The Economics of
Labor Markets
Chapter 18
Copyright ? 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.
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Factors of Production
Factors of production are the
inputs used to produce goods
and services.
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The Market for the Factors of
Production
The demand for a factor of
production is a derived demand.
?A firm’s demand for a factor of
production is derived from its
decision to supply a good in
another market.
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The Demand for Labor
Labor markets,like other markets
in the economy,are governed by the
forces of supply and demand.
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The Versatility of Supply and
Demand...
(a) The Market for Apples (b) The Market for Apple Pickers
Quantity
of Apples
Quantity of
Apple Pickers
Q L
P W
0 0
Price of
Apples
Wage of
Apple
Pickers
Demand Demand
Supply Supply
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The Demand For Labor
Most labor services,rather than
being final goods ready to be enjoyed
by consumers,are inputs into the
production of other goods.
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The Production Function and
The Marginal Product of Labor
The production function illustrates the
relationship between the quantity of
inputs used and the quantity of output
of a good.
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How the Competitive Firm Decides
How Much Labor to HireL a b o r
L
O u t p u t
Q
M a r g i n a l
P r o d u c t
o f L a b o r
M P L
V a l u e o f t h e
M a r g i n a l
P r o d u c t
o f L a b o r
V M P L = P x M P L
W a g e
W
M a r g i n a l P r o f i t
0 0
1 100 100 $ 1,0 0 0 $500 $500
2 180 80 $800 $500 $300
3 240 60 $600 $500 $100
4 280 40 $400 $500 - $ 1 0 0
5 300 20 $200 $500 - $ 3 0 0
D Pr o f i t V M P L W= -
MPL Q/ L= D D
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The Production Function...
00
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Quantity of Apple Pickers
Qu
an
tit
y
of
Ap
pl
es
1
2
3
4
5
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The Production Function and The
Marginal Product of Labor
The marginal product of labor is
the increase in the amount of
output from an additional unit of
labor.
MPL = DQ/DL
MPL = (Q2 – Q1)/(L2 – L1)
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Diminishing Marginal Product
of Labor
?As the number of workers increases,the
marginal product of labor declines,
?As more and more workers are hired,
each additional worker contributes less to
production than the prior one.
?The production function becomes flatter
as the number of workers rises.
This property is called diminishing
marginal product.
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The Production Function...
00
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Quantity of Apple Pickers
Qu
an
tit
y
of
Ap
pl
es
1
2
3
4
5
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The Value of the Marginal
Product of Labor
?The value of the marginal product is
the marginal product of the input
multiplied by the market price of the
output.
VMPL = MPL X P
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The Value of the Marginal
Product of Labor
?The value of the marginal product is
measured in dollars.
?It diminishes as the number of
workers rises because the market
price of the good is constant.
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The Value of the Marginal Product
and the Demand for Labor
?To maximize profit,the competitive,
profit-maximizing firm hires workers up
to the point where the value of marginal
product of labor equals the wage,
VMPL = Wage
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The Value of the Marginal Product
and the Demand for Labor
The value-of-marginal-product curve
is the labor demand curve for a
competitive,profit-maximizing firm.
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The Value of the Marginal Product
of Labor...
0 Quantity of
Apple Pickers
Value of
the
Marginal
Product
Value of marginal product
(demand curve for labor)
Market
wage
Profit-maximizing
quantity
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Input Demand and Output
Supply
When a competitive firm hires labor up to
the point at which the value of the
marginal product equals the wage,it also
produces up to the point at which the price
equals the marginal cost.
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What Causes the Labor
Demand Curve to Shift?
?Output Price
?Technological Change
?Supply of Other factors
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The Labor Supply Curve
?The labor supply curve reflects how
workers’ decisions about the labor-
leisure tradeoff respond to changes in
opportunity cost.
?An upward-sloping labor supply curve
means that an increase in the wages
induces workers to increase the quantity
of labor they supply.
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The Labor Supply Curve
Supply
Wage
(price of
labor)
Quantity of
Labor
0
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What Causes the Labor Supply
Curve to Shift?
?Changes in Tastes
?Changes in Alternative
Opportunities
?Immigration
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Equilibrium in the Labor
Market
?The wage adjusts to balance the
supply and demand for labor.
?The wage equals the value of the
marginal product of labor.
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Equilibrium
employment,L
Equilibrium in the Labor
Market...
Supply
Wage
(price of
labor)
Quantity of
Labor
0
Demand
Equilibrium
wage,W
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Equilibrium in the Labor
Market
?Labor supply and labor demand
determine the equilibrium wage.
?Shifts in the supply or demand
curve for labor cause the
equilibrium wage to change.
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A Shift in Labor Supply...
Wage
(price of
labor)
W1
0 Quantity of
Labor
L1
Supply,S1
Demand
2.,..reduces
the wage...
3.,..and raises employment.
1,An increase inlabor supply...
S2
W2
L2
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A Shift in Labor Supply
?An increase in the supply of labor,
?Results in a surplus of labor.
?Puts downward pressure on wages.
?Makes it profitable for firms to hire more
workers.
?Results in diminishing marginal product.
?Lowers the value of the marginal product.
?Gives a new equilibrium.
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A Shift in Labor Demand...
Wage
(price of
labor)
W1
0 Quantity ofLaborL1
Supply
Demand,D1
2.,..increases
the wage...
3.,..and increases employment.
1,An increase in
labor demand...
D2
W2
L2
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Shifts in Labor Demand
?An increase in the demand for labor,
?Makes it profitable for firms to hire more
workers.
?Puts upward pressure on wages.
?Raises the value of the marginal product.
?Gives a new equilibrium.
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Three Determinants of
Productivity
?Physical Capital
?When workers work with a larger quantity of
equipment and structures,they produce more.
?Human Capital
?When workers are more educated,they produce
more.
?Technological Knowledge
?When workers have access to more sophisticated
technologies,they produce more.
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Productivity and Wage Growth
in the United States
Ti m e Per io d
Growth Ra te o f
Pr od uctiv ity
Growth Ra te o f
Wage s
1 9 5 9 - 1 9 9 7 1,8 1,7
1 9 5 9 - 1 9 7 3 2,9 2,9
1 9 7 3 - 1 9 9 7 1,1 1,0
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Productivity and Wage Growth
around the World
C o u n t r y
G r o w t h R a t e
o f P r o d u c t i v i t y
G r o w t h R a t e
o f R e a l
W a g e s
S o u t h K o r e a 8, 5 7, 9
H o n g K o n g 5, 5 4, 9
S i n g a p o r e 5, 3 5, 0
I n d o n e s i a 4, 0 4, 4
J a p a n 3, 6 2, 0
I n d i a 3, 1 3, 4
U n i t e d K i n g d o m 2, 4 2, 4
U n i t e d S t a t e s 1, 7 0, 5
B r a z i l 0, 4 - 2, 4
M e x i c o - 0, 2 - 3, 0
A r g e n t i n a - 0, 9 - 1, 3
I r a n - 1, 4 - 7, 9
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Other Factors of Production,
Land and Capital
?Capital refers to the stock of equipment
and structures used for production.
?The economy’s capital represents the
accumulation of goods produced in the past
that are being used in the present to
produce new goods and services.
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Prices of Land and Capital
?The purchase price is what a person
pays to own a factor of production
indefinitely.
?The rental price is what a person pays
to use a factor of production for a
limited period of time.
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Equilibrium in Markets for
Land and Capital
?The rental price of land and the rental
price of capital are determined by supply
and demand,
?The firm increases the quantity hired until
the value of the factor’s marginal product
equals the factor’s price.
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The Markets for Land and
Capital...
Quantity
of Land
Quantity of
Capital
Q Q
P P
0 0
Rental
Price of
Land
Rental
Price of
Capital
Demand Demand
Supply
Supply
(a) The Market for Land (b) The Market for Capital
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Equilibrium in Markets for
Land and Capital
?Each factor’s rental price must equal
the value of their marginal product,
?They each earn the value of their
marginal contribution to the
production process.
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Linkages Among the Factors
of Production
Factors of production are used together.
?The marginal product of any one
factor depends on the quantities of all
factors that are available.
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Linkages Among the Factors
of Production
A change in the supply of one
factor alters the earnings of all
the factors.
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Linkages Among the Factors
of Production
A change in earnings of any factor can
be found by analyzing the impact of
the event on the value of the marginal
product of that factor.
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Summary
?The three most important factors of
production are labor,land,and capital.
?The demand for factors,such as labor,is a
derived demand that comes from firms
that use the factors to produce goods and
services.
?Competitive,profit-maximizing firms hire
each factor up to the point at which the
value of the marginal product of the factor
equals its price.
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Summary
?The supply of labor arises from
individuals’ tradeoff between work and
leisure.
?An upward-sloping labor supply curve
means that people respond to an
increase in the wage by enjoying less
leisure and working more hours.
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Summary
?The price paid to each factor adjusts to
balance the supply and demand for that
factor.
?Because factor demand reflects the value
of the marginal product of that factor,in
equilibrium each factor is compensated
according to its marginal contribution to
the production of goods and services.
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Summary
?Because factors of production are used
together,the marginal product of any one
factor depends on the quantities of all
factors that are available.
?As a result,a change in the supply of one
factor alters the equilibrium earnings of
all the factors.
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Graphical
Review
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The Versatility of Supply and
Demand...
(a) The Market for Apples (b) The Market for Apple Pickers
Quantity
of Apples
Quantity of
Apple Pickers
Q L
P W
0 0
Price of
Apples
Wage of
Apple
Pickers
Demand Demand
Supply Supply
Harcourt,Inc,items and derived items copyright ? 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.
The Production Function...
00
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Quantity of Apple Pickers
Qu
an
tit
y
of
Ap
pl
es
1
2
3
4
5
Harcourt,Inc,items and derived items copyright ? 2001 by Harcourt,Inc.
The Value of the Marginal Product
of Labor...
0 Quantity of
Apple Pickers
Value of
the
Marginal
Product
Value of marginal product
(demand curve for labor)
Market
wage
Profit-maximizing
quantity
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The Labor Supply Curve
Supply
Wage
(price of
labor)
Quantity of
Labor
0
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Equilibrium in the Labor
Market...
Equilibrium
employment,L
Supply
Wage
(price of
labor)
Quantity of
Labor
0
Demand
Equilibrium
wage,W
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A Shift in Labor Supply...
Wage
(price of
labor)
W1
0 Quantity of
Labor
L1
Supply,S1
Demand
2.,..reduces
the wage...
3.,..and raises employment.
1,An increase inlabor supply...
S2
W2
L2
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A Shift in Labor Demand...
Wage
(price of
labor)
W1
0 Quantity ofLaborL1
Supply
Demand,D1
2.,..increases
the wage...
3.,..and increases employment.
1,An increase in
labor demand...
D2
W2
L2
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The Markets for Land and
Capital...
Quantity
of Land
Quantity of
Capital
Q Q
P P
0 0
Rental
Price of
Land
Rental
Price of
Capital
Demand Demand
Supply
Supply
(a) The Market for Land (b) The Market for Capital