Monopoly
Chapter 15
Copyright ? 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.
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Monopoly
While a competitive firm is a
price taker,a monopoly firm is
a price maker.
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Monopoly
?A firm is considered a monopoly if,,,
? it is the sole seller of its product.
? its product does not have close
substitutes.
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Why Monopolies Arise
The fundamental cause of
monopoly is barriers to entry.
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Why Monopolies Arise
Barriers to entry have three sources:
? Ownership of a key resource.
? The government gives a single firm the
exclusive right to produce some good.
? Costs of production make a single producer
more efficient than a large number of
producers.
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Monopoly Resources
Although exclusive ownership of a key
resource is a potential source of
monopoly,in practice monopolies
rarely arise for this reason.
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Government-Created Monopolies
Governments may restrict entry by giving a
single firm the exclusive right to sell a
particular good in certain markets,
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Government-Created Monopolies
Patent and copyright laws are two
important examples of how
government creates a monopoly to
serve the public interest.
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Natural Monopolies
An industry is a natural monopoly when a
single firm can supply a good or service to
an entire market at a smaller cost than
could two or more firms.
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Natural Monopolies
A natural monopoly arises when there
are economies of scale over the relevant
range of output.
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Economies of Scale as a Cause of
Monopoly...
Average
total
cost
Quantity of Output
Cost
0
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Monopoly versus Competition
Monopoly
?Is the sole producer
?Has a downward-sloping demand curve
?Is a price maker
?Reduces price to increase sales
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Competition versus Monopoly
Competitive Firm
?Is one of many producers
?Has a horizontal demand curve
?Is a price taker
?Sells as much or as little at same price
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Quantity of
Output
Demand
(a) A Competitive Firm’s
Demand Curve
(b) A Monopolist’s
Demand Curve
0
Price
0 Quantity of
Output
Price
Demand
Demand Curves for Competitive and
Monopoly Firms...
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A Monopoly’s Revenue
?Total Revenue
P x Q = TR
?Average Revenue
TR/Q = AR = P
?Marginal Revenue
DTR/DQ = MR
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A Monopoly’s Total,Average,and
Marginal Revenue
Quantity
(Q)
Price
(P)
Total Revenue
(TR=PxQ)
Average
Revenue
(AR=TR/Q)
Marginal Revenue
(MR= )
0 $11.00 $0.00
1 $10.00 $10.00 $10.00 $10.00
2 $9.00 $18.00 $9.00 $8.00
3 $8.00 $24.00 $8.00 $6.00
4 $7.00 $28.00 $7.00 $4.00
5 $6.00 $30.00 $6.00 $2.00
6 $5.00 $30.00 $5.00 $0.00
7 $4.00 $28.00 $4.00 -$2.00
8 $3.00 $24.00 $3.00 -$4.00
QTR DD /
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A Monopoly’s Marginal Revenue
A monopolist’s marginal revenue is
always less than the price of its good.
?The demand curve is downward sloping.
?When a monopoly drops the price to sell one
more unit,the revenue received from
previously sold units also decreases.
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A Monopoly’s Marginal Revenue
When a monopoly increases the
amount it sells,it has two effects on
total revenue (P x Q).
?The output effect—more output is
sold,so Q is higher.
?The price effect—price falls,so P is
lower.
Demand and Marginal Revenue Curves
for a Monopoly...
Quantity of Water
Price
$11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Marginal
revenue
Demand
(average revenue)
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Profit Maximization of a Monopoly
?A monopoly maximizes profit by
producing the quantity at which
marginal revenue equals marginal cost.
?It then uses the demand curve to find the
price that will induce consumers to buy
that quantity.
Profit-Maximization for a Monopoly...
Monopoly
price
QuantityQMAX0
Costs and
Revenue
Demand
Average total cost
Marginal revenue
Marginal
cost
A
1,The intersection of
the marginal-revenue
curve and the marginal-
cost curve determines
the profit-maximizing
quantity...B
2.,..and then the demand
curve shows the price
consistent with this
quantity.
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Comparing Monopoly and
Competition
?For a competitive firm,price equals
marginal cost.
P = MR = MC
?For a monopoly firm,price exceeds
marginal cost.
P > MR = MC
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A Monopoly’s Profit
Profit equals total revenue minus total costs.
Profit = TR - TC
Profit = (TR/Q - TC/Q) x Q
Profit = (P - ATC) x Q
The Monopolist’s Profit...
Quantity0
Costs and
Revenue
Demand
Marginal cost
Marginal revenue
QMAX
BMonopoly
price
E
Average
total cost D
Average total cost
C
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The Monopolist’s Profit
The monopolist will receive
economic profits as long as price is
greater than average total cost.
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The Market for Drugs...
Costs and
Revenue
Price
during
patent life
Price after
patent
expires
Monopoly
quantity
Competitive
quantity
0 Quantity
Demand
Marginal
cost
Marginal
revenue
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The Welfare Cost of Monopoly
?In contrast to a competitive firm,the
monopoly charges a price above the
marginal cost.
?From the standpoint of consumers,this high
price makes monopoly undesirable,
?However,from the standpoint of the owners
of the firm,the high price makes monopoly
very desirable.
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Price
0 Quantity
Marginal cost
Demand
(value to buyers)
Efficient
quantity
Cost to
monopolist
Value
to
buyers
Value
to
buyers
Cost to
monopolist
Value to buyers is greater
than cost to seller.
Value to buyers is less
than cost to seller.
The Efficient Level of Output...
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The Deadweight Loss
Because a monopoly sets its price above
marginal cost,it places a wedge between
the consumer’s willingness to pay and the
producer’s cost.
?This wedge causes the quantity sold to
fall short of the social optimum.
The Inefficiency of Monopoly...
Quantity0
DemandMarginalrevenue
Marginal cost
Monopolyprice
Deadweightloss
Efficient
quantity
Monopoly
quantity
Price
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The Inefficiency of Monopoly
The monopolist produces less
than the socially efficient
quantity of output.
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The Deadweight Loss
?The deadweight loss caused by a monopoly is
similar to the deadweight loss caused by a tax.
?The difference between the two cases is that
the government gets the revenue from a tax,
whereas a private firm gets the monopoly
profit.
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Public Policy Toward Monopolies
Government responds to the problem of
monopoly in one of four ways.
? Making monopolized industries more
competitive.
? Regulating the behavior of monopolies.
? Turning some private monopolies into public
enterprises.
? Doing nothing at all.
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Increasing Competition with
Antitrust Laws
? Antitrust laws are a collection of statutes aimed at
curbing monopoly power.
? Antitrust laws give government various ways to
promote competition.
?They allow government to prevent mergers.
?They allow government to break up companies.
?They prevent companies from performing activities
which make markets less competitive.
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Two Important
Antitrust Laws
?Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)
?Reduced the market power of the large and
powerful,trusts” of that time period.
?Clayton Act (1914)
?Strengthened the government’s powers and
authorized private lawsuits.
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Regulation
Government may regulate the prices
that the monopoly charges.
?The allocation of resources will be
efficient if price is set to equal
marginal cost.
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Marginal-Cost Pricing for a Natural
Monopoly...
Regulated
price
Quantity0
Loss
Price
Demand
Marginal cost
Average total costAveragetotal cost
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Regulation
In practice,regulators will allow
monopolists to keep some of the benefits
from lower costs in the form of higher
profit,a practice that requires some
departure from marginal-cost pricing.
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Public Ownership
Rather than regulating a natural
monopoly that is run by a private firm,
the government can run the monopoly
itself,(e.g,in the U.S.,the government
runs the Postal Service).
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Doing Nothing
Government can do nothing at all
if the market failure is deemed
small compared to the
imperfections of public policies.
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Price Discrimination
Price discrimination is the practice of
selling the same good at different
prices to different customers,even
though the costs for producing for the
two customers are the same,
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Price Discrimination
Price discrimination is not possible
when a good is sold in a competitive
market since there are many firms all
selling at the market price,In order to
price discriminate,the firm must have
some market power.
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Perfect Price Discrimination
Perfect price discrimination
refers to the situation when the
monopolist knows exactly the
willingness to pay of each
customer and can charge each
customer a different price.
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Price Discrimination
?Two important effects of price
discrimination:
?It can increase the monopolist’s profits.
?It can reduce deadweight loss.
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Deadweight
loss
Consumer
surplus
Welfare Without Price
Discrimination...
Price
0 Quantity
Profit
Demand
Marginal cost
Marginal
revenue
Quantity sold
Monopoly
price
(a) Monopolist with Single Price
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Welfare With Price
Discrimination...
Price
0 Quantity
Demand
Marginal cost
Quantity sold
(b) Monopolist with Perfect Price Discrimination
Profit
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Examples of Price Discrimination
?Movie tickets
?Airline prices
?Discount coupons
?Financial aid
?Quantity discounts
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The Prevalence of Monopoly
?How prevalent are the problems of
monopolies?
?Monopolies are common,
?Most firms have some control over their
prices because of differentiated products.
?Firms with substantial monopoly power are
rare,
?Few goods are truly unique.
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Summary
?A monopoly is a firm that is the sole
seller in its market.
?It faces a downward-sloping demand
curve for its product.
?A monopoly’s marginal revenue is
always below the price of its good.
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Summary
?Like a competitive firm,a monopoly
maximizes profit by producing the
quantity at which marginal cost and
marginal revenue are equal.
?Unlike a competitive firm,its price
exceeds its marginal revenue,so its
price exceeds marginal cost,
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Summary
?A monopolist’s profit-maximizing level
of output is below the level that
maximizes the sum of consumer and
producer surplus.
?A monopoly causes deadweight losses
similar to the deadweight losses caused
by taxes.
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Summary
?Policymakers can respond to the
inefficiencies of monopoly behavior with
antitrust laws,regulation of prices,or by
turning the monopoly into a
government-run enterprise,
?If the market failure is deemed small,
policymakers may decide to do nothing
at all.
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Summary
?Monopolists can raise their profits by
charging different prices to different
buyers based on their willingness to
pay,
?Price discrimination can raise
economic welfare and lessen
deadweight losses.
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Graphical
Review
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Economies of Scale as a Cause of
Monopoly...
Average
total
cost
Quantity of Output
Cost
0
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Quantity of
Output
Demand
(a) A Competitive Firm’s
Demand Curve
(b) A Monopolist’s
Demand Curve
0
Price
0 Quantity of
Output
Price
Demand
Demand Curves for Competitive and
Monopoly Firms...
Demand and Marginal Revenue Curves
for a Monopoly...
Quantity of Water
Price
$11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Marginal
revenue
Demand
(average revenue)
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Profit-Maximization for a Monopoly...
Monopoly
price
QuantityQMAX0
Costs and
Revenue
Demand
Average total cost
Marginal revenue
Marginal
cost
A
1,The intersection of
the marginal-revenue
curve and the marginal-
cost curve determines
the profit-maximizing
quantity...B
2.,..and then the demand
curve shows the price
consistent with this
quantity.
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The Monopolist’s Profit...
Quantity0
Costs and
Revenue
Demand
Marginal cost
Marginal revenue
QMAX
BMonopoly
price
E
Average
total cost D
Average total cost
C
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The Market for Drugs...
Costs and
Revenue
Price
during
patent life
Price after
patent
expires
Monopoly
quantity
Competitive
quantity
0 Quantity
Demand
Marginal
cost
Marginal
revenue
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The Efficient Level of Output...
Price
0 Quantity
Marginal cost
Demand
(value to buyers)
Efficient
quantity
Cost to
monopolist
Value
to
buyers
Value
to
buyers
Cost to
monopolist
Value to buyers is greater
than cost to seller.
Value to buyers is less
than cost to seller.
The Inefficiency of Monopoly...
Quantity0
DemandMarginalrevenue
Marginal cost
Monopolyprice
Deadweightloss
Efficient
quantity
Monopoly
quantity
Price
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Marginal-Cost Pricing for a Natural
Monopoly...
Regulated
price
Quantity0
Loss
Price
Demand
Marginal cost
Average total costAveragetotal cost
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Welfare Without Price
Discrimination...
Deadweight
loss
Consumer
surplus
Price
0 Quantity
Profit
Demand
Marginal cost
Marginal
revenue
Quantity sold
Monopoly
price
(a) Monopolist with Single Price
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Welfare With Price
Discrimination...
Price
0 Quantity
Demand
Marginal cost
Quantity sold
(b) Monopolist with Perfect Price Discrimination
Profit