Chapter 19
Macroeconomic Policy and Coordination under
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-2Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Chapter Organization
The Case for Floating Exchange Rates
The Case Against Floating Exchange Rates
Macroeconomic Interdependence Under a Floating Rate
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Are Fixed Exchange Rates Even and Option for Most
Countries?
Directions for Reform
Summary
Appendix,International Policy Coordination Failures
Slide 19-3Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Introduction
The floating exchange rate system,in place since
1973,was not well planned before its inception.
By the mid-1980s,economists and policymakers had
become more skeptical about the benefits of an
international monetary system based on floating rates.
Why has the performance of floating rates been so
disappointing?
What direction should reform of the current system
take?
This chapter compares the macroeconomic policy
problems of different exchange rate regimes.
Slide 19-4Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
The Case for
Floating Exchange Rates
There are three arguments in favor of floating
exchange rates:
Monetary policy autonomy
Symmetry
Exchange rates as automatic stabilizers
Slide 19-5Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Monetary Policy Autonomy
Floating exchange rates:
– Restore monetary control to central banks
– Allow each country to choose its own desired long-run
inflation rate
The Case for
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-6Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Symmetry
Floating exchange rates remove two main asymmetries
of the Bretton Woods system and allow:
– Central banks abroad to be able to determine their own
domestic money supplies
– The U.S,to have the same opportunity as other
countries to influence its exchange rate against foreign
currencies
The Case for
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-7Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Exchange Rates as Automatic Stabilizers
Floating exchange rates quickly eliminate the
“fundamental disequilibriums” that had led to parity
changes and speculative attacks under fixed rates.
– Figure 19-1 shows that a temporary fall in a country’s
export demand reduces that country’s output more
under a fixed rate than a floating rate.
The Case for
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-8Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
AA1
DD1
Figure 19-1,Effects of a Fall in Export Demand
AA2
DD2
AA1
DD2
DD1
E2
2
Y2
Y2
Output,Y
Exchange rate,E
(a) Floating
exchange rate
Output,Y
Exchange rate,E
(b) Fixed
exchange rate
Y1
E1 1
Y1
E1
1
Y3
3
The Case for
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-9Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
There are five arguments against floating rates:
Discipline
Destabilizing speculation and money market
disturbances
Injury to international trade and investment
Uncoordinated economic policies
The illusion of greater autonomy
Slide 19-10Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Discipline
Floating exchange rates do not provide discipline for
central banks.
– Central banks might embark on inflationary policies (e.g.,
the German hyperinflation of the 1920s).
The pro-floaters’ response was that a floating exchange
rate would bottle up inflationary disturbances within
the country whose government was misbehaving.
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-11Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Destabilizing Speculation and Money Market
Disturbances
Floating exchange rates allow destabilizing
speculation.
– Countries can be caught in a,vicious circle” of
depreciation and inflation.
Advocates of floating rates point out that destabilizing
speculators ultimately lose money.
Floating exchange rates make a country more
vulnerable to money market disturbances.
– Figure 19-2 illustrates this point.
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-12Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
AA1
DD
Output,Y
Exchange
rate,E
E1
Y1
1
Figure 19-2,A Rise in Money Demand Under a Floating Exchange Rate
AA2
E2
Y2
2
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-13Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Injury to International Trade and Investment
Floating rates hurt international trade and investment
because they make relative international prices more
unpredictable:
– Exporters and importers face greater exchange risk.
– International investments face greater uncertainty about
their payoffs.
Supporters of floating exchange rates argue that
forward markets can be used to protect traders against
foreign exchange risk.
– The skeptics replied to this argument by pointing out
that forward exchange markets would be expensive,
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-14Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Uncoordinated Economic Policies
Floating exchange rates leave countries free to engage
in competitive currency depreciations.
– Countries might adopt policies without considering their
possible beggar-thy-neighbor aspects.
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-15Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
The Illusion of Greater Autonomy
Floating exchange rates increase the uncertainty in the
economy without really giving macroeconomic policy
greater freedom.
– A currency depreciation raises domestic inflation due to
higher wage settlements.
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-16Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Table 19-1,Inflation Rates in Major Industrialized Countries,1973-1980
(percent per year)
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-17Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Figure 19-3,Nominal and Real Effective Dollar Exchange Rates Indexes,
1975-2000
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-18Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Macroeconomic Interdependence
Under a Floating Rate
Assume that there are two large countries,Home and
Foreign.
Macroeconomic interdependence between Home and
Foreign:
Effect of a permanent monetary expansion by Home
– Home output rises,Home’s currency depreciates,and
Foreign output may rise or fall.
Effect of a permanent fiscal expansion by Home
– Home output rises,Home’s currency appreciates,and
Foreign output rises.
Slide 19-19Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Macroeconomic Interdependence
Under a Floating Rate
Table 19-2,Unemployment Rates in Major Industrialized Countries,
1978-2000 (percent of civilian labor force)
Slide 19-20Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Macroeconomic Interdependence
Under a Floating Rate
Table 19-3,Inflation Rates in Major Industrialized Countries
1981-2000,and 1961-1971 Average (percent per year)
Slide 19-21Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Macroeconomic Interdependence
Under a Floating Rate
Figure 19-4,Exchange Rate Changes Since the Louvre Accord
Slide 19-22Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Monetary Policy Autonomy
Floating exchange rates allowed a much larger
international divergence in inflation rates.
High-inflation countries have tended to have weaker
currencies than their low-inflation neighbors.
In the short run,the effects of monetary and fiscal
changes are transmitted across national borders under
floating rates.
Slide 19-23Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Figure 19-5,Exchange Rate Trends and Inflation Differentials,
1973-2000
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-24Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
After 1973 central banks intervened repeatedly in the
foreign exchange market to alter currency values.
Why did central banks continue to intervene even in
the absence of any formal obligation to do so?
– To stabilize output and the price level when certain
disturbances occur
– To prevent sharp changes in the international
competitiveness of tradable goods sectors
Monetary changes had a much greater short-run effect
on the real exchange rate under a floating nominal
exchange rate than under a fixed one.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-25Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Symmetry
The international monetary system did not become
symmetric until after 1973.
– Central banks continued to hold dollar reserves and
intervene.
The current floating-rate system is similar in some
ways to the asymmetric reserve currency system
underlying the Bretton Woods arrangements
(McKinnon).
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-26Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
The Exchange Rate as an Automatic Stabilizer
Experience with the two oil shocks favors floating
exchange rates.
The effects of the U.S,fiscal expansion after 1981
provide mixed evidence on the success of floating
exchange rates.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-27Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Discipline
Inflation rates accelerated after 1973 and remained
high through the second oil shock.
The system placed fewer obvious restraints on
unbalanced fiscal policies.
– Example,The high U.S,government budget deficits of
the 1980s.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-28Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Destabilizing Speculation
Floating exchange rates have exhibited much more
day-to-day volatility.
– The question of whether exchange rate volatility has
been excessive is controversial.
In the longer term,exchange rates have roughly
reflected fundamental changes in monetary and fiscal
policies and not destabilizing speculation.
Experience with floating exchange rates contradicts
the idea that arbitrary exchange rate movements can
lead to,vicious circles” of inflation and depreciation.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-29Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
International Trade and Investment
International financial intermediation expanded
strongly after 1973 as countries lowered barriers to
capital movement.
For most countries,the extent of their international
trade shows a rising trend after the move to floating.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-30Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Policy Coordination
Floating exchange rates have not promoted
international policy coordination.
Critics of floating have not made a strong case that the
problem of beggar-thy-neighbor policies would
disappear under an alternative currency regime.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-31Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Are Fixed Exchange Rates
Even an Option for Most Countries?
Maintaining fixed exchange rates in the long-run
requires strict controls over capital movements.
Attempts to fix exchange rates will necessarily lack
credibility and be relatively short-lived.
– Fixed rates will not deliver the benefits promised by
their proponents.
Slide 19-32Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Directions for Reform
The experience of floating does not fully support
either the early advocates of that exchange rate
system or its critics.
One unambiguous lesson of experience is that no
exchange rate system functions well when
international economic cooperation breaks down.
Severe limits on exchange rate flexibility are unlikely
to be reinstated in the near future.
Increased consultation among policymakers in the
industrial countries should improve the performance
of floating rates.
Slide 19-33Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Summary
The weaknesses of the Bretton Woods system led
many economists to advocate floating exchange rates
before 1973 based on three arguments:
Floating rates would give countries greater autonomy
in managing their economies.
Floating rates would remove the asymmetries of the
Bretton Woods system.
Floating rates would quickly eliminate the
“fundamental disequilibriums.”
Slide 19-34Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Summary
Critics of floating rates advanced several
counterarguments:
Floating would encourage monetary and fiscal
excesses and beggar-thy-neighbor policies.
Floating rates would be subject to destabilizing
speculation and retard international trade and
investment.
Slide 19-35Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Summary
Between 1973 and 1980 floating rates seemed on the
whole to function well.
A sharp turn toward slower monetary growth in the
U.S,contributed to massive dollar appreciation
between 1980 and early 1985.
The experience of floating does not fully support
either the early advocates of that exchange rates
system or its critics.
Slide 19-36Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Appendix,International
Policy Coordination Failures
Foreign
Home Veryrestrictive
Very
restrictive
Somewhat
restrictive
Somewhat
restrictive
* = -1%
U* = 1%
= -1%
U= 1%
Figure 19A-1,Hypothetical Effects of Different Monetary Policy
Combinations on Inflation and Unemployment
* = 0%
U* = 0.5%
= -2%
U= 1.75%
* = -2%
U* = 1.75%
= 0%
U= 0.5%
* = -1.25%
U* = 1.5%
= -1.25%
U= 1.5%
Slide 19-37Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Foreign
Home
1
1
5/6
5/6
8/7
0
8/7
0
Appendix,International
Policy Coordination Failures
Figure 19A-2,Payoff Matrix for Different Monetary Policy Moves
Very
restrictive
Very
restrictive
Somewhat
restrictive
Somewhat
restrictive
Macroeconomic Policy and Coordination under
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-2Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Chapter Organization
The Case for Floating Exchange Rates
The Case Against Floating Exchange Rates
Macroeconomic Interdependence Under a Floating Rate
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Are Fixed Exchange Rates Even and Option for Most
Countries?
Directions for Reform
Summary
Appendix,International Policy Coordination Failures
Slide 19-3Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Introduction
The floating exchange rate system,in place since
1973,was not well planned before its inception.
By the mid-1980s,economists and policymakers had
become more skeptical about the benefits of an
international monetary system based on floating rates.
Why has the performance of floating rates been so
disappointing?
What direction should reform of the current system
take?
This chapter compares the macroeconomic policy
problems of different exchange rate regimes.
Slide 19-4Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
The Case for
Floating Exchange Rates
There are three arguments in favor of floating
exchange rates:
Monetary policy autonomy
Symmetry
Exchange rates as automatic stabilizers
Slide 19-5Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Monetary Policy Autonomy
Floating exchange rates:
– Restore monetary control to central banks
– Allow each country to choose its own desired long-run
inflation rate
The Case for
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-6Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Symmetry
Floating exchange rates remove two main asymmetries
of the Bretton Woods system and allow:
– Central banks abroad to be able to determine their own
domestic money supplies
– The U.S,to have the same opportunity as other
countries to influence its exchange rate against foreign
currencies
The Case for
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-7Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Exchange Rates as Automatic Stabilizers
Floating exchange rates quickly eliminate the
“fundamental disequilibriums” that had led to parity
changes and speculative attacks under fixed rates.
– Figure 19-1 shows that a temporary fall in a country’s
export demand reduces that country’s output more
under a fixed rate than a floating rate.
The Case for
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-8Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
AA1
DD1
Figure 19-1,Effects of a Fall in Export Demand
AA2
DD2
AA1
DD2
DD1
E2
2
Y2
Y2
Output,Y
Exchange rate,E
(a) Floating
exchange rate
Output,Y
Exchange rate,E
(b) Fixed
exchange rate
Y1
E1 1
Y1
E1
1
Y3
3
The Case for
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-9Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
There are five arguments against floating rates:
Discipline
Destabilizing speculation and money market
disturbances
Injury to international trade and investment
Uncoordinated economic policies
The illusion of greater autonomy
Slide 19-10Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Discipline
Floating exchange rates do not provide discipline for
central banks.
– Central banks might embark on inflationary policies (e.g.,
the German hyperinflation of the 1920s).
The pro-floaters’ response was that a floating exchange
rate would bottle up inflationary disturbances within
the country whose government was misbehaving.
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-11Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Destabilizing Speculation and Money Market
Disturbances
Floating exchange rates allow destabilizing
speculation.
– Countries can be caught in a,vicious circle” of
depreciation and inflation.
Advocates of floating rates point out that destabilizing
speculators ultimately lose money.
Floating exchange rates make a country more
vulnerable to money market disturbances.
– Figure 19-2 illustrates this point.
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-12Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
AA1
DD
Output,Y
Exchange
rate,E
E1
Y1
1
Figure 19-2,A Rise in Money Demand Under a Floating Exchange Rate
AA2
E2
Y2
2
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-13Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Injury to International Trade and Investment
Floating rates hurt international trade and investment
because they make relative international prices more
unpredictable:
– Exporters and importers face greater exchange risk.
– International investments face greater uncertainty about
their payoffs.
Supporters of floating exchange rates argue that
forward markets can be used to protect traders against
foreign exchange risk.
– The skeptics replied to this argument by pointing out
that forward exchange markets would be expensive,
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-14Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Uncoordinated Economic Policies
Floating exchange rates leave countries free to engage
in competitive currency depreciations.
– Countries might adopt policies without considering their
possible beggar-thy-neighbor aspects.
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-15Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
The Illusion of Greater Autonomy
Floating exchange rates increase the uncertainty in the
economy without really giving macroeconomic policy
greater freedom.
– A currency depreciation raises domestic inflation due to
higher wage settlements.
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-16Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Table 19-1,Inflation Rates in Major Industrialized Countries,1973-1980
(percent per year)
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-17Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Figure 19-3,Nominal and Real Effective Dollar Exchange Rates Indexes,
1975-2000
The Case Against
Floating Exchange Rates
Slide 19-18Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Macroeconomic Interdependence
Under a Floating Rate
Assume that there are two large countries,Home and
Foreign.
Macroeconomic interdependence between Home and
Foreign:
Effect of a permanent monetary expansion by Home
– Home output rises,Home’s currency depreciates,and
Foreign output may rise or fall.
Effect of a permanent fiscal expansion by Home
– Home output rises,Home’s currency appreciates,and
Foreign output rises.
Slide 19-19Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Macroeconomic Interdependence
Under a Floating Rate
Table 19-2,Unemployment Rates in Major Industrialized Countries,
1978-2000 (percent of civilian labor force)
Slide 19-20Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Macroeconomic Interdependence
Under a Floating Rate
Table 19-3,Inflation Rates in Major Industrialized Countries
1981-2000,and 1961-1971 Average (percent per year)
Slide 19-21Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Macroeconomic Interdependence
Under a Floating Rate
Figure 19-4,Exchange Rate Changes Since the Louvre Accord
Slide 19-22Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Monetary Policy Autonomy
Floating exchange rates allowed a much larger
international divergence in inflation rates.
High-inflation countries have tended to have weaker
currencies than their low-inflation neighbors.
In the short run,the effects of monetary and fiscal
changes are transmitted across national borders under
floating rates.
Slide 19-23Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Figure 19-5,Exchange Rate Trends and Inflation Differentials,
1973-2000
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-24Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
After 1973 central banks intervened repeatedly in the
foreign exchange market to alter currency values.
Why did central banks continue to intervene even in
the absence of any formal obligation to do so?
– To stabilize output and the price level when certain
disturbances occur
– To prevent sharp changes in the international
competitiveness of tradable goods sectors
Monetary changes had a much greater short-run effect
on the real exchange rate under a floating nominal
exchange rate than under a fixed one.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-25Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Symmetry
The international monetary system did not become
symmetric until after 1973.
– Central banks continued to hold dollar reserves and
intervene.
The current floating-rate system is similar in some
ways to the asymmetric reserve currency system
underlying the Bretton Woods arrangements
(McKinnon).
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-26Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
The Exchange Rate as an Automatic Stabilizer
Experience with the two oil shocks favors floating
exchange rates.
The effects of the U.S,fiscal expansion after 1981
provide mixed evidence on the success of floating
exchange rates.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-27Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Discipline
Inflation rates accelerated after 1973 and remained
high through the second oil shock.
The system placed fewer obvious restraints on
unbalanced fiscal policies.
– Example,The high U.S,government budget deficits of
the 1980s.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-28Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Destabilizing Speculation
Floating exchange rates have exhibited much more
day-to-day volatility.
– The question of whether exchange rate volatility has
been excessive is controversial.
In the longer term,exchange rates have roughly
reflected fundamental changes in monetary and fiscal
policies and not destabilizing speculation.
Experience with floating exchange rates contradicts
the idea that arbitrary exchange rate movements can
lead to,vicious circles” of inflation and depreciation.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-29Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
International Trade and Investment
International financial intermediation expanded
strongly after 1973 as countries lowered barriers to
capital movement.
For most countries,the extent of their international
trade shows a rising trend after the move to floating.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-30Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Policy Coordination
Floating exchange rates have not promoted
international policy coordination.
Critics of floating have not made a strong case that the
problem of beggar-thy-neighbor policies would
disappear under an alternative currency regime.
What Has Been Learned Since 1973?
Slide 19-31Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Are Fixed Exchange Rates
Even an Option for Most Countries?
Maintaining fixed exchange rates in the long-run
requires strict controls over capital movements.
Attempts to fix exchange rates will necessarily lack
credibility and be relatively short-lived.
– Fixed rates will not deliver the benefits promised by
their proponents.
Slide 19-32Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Directions for Reform
The experience of floating does not fully support
either the early advocates of that exchange rate
system or its critics.
One unambiguous lesson of experience is that no
exchange rate system functions well when
international economic cooperation breaks down.
Severe limits on exchange rate flexibility are unlikely
to be reinstated in the near future.
Increased consultation among policymakers in the
industrial countries should improve the performance
of floating rates.
Slide 19-33Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Summary
The weaknesses of the Bretton Woods system led
many economists to advocate floating exchange rates
before 1973 based on three arguments:
Floating rates would give countries greater autonomy
in managing their economies.
Floating rates would remove the asymmetries of the
Bretton Woods system.
Floating rates would quickly eliminate the
“fundamental disequilibriums.”
Slide 19-34Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Summary
Critics of floating rates advanced several
counterarguments:
Floating would encourage monetary and fiscal
excesses and beggar-thy-neighbor policies.
Floating rates would be subject to destabilizing
speculation and retard international trade and
investment.
Slide 19-35Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Summary
Between 1973 and 1980 floating rates seemed on the
whole to function well.
A sharp turn toward slower monetary growth in the
U.S,contributed to massive dollar appreciation
between 1980 and early 1985.
The experience of floating does not fully support
either the early advocates of that exchange rates
system or its critics.
Slide 19-36Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Appendix,International
Policy Coordination Failures
Foreign
Home Veryrestrictive
Very
restrictive
Somewhat
restrictive
Somewhat
restrictive
* = -1%
U* = 1%
= -1%
U= 1%
Figure 19A-1,Hypothetical Effects of Different Monetary Policy
Combinations on Inflation and Unemployment
* = 0%
U* = 0.5%
= -2%
U= 1.75%
* = -2%
U* = 1.75%
= 0%
U= 0.5%
* = -1.25%
U* = 1.5%
= -1.25%
U= 1.5%
Slide 19-37Copyright? 2003 Pearson Education,Inc.
Foreign
Home
1
1
5/6
5/6
8/7
0
8/7
0
Appendix,International
Policy Coordination Failures
Figure 19A-2,Payoff Matrix for Different Monetary Policy Moves
Very
restrictive
Very
restrictive
Somewhat
restrictive
Somewhat
restrictive
