3.1 Introduction
Much poultry and red meat is sold in a chilled unprocessed state. However, an
increasing proportion is used as a basic raw material for chilled meat products
and ready meals. A growing trend is the development of added-value
convenience meals, especially ethnic products, many of which are pre- or
part-cooked and necessitate chilled storage. Many of these products contain
meat as a key ingredient. This meat for further processing can be supplied
chilled, as boneless blocks of frozen material or increasingly as minced or diced
material. The dice or mince can be chilled or increasingly it will be supplied as
bags of individually quick frozen (IQF) product. This chapter discusses a
number of issues which influence the quality of meat as a raw material in high
added-value chilled foods.
The quality of meat is judged by its bacterial condition and appearance.
Bacterial condition is subjectively assessed by the presence or absence of odour
or slime. Quantitative tests can also carried out to determine the total viable
counts and the presence of specific pathogens or indicator organisms.
Appearance criteria are primarily; colour, percentage of fat and lean and
amount of drip exuding from the meat. Any unacceptable change in the
microbial or appearance criteria will limit the shelf-life of the meat. After
cooking its eating quality is partially judged by its appearance but mainly by its
tenderness, flavour and juiciness.
Red meat and poultry are very perishable raw materials. If stored under
ambient conditions, 16–30oC, the shelf-life of both can be measured in tens of
hours to a few days. Under the best conditions of chilled storage, close to the
initial freezing point of the material, the storage life can be extended to
3
Raw material selection: meat and poultry
S. J. James, Food Refrigeration and Process Engineering Research
Centre
approaching six weeks for some red meat. Even under the best commercial
practice (strictly hygienic slaughtering, rapid cooling, vacuum packing and
storage at super chill (C01C60.5oC)) the maximum life that can be achieved in red
meat is approximately 20 weeks, however, freezing will extend the storage life
of meat to a number of years.
In a perfect world, red meat and poultry would be completely free of
pathogenic (food poisoning) micro-organisms when produced. However, under
normal methods of production pathogen-free meat cannot be guaranteed. For
example, salmonella contamination of chilled and frozen poultry carcasses has
been significantly reduced in the UK (Fig. 3.1). However, over one-third was
still contaminated in 1994.
1
While the internal musculature of a healthy mammal
or bird is essentially sterile after slaughter, all meat animals carry large numbers
of different micro-organisms on their skin/feathers and in their alimentary tract.
Only a few types of bacteria directly affect the safety and quality of the finished
carcass. Of particular concern are food-borne pathogens such as Campylobacter
spp., Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella spp., and pathogenic serotypes of
Escherichia coli. The minimum and optimum growth temperatures for some of
the pathogens associated with red and poultry meat are shown in Table 3.1.
Inevitably, small numbers of pathogens will be present on meat and cooking
regimes are designed to eliminate their presence. Most red meat and poultry
food poisoning is associated with inadequate cooking or subsequent contamina-
tion after cooking and poor cooking and storage.
Normally it is the growth of spoilage organisms that has the most important
effect in limiting the shelf-life of meat. The spoilage bacteria of meats stored in
air under chill conditions include species of Pseudomonas, Brochothrix and
Acinetobacter/Moraxella. Varnam and Sutherland state that in general, there is
Fig. 3.1 Percentage of chilled and frozen poultry carcasses contaminated with
salmonella found in UK surveys carried out in 1979–80 to 1994.
64 Chilled foods
little difference in the microbial spoilage of beef, lamb, pork and other meat
derived from mammals.
The presence of exudate or ‘drip’, which accumulates in the container of pre-
packaged meat, or in trays or dishes of unwrapped meat, substantially reduces its
sales appeal.
3
Drip can be referred to by a number of different names including
‘purge loss’, ‘press loss’ and ‘thaw loss’ depending on the method of
measurement and when it is measured. Drip loss occurs throughout the cold
chain and represents a considerable economic loss to the red meat industry.
Poultry meat is far less prone to drip. The potential for drip loss is inherent in
fresh meat and is influenced by many factors. Some of these, including breed,
diet and physiological history, are inherent in the live animal. Others, such as the
rate of chilling, storage temperatures, freezing and thawing, occur during
processing. Meat colour can be adversely affected by a variety of factors,
including post-mortem handling, chilling, storage and packaging.
4
In Australia, CSIRO
5
stated that ‘Toughness is caused by three major factors
– advancing age of the animal, ‘cold shortening’ (the muscle fibre contraction
that can occur during chilling) and unfavourable meat acidity (pH).’ There is
general agreement on the importance of these factors, with many experts adding
cooking as a fourth equally important influence.
3.2 The influence of the live animal
Some of the factors that influence the toughness or meat are inherent in the live
animal. Church and Wood
4
state that it is now well established that it is the
properties of the connective tissue proteins, and not the total amount of collagen
in meat, that largely determines whether meat is tough or tender. As the animal
Table 3.1 Chilled storage life of meat and meat products at different storage
temperatures
Storage time (days) in temperature range:
C04.1 to C01.1oC C01to2oC 2.1 to 5.1oC 5.2 to 8.2oC
Food Mean sd Mean sd Mean sd Mean sd
Bacon 45 6 15 3 42 20
Beef 40 26 34 32 10 8 9 9
Lamb 55 20 41 46 28 34
Pork 50 58 22 30 16 16 15 18
Poultry 32 18 17 10 12 11 7 3
Veal 21 10 6 49 49
Rabbit 9 7 13 6
Offal 7 7 6 14 7
Bacon 45 6 15 3 42 20
Sausage 80 43 21 16 36 28 24 10
Raw material selection: meat and poultry 65
grows older the number of immature reducible cross-links decreases. The mature
cross-links result in a toughening of the collagen and this in turn can produce
tough meat. Increasing connective tissue toughness is probably not commer-
cially significant until a beast is about four years old.
6
The pigment concentration in meat which governs its colour is affected by
many factors affecting the live animal. These include species – beef, for
example, contains substantially more myoglobin than pork; breed and age –
pigment concentration increases with age; sex – meat from male animals usually
contains more pigment than that from female animals; muscle – muscles that do
more work contain more myoglobin.
There are also two specific meat defects; dark, firm, dry (DFD) and pale, soft,
exudative (PSE) associated with the live animal that result in poor meat colour.
DFD meat has a high ultimate pH and oxygen penetration is low. Consequently,
the oxymyoglobin layer is thin, the purple myoglobin layer shows through, and
the meat appears dark. In PSE meat the pH falls while the muscle is still warm
and partial denaturation of the proteins occurs. An increased amount of light is
scattered and part of the pigment oxidised so that the meat appears pale.
3.2.1 Between species and breeds
In all species the range of storage lives found in the literature is very large
(Table 3.1) and indicate that factors other than species have a pronounced effect
on storage life. Overall, species has little effect on the practical storage life of
meat. In general, beef tends to lose proportionately more drip than pork and
lamb. Unfrozen poultry meat looses little if any drip. Since most of the exudate
comes from the cut ends of muscle fibres, small pieces of meat drip more than
large intact carcasses. In pigs, especially, there are large differences in drip loss
from meat from different breeds and between different muscles. Taylor
7
showed
that there was a substantial difference, up to 2.5 fold, in drip loss between four
different breeds of pig (Table 3.2). He also showed that there was a 1.7 to 2.8
fold difference in drip between muscle types (Table 3.3).
Although there is a common belief that breed has a major effect on meat
quality CSIRO
8
state ‘although there are small differences in tenderness due to
Table 3.2 Drip loss after two days storage at 0oC, from leg joints
from different breeds of pig cooled at different rates
Breed Drip loss (% by wt.)
Slow Quick
Landrace 0.47 0.24
Large White 0.73 0.42
Wessex X Large White 0.97 0.61
Pietrain 1.14 0.62
66 Chilled foods
breed, they are slight and currently of no commercial significance to Australian
consumers.’ That said, there are substantial differences in the proportion of
acceptable tender meat and toughness between Bos indicus* and Bos taurus*
cattle. The proportion of acceptable tender meat has been found to decrease from
100% in Hereford Angus crosses, to 96% in Tarentaise, 93% in Pinzgauer, 86%
in Brahman and only 80% in Tsahiwal.
9
Toughness of meat increases as the
proportion of Bos indicus increases.
10
3.2.2 Animal to animal variation
There is little data on any relationship between animal to animal variation and
chilled storage life. However, it is believed to cause wide variations in frozen
storage life; differences can be as great as 50% in the freezing of lamb.
11, 12
Differences would appear to be caused by genetic, seasonal or nutritional
variation between animals, but there is little reported work to confirm this view.
Variations were found between the fatty acids and ratio of saturated/unsaturated
fatty acids in lambs from New Zealand, America and England.
13
Differences
related to sex, geographical area and cut were mainly a reflection of fatness,
with ewes having a greater percentage of body fat than rams. However,
differences between areas were found to produce larger variations between
animals than sex differences. A number of other trials have detailed differences
between animals.
There can also be significant differences in texture within a breed.
Longissimus dorsi shear force values for double muscled Belgium Blue bulls
were significantly higher than those of the same breed with normal
conformation.
14
Calpain I levels at 1 h and 24 h post mortem were also much
lower. It was suggested that the lower background toughness in the double
muscle was compensated for by reduced post mortem proteolytic tenderisation.
Sex of the animal appears to have little or no influence on tenderness. Huff
and Parrish
15
compared the tenderness of meat from 14-month-old bulls and
Table 3.3 Drip loss after two days storage at 0oC from four muscles from two breeds of
pig cooled at different rates
Drip (as % muscle weight)
Cooling Semi- Semi- Adductor Biceps Combined
rate tendinosus membranous femoris (4 muscles)
Pietrain Quick 2.82 4.40 5.52 2.69 3.86
Slow 3.99 6.47 6.61 4.11 5.30
Large White Quick 1.69 2.01 2.92 1.04 1.92
Slow 1.95 3.50 5.07 2.32 3.21
* Bos indicus are tropical and semitropical breeds of cattle primarily Brahman and Bos taurus are
temperate breeds such as Hereford or Aberdeen Angus.
Raw material selection: meat and poultry 67
steers, and cows (55 to 108 months old). No differences were found between the
tenderness of bulls and steers. Tenderness decreased with the age of the animal.
Hawrysh et al.
16
reported that beef from bulls may be less tender than that from
steers. Sex can have a substantial influence on flavour. For example, cooking the
meat from entire male pigs can produce an obnoxious odour known as ‘boar
taint’. Problems can also occur with meat from intact males of other species.
However, they can still be attractive to industry because of their higher rate of
growth and lower fat content.
3.2.3 Feeding
The way in which an animal is fed can influence its quality and storage life. It
has been reported that chops from pigs fed on household refuse have half the
frozen storage life of those fed on a milk/barley ration.
17, 18
Again, pork from
pigs that had been fed materials containing offal had half the practical storage
life (PSL) and higher iodine numbers in the fat than that of pigs which had not
been fed this type of diet.
19
Conversely, Bailey et al.
20
did not find any
differences between meal- and swill-fed pigs after 4 and 9 months at C020oC.
Rations with large amounts of highly unsaturated fatty acids tend to produce
more unstable meat and fat.
The type of fatty acid composition of ‘depot fat’ in poultry and its stability
have been shown to be directly related to the fatty acid composition of ingested
fats.
21, 22
The feeding of fish oils or highly unsaturated vegetable oils (such as
linseed oil) to poultry is known to produce fishy flavours in the meat.
21, 23
The use of vitamin E supplements is recommended for both beef and turkey.
This will ‘result in delayed onset of discoloration in fresh, ground and frozen
beef and in suppression of lipid rancidity, especially in fresh, ground and frozen
beef and less so in cooked beef’.
24
With turkey, vitamin E supplements have
been shown to improve oxidative stability of cooked and uncooked turkey
burgers during six months frozen storage at C020oC.
25
3.2.4 Variations within an animal
Reports of variations in the storage life of different cuts of meat are scarce and
primarily deal with dark and light meat. Both Ristic
26
and Keshinel et al.
27
have found that poultry breast meat stores better than thigh meat. Ristic states
that frozen breast meat will store for 16 months while thigh meat can be stored
for only 12 months due to its higher fat content. Judge and Aberle
28
also found
that light pork meat stored for a longer time than dark meat. This was thought
to be due to either higher quantities of haem pigments in the dark muscle
(which may act as major catalysts of lipid oxidation), or to higher quantities of
phospholipids (which are major contributors to oxidised flavour in cooked
meat).
68 Chilled foods
3.3 Pre- and post-slaughter handling
3.3.1 Red meat
The way animals are handled and transported before slaughter affects meat
quality and its storage life. Increased stress or exhaustion can produce PSE (pale
soft and exudative) or DFD (dark firm and dry) meat, which is not recommended
for storage, mainly due to its unattractive nature and appearance. Jeremiah and
Wilson
29
found that the use of PSE muscle produced low yields after curing and
it was concluded that PSE meat was unsuitable for further processing.
Experiments designed to determine the effect of treatments immediately
before or at the point of slaughter appear to show that they have little effect on
meat texture. Exercising pigs before slaughter has been shown to have no effect
on texture parameters, i.e. muscle shortening and shear force.
30
The use of
different stunning methods (both electrical and carbon dioxide) does not seem to
have a significant effect on the quality of pork.
31
Consumers’ surroundings influence their appreciation of tenderness.
32
Consumers were more critical of the tenderness of beef steaks cooked in the
home than those cooked in restaurants. The Warner-Bratzler force transition
level for acceptable steak tenderness was between 4.6 and 5.0 kg in the home
and between 4.3 and 5.2 kg in the restaurants.
Overall, there appears to be little correlation between chilling rates or chilling
systems and bacterial numbers after chilling. The microorganisms that usually
spoil meat are psychrotrophs; i.e. bacteria capable of growth close to 0oC. Only a
small proportion of the initial microflora on meat will be psychrotrophs; the
majority of microorganisms present are incapable of growth at low
temperatures. As storage temperature rises the number of species capable of
growth will increase. The growth rate of microorganisms also accelerates with
increasing temperature. In the accepted temperature range for chilled meat, C01.5
to 5oC, there can be as much as an eightfold increase in growth rate between the
lower and upper temperature. For any particular treatment the maximum chilled
storage life will be obtained by holding the meat at C01.5oC. Chilled storage life
is halved for each 2–3oC rise in temperature.
Odour and slime cause by the growth of microorganisms will be apparent
after approximately 14.5 and 20 days respectively with beef sides stored at 0oC
(Fig. 3.2). At 5oC the respective times are significantly reduced to 8 and 13 days,
respectively.
Rapid chilling reduces drip loss (Table 3.2 & 3.3). However, chilling has
serious effects on the texture of meat if it is carried out rapidly when the meat is
still in the pre-rigor condition, that is, before the meat pH has fallen below about
6.2.
33
In this state the muscles contain sufficient amounts of the contractile fuel,
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), for forcible shortening to set in as the
temperature falls below 11oC, the most severe effect occurring at about 3oC.
This is the so-called ‘cold-shortening’ phenomenon, first observed by Locker
and Hagyard
34
and its mechanism described by Jeacocke.
35
The meat ‘sets’ in
the shortened state as rigor comes on, and this causes it to become extremely
Raw material selection: meat and poultry 69
tough when it is subsequently cooked.
36
If no cooling is applied and the
temperature of the meat is above 25oC at completion of rigor then another form
of shortening ‘rigor’–or ‘heat-shortening’ will occur.
37
Electrical stimulation (ES) of the carcass after slaughter can allow rapid
chilling without much of the toughening effect of cold shortening. However,
Buts et al.
38
reported that in veal ES followed by moderate cooling affected
tenderness in an unpredictable way and could result in tougher meat. Electrical
stimulation will hasten rigor and cause tenderisation to start earlier at the
prevailing higher temperature. In meat from carcasses given high or low voltage
stimulation and slow cooling, adequate ageing in beef can be obtained in about
half the time of non-stimulated beef
38
This will therefore reduce the requirement
and cost of storage.
When meat is stored at above freezing temperatures it becomes progressively
more tender. This process, known as ageing, conditioning or maturation is
traditionally carried out by hanging the carcass for periods of 14 days or longer.
The rate of ageing differs significantly between species and necessitates
different times for tenderisation. Beef, veal and rabbit age at about the same rate
and take about ten days at 1oC to achieve 80% of ageing (Table 3.4). Lamb ages
slightly faster than beef but more slowly than pork. The ultimate tenderness will
depend on the initial ‘background’ tenderness of the meat and the tenderisation
that has occurred during chilling. In veal acceptable tenderness can be obtained
after five days at 1oC compared with 10 days for beef.
Red colour is more stable at lower temperatures because the rate of oxidation
of the pigment decreases. At low temperatures, the solubility of oxygen is greater
and oxygen-consuming reactions are slowed down. There is a greater penetration
of oxygen into the meat and the meat is redder than at high temperatures.
The major improvement in tenderness has been shown to occur in less than
14 days. In a study by Martin et al.,
39
in which more than 500 animals were
examined, it was concluded that for beef carcasses, a period of six days is
Fig. 3.2 Time for odour and slime to develop on beef carcasses at different storage
temperatures.
70 Chilled foods
sufficient for a consumer product of satisfactory tenderness. Buchter
40
also
showed that no significant increase in tenderness occurs after 4–5 days for
calves and 8–10 days for young bulls at 4oC. The ageing process can be
accelerated by raising the temperature, and the topic was well studied in the
1940s, 50s and 60s. Ewell
41
found that the rate of tenderising more than doubled
for each 10oC rise. Meat from a three-year-old steer requiring ten days at 0oCto
reach the same tenderness as two days at 23oC. Sleeth et al.
42
showed that the
tenderness, flavour, aroma and juiciness of beef quarters and ribs aged for 2–3
days at 20oC were comparable to those aged 12–14 days at 2oC. Busch et al.
demonstrated that steaks from excised muscles held at 16oC for two days were
more tender than those stored at 2oC for 13 days.
The microbiological hazards of high-temperature ageing were well
recognised and several investigators used antibiotics and/or irradiation to
control bacterial growth.
42, 44, 45
Although high-temperature ageing in conjunc-
tion with ultraviolet (UV) radiation has been used in the US its use has not
expanded owing to its high cost.
46
With the use of irradiation gaining more
acceptance in the US its use to accelerate ageing in conjunction with modified
atmosphere packaging and high-temperature storage has been investigated by
Mooha Lee et al.
47
Irradiated steaks stored for two days at 30oC were more
tender than unirradiated controls stored at 2oC for 14 days (Table 3.5).
In red meat, there is little evidence of any relationship between chilling rates
and frozen storage life. However, there is evidence for a relationship between
Table 3.4 Time taken to achieve 50 and 80% ageing at 1oC for different species
8
Time (d) taken to achieve
Species 50% 80%
Beef 4.3 10.0
Veal 4.1 9.5
Rabbit 4.1 9.5
Lamb 3.3 7.7
Pork 1.8 4.2
Chicken 0.1 0.3
Table 3.5 Shear values for steaks after post mortem ageing
Treatment
Storage time (d) Unirradiated 2oC Irradiated 15oC Irradiated 30oC
1 4.47C61.76 4.89C61.40 4.24C61.65
2 – 4.81C60.73 3.44C61.34
3 – 4.07C61.03 3.33C61.21
7 3.62C61.00 ––
14 3.52C61.51
Raw material selection: meat and poultry 71
storage life and the length of time that elapses before freezing occurs. Chilled
storage of lamb for one day at 0oC prior to freezing can reduce the subsequent
storage life by as much as 25% when compared to lamb which has undergone
accelerated conditioning and 2 hours storage at 0oC.
12
It has been shown that
pork which had been held for seven days deteriorated at a faster rate during
storage than carcasses chilled for one and three days.
48
Ageing for periods
greater than seven days was found by Zeigler
49
to produce meat with high
peroxide and free fatty acid values when stored at C018oCorC029oC. Although
shorter ageing times appear to have a beneficial effect on storage life there is
obviously a necessity for it to be coupled with accelerated conditioning to
prevent any toughening effects. Whilst there has been significant research in
such areas as these, little appears to be known about the relationship between the
frozen storage life of meat as a raw material and the chilled life of the product in
which it is used.
3.3.2 Poultry
After bleeding and death, poultry carcasses are scalded by immersing them in
hot water for approximately three minutes. Scalding loosens the feathers so that
they can be easily removed. Carcasses can either be soft scalded at 52–53oCor
hard scalded at 58oC. Hard scalding removes the cuticles on chicken skin, which
gives an unattractive appearance after air chilling. Generally if the poultry is
marketed in a chilled state it will be soft scalded and air or spray chilled.
Spray washing is used at numerous points during processing to remove visual
contamination. It also has some small role in reducing bacterial contamination.
The EU Poultry Meat Directive
50
requires poultry to be washed inside and out
immediately prior to water chilling. The amount of water to be used (i.e. 1.5 litres
for a carcass up to 2.5 kg) is defined in the directive. Water chillers are designed
to operate in a counter-current manner to minimise cross-contamination. The
carcasses exit from the chillers at the point where the clean, chilled water enters
the system. Again, the Directive defines a minimum water flow through the
chiller, i.e. at least one litre per carcass for carcasses up to 2.5 kg in weight.
Chicken breast muscle ages ten times faster than beef (Table 3.4). Hence,
ageing in poultry carcasses occurs during processing and is usually
accomplished before they reach the chiller/freezer. Pool et al.
51
have shown
that there were no detectable flavour differences over an 18-month period
between turkey that had been frozen immediately and turkey that had been held
at +2oC for 30 hours.
3.4 Conclusions
Even with the best practice, the maximum shelf-life of chilled meat can be
measured in weeks. Freezing will extend the storage life of meat to a number of
years. If the frozen storage life is not exceeded, freezing and frozen storage of
72 Chilled foods
meat has little (if any) effect on the main quality parameters. Drip is the only
exception, as it is substantially increased by freezing.
Numerous experiments and blind testings have shown that consumers cannot
tell the difference between frozen and chilled meat. However, they are still
willing to pay up to twice as much for the equivalent chilled product. Despite a
large price differential in favour of the frozen product it is the ‘fresh’ chilled
market that is growing fastest. For example, there is a growing trend for retailers
to sell bulk packs of chilled chicken breasts specifically for home freezing. The
breasts are individually packed and the consumer is happy to pay a premium
price and slowly freeze them in a domestic freezer. There are no obvious
technical developments that are likely to change the trend towards chilled
products with poultry carcasses and portions. Chilled product is more convenient
for the consumer even if there are no quality advantages over frozen poultry. If
food safety becomes much more of an issue then freezing directly after
decontamination may become more common. The low temperature will stop any
growth of pathogenic or spoilage organisms that survive the decontamination
process.
In the red meat industry there is an increasing demand for meat of a
consistent, guaranteed high eating quality. Specifications already take into
account, breed, age, feed and handling of the live animal. Slaughter, chilling and
ageing conditions are also carefully controlled. However, at the end of this
carefully controlled process we have a quality-chilled product with a very
limited shelf-life. Small changes in levels of initial contamination or ageing
temperatures or times can result in unacceptable levels of pathogenic and
spoilage micro-organisms. As with poultry one way of overcoming this problem
would be to combine decontamination with subsequent freezing.
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74 Chilled foods
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