development Project Plan
2013-3-1 37
7.8 Improving IT Project
Quality
2013-3-1 38
Improving IT Project Quality
? Several suggestions for improving
quality for IT projects include
? Leadership that promotes quality
? Understanding the cost of quality
? Focusing on organizational influences and
workplace factors that affect quality
? Following maturity models to improve
quality
2013-3-1 39
1.Leadership
?, It is most important that top
management be quality-minded,In the
absence of sincere manifestation of
interest at the top,little will happen
below.” (Juran,1945)
? A large percentage of quality problems
are associated with management,not
technical issues
2013-3-1 40
2.The Cost of Quality
? The cost of quality is
? the cost of conformance or delivering
products that meet requirements and
fitness for use
? the cost of nonconformance or taking
responsibility for failures or not meeting
quality expectations
2013-3-1 41
Costs Per Hour of Downtime Caused
by Software Defects
Bu sin e ss C o st p e r H o ur D o wnt im e
A u to m a te d te lle r m a c h in e s ( m e d iu m - size d b a n k ) $ 1 4,5 0 0
Pa c k a g e s h ip p in g s e r v ic e $ 2 8,2 5 0
T e le p h o n e tic k e t s a le s $ 6 9,0 0 0
Ca ta lo g s a le s c e n te r $ 9 0,0 0 0
A ir lin e r e se r v a tio n c e n te r ( sm a ll a ir lin e ) $ 8 9,5 0 0
2013-3-1 42
Five Cost Categories Related to Quality
? Prevention cost,the cost of planning and executing
a project so it is error-free or within an acceptable
error range
? Appraisal cost,the cost of evaluating processes and
their outputs to ensure quality
? Internal failure cost,cost incurred to correct an
identified defect before the customer receives the
product
? External failure cost,cost that relates to all errors
not detected and corrected before delivery to the
customer
? Measurement and test equipment costs,capital
cost of equipment used to perform prevention and
appraisal activities
2013-3-1 43
3.Organization Influences,Workplace
Factors,and Quality
? Study by DeMarco and Lister showed that
organizational issues had a much greater influence
on programmer productivity than the technical
environment or programming languages
? Programmer productivity varied by a factor of one to
ten across organizations,but only by 21% within the
same organization
? Study found no correlation between productivity and
programming language,years of experience,or
salary
? A dedicated and a quiet work environment were key
factors to improving programmer productivity
2013-3-1 44
4,Maturity Models
? Maturity models are frameworks for
helping organization improve their
processes and systems
? Software Quality Function Deployment
Model focuses on defining user requirements
and planning software projects
? The Software Engineering Institute’s Capability
Maturity Model provides a generic path to
process improvement for software development
? Several groups are working on project
management maturity models
2013-3-1 45
Project Management Maturity Model
1,Ad-Hoc,The project management process is described as
disorganized,and occasionally even chaotic,The organization
has not defined systems and processes,and project success
depends on individual effort,There are chronic cost and
schedule problems,
2,Abbreviated,There are some project management processes
and systems in place to track cost,schedule,and scope,
Project success is largely unpredictable and cost and schedule
problems are common,
3,Organized,There are standardized,documented project
management processes and systems that are integrated into
the rest of the organization,Project success is more
predictable,and cost and schedule performance is improved,
2013-3-1 46
Project Management Maturity Model
4,Managed,Management collects and uses detailed
measures of the effectiveness of project
management,Project success is more uniform,
and cost and schedule performance conforms to
plan,
5,Adaptive,Feedback from the project management
process and from piloting innovative ideas and
technologies enables continuous improvement,
Project success is the norm,
2013-3-1 47
Project Management Maturity by Industry
Group and Knowledge Area
2013-3-1 48
Companies Striving to Improve
Maturity Levels
? Many consulting firms and other
organizations are now available to help
measure current maturity levels and make
suggestions for improving
? The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) from
from SEI is very popular
? PMI is working on a standard for
measuring project management maturity
2013-3-1 49
Quick Quiz
? 1.Define quality and what is meant by stated and implied needs,
? 2.Who created fishbone diagrams,and what are they used for?
? 3.Which is better,3 sigma,4 sigma,5 sigma,or 6 sigma?
?ANSWER,Quality is the totality of characteristics of an entity that
bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs,Stated needs are
formally communicated either verbally or in writing,Implied needs
mean the product is fit for use or can be used as it was intended,
?ANSWER,Ishikawa developed fishbone diagrams,and they are
used to trace complaints about quality problems back to the
responsible production operations to find the root cause,
? ANSWER,6 sigma,There are less defective units as sigma
increases,
