电子工程师手册（英文版四）：ch079

Moss, G.L., Graham, P., Sandige, R.S., Hinton, H.S. “Logic Elements” The Electrical Engineering Handbook Ed. Richard C. Dorf Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000 79 Logic Elements 79.1 IC Logic Family Operation and Characteristics IC Logic Families and Subfamilies?TTL Logic Family?CMOS Logic Family?ECL Logic Family?Logic Family Circuit Parameters?Interfacing Between Logic Families 79.2 Logic Gates (IC) Gate Specification Parameters?Bipolar Transistor Gates?Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Logic?Choosing a Logic Family 79.3 Bistable Devices Basic Latches?Gated Latches?Flip-Flops?Edge-Triggered Flip- Flops?Special Notes on Using Latches and Flip-Flops 79.4 Optical Devices All-Optical Devices?Optoelectronic Devices?Limitations 79.1 IC Logic Family Operation and Characteristics Gregory L. Moss Digital logic circuits can be classified as belonging to one of two categories, either combinational (also called combinatorial) or sequential logic circuits. The output logic level of a combinatorial circuit depends only on the current logic levels present at the circuit’s inputs. Sequential logic circuits, on the other hand, have a memory characteristic so the sequential circuit’s output is dependent not only on the current input conditions but also on the current output state of the circuit. The primary building block in combinational circuits is the logic gate. The three simplest logic gate functions are the inverter (or NOT), AND, and OR. Other common basic logic functions are derived from these three. Table 79.1 gives truth table definitions of the various types of logic gates. The memory elements used to construct sequential logic circuits are called latches and flip-flops. The integrated circuit switching logic used in modern digital systems will generally be from one of three families: transistor-transistor logic (TTL), complementary metal-oxide semiconductor logic (CMOS), or emit- ter-coupled logic (ECL). Each of the logic families has its advantages and disadvantages. The three major families are also divided into various subfamilies derived from performance improvements in integrated circuit (IC) design technology. Bipolar transistors provide the switching action in both TTL and ECL families, while enhancement-mode MOS transistors are the basis for the CMOS family. Recent improvements in switching circuit performance are also attained using BiCMOS technology, the merging of bipolar and CMOS technologies on a single chip. A particular logic family is usually selected by digital designers based on such criteria as 1.Switching speed 2.Power dissipation 3.PC board area requirements (levels of integration) 4.Output drive capability (fan-out) 5.Noise immunity characteristics 6.Product breadth 7.Sourcing of components Gregory L. Moss Purdue University Peter Graham Florida Atlantic University (Retired) Richard S. Sandige University of Wyoming H. S. Hinton University of Colorado ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC IC Logic Families and Subfamilies The integrated circuit logic families actually consist of several subfamilies of ICs that differ in various perfor- mance characteristics. The TTL logic family has been the most widely used family type for applications that employ small-scale integration (SSI) or medium-scale integration (MSI) integrated circuits. Lower power consumption and higher levels of integration are the principal advantages of the CMOS family. The ECL family is generally used in applications that require high-speed switching logic. Today, the most common device numbering system used in the TTL and CMOS families has a prefix of 54 (generally used in military applications and having an operating temperature range of –55 to 125°C) and 74 (generally used in industrial/commercial applications and having an operating temperature range of 0 to 70°C). Table 79.2 identifies various logic families and subfamilies. TTL Logic Family The TTL family has been the most widely used logic family for many years in applications that use SSI and MSI. It is relatively fast and offers a great variety of standard chips. The active switching element used in all TTL family circuits is the npn bipolar junction transistor (BJT). The transistor is turned on when the base is approximately 0.7 V more positive than the emitter and there is a sufficient amount of base current flowing. The turned on transistor (in non-Schottky subfamilies) is said to TABLE 79.1 Defining Truth Tables for Logic Gates 1-Input Function 2-Input Functions Input Output Inputs Output Functions A NOT A B AND OR NAND NOR XOR XNOR 0100001101 100101 010 100 1 1 0 1 0 111 1 0 0 0 1 TABLE 79.2 Logic Families and Subfamilies Family and Subfamily Description TTL Transistor-transistor logic 74xx Standard TTL 74Lxx Low-power TTL 74Hxx High-speed TTL 74Sxx Schottky TTL 74LSxx Low-power Schottky TTL 74ASxx Advanced Schottky TTL 74ALSxx Advanced low-power Schottky TTL 74Fxx Fast TTL CMOS Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor 4xxx Standard CMOS 74Cxx Standard CMOS using TTL numbering system 74HCxx High-speed CMOS 74HCTxx High-speed CMOS—TTL compatible 74FCTxx Fast CMOS—TTL compatible 74ACxx Advanced CMOS 74ACTxx Advanced CMOS—TTL compatible 74AHCxx Advanced high-speed CMOS 74AHCTxx Advanced high-speed CMOS-TTL compatible ECL (or CML) Emitter-coupled (current-mode) logic 10xxx Standard ECL 10Hxxx High-speed ECL ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC be in saturation and, ideally, acts like a closed switch between the collector and emitter terminals. The transistor is turned off when the base is not biased with a high enough voltage (with respect to the emitter). Under this condition, the transistor acts like an open switch between the collector and emitter terminals. Figure 79.1 illustrates the transistor circuit blocks used in a standard TTL inverter. Four transistors are used to achieve the inverter function. The input to the gate connects to the emitter of transistor Q1, the input coupling transistor. A clamping diode on the input prevents negative input voltage spikes from damaging Q1. The collector voltage (and current) of Q1 controls Q2, the phase splitter transistor. Q2, in turn, controls the Q3 and Q4 transistors forming the output circuit, which is called a totem-pole arrangement. Q4 serves as a pull-up transistor to pull the output high when it is turned on. Q3 does just the opposite to the output and serves as a pull-down transistor. Q3 pulls the output low when it is turned on. Only one of the two transistors in the totem pole may be turned on at a time, which is the function of the phase splitter transistor Q2. When a high logic level is applied to the inverter’s input, Q1’s base-emitter junction will be reverse biased and the base-collector junction will be forward biased. This circuit condition will allow Q1 collector current to flow into the base of Q2, saturating Q2 and thereby providing base current into Q3, turning it on also. The collector voltage of Q2 is too low to turn on Q4 so that it appears as an open in the top part of the totem pole. A diode between the two totem-pole transistors provides an extra voltage drop in series with the base-emitter junction of Q4 to ensure that Q4 will be turned off when Q2 is turned on. The saturated Q3 transistor brings the output near ground potential, producing a low output result for a high input into the inverter. When a low logic level is applied to the inverter’s input, Q1’s base-emitter junction will be forward biased and the base-collector junction will be reverse biased. This circuit condition will turn on Q1 so that the collector terminal is shorted to the emitter and, therefore, to ground (low level). This low voltage is also on the base of Q2 and turns Q2 off. With Q2 off, there will be insufficient base current into Q3, turning it off also. Q2 leakage current is shunted to ground with a resistor to prevent the partial turning on of Q3. The collector voltage of FIGURE 79.1 TTL inverter circuit block diagram and operation. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC Q2 is pulled to a high potential with another resistor and, as a result, turns on Q4 so that it appears as a short in the top part of the totem pole. The saturated Q4 transistor provides a low resistance path from V CC to the output, producing a high output result for a low input into the inverter. A TTL NAND gate is very similar to the inverter circuit, with the exception that the input coupling transistor Q1 is constructed with multiple emitter-base junctions and each input to the NAND is connected to a separate emitter terminal. Any of the transistor’s multiple emitters can be used to turn on Q1. The TTL NAND gate thus functions in the same manner as the inverter in that if any of the NAND gate inputs are low, the same circuit action will take place as with a low input to the inverter. Therefore, any time a low input is applied to the NAND gate it will produce a high ouput. Only if all of the NAND gate inputs are simultaneously high will it then produce the same circuit action as the inverter with its single input high, and the resultant output will be low. Input coupling transistors with up to eight emitter-base junctions, and therefore, eight input NAND gates, are constructed. Storage time (the time it takes for the transistor to come out of saturation) is a major factor of propagation delay for saturated BJT transistors. A long storage time limits the switching speed of a standard TTL circuit. The propagation delay can be decreased and, therefore, the switching speed can be increased, by placing a Schottky diode between the base and collector of each transistor that might saturate. The resulting Schottky- clamped transistors do not go into saturation (effectively eliminating storage time) since the diode shunts current from the base into the collector before the transistor can achieve saturation. Today, digital circuit designs implemented with TTL logic almost exclusively use one of the Schottky subfamilies to take advantage of the significant improvement in switching speed. CMOS Logic Family The active switching element used in all CMOS family circuits is the metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). CMOS stands for complementary MOS transistors and refers to the use of both types of MOSFET transistors, n-channel and p-channel, in the design of this type of switching circuit. While the physical construction and the internal physics of a MOSFET are quite different from that of the BJT, the circuit switching action of the two transistor types is quite similar. The MOSFET switch is essentially turned off and has a very high channel resistance by applying the same potential to the gate terminal as the source. An n- channel MOSFET is turned on and has a very low channel resistance when a high voltage with respect to the source is applied to the gate. A p-channel MOSFET operates in the same fashion but with opposite polarities; the gate must be more negative than the source to turn on the transistor. A block diagram and schematic for a CMOS inverter circuit is shown in Fig. 79.2. Note that it is a simpler and much more compact circuit design than that for the TTL inverter. That fact is a major reason why MOSFET integrated circuits have a much higher circuit density than BJT integrated circuits and is one advantage that MOSFET ICs have over BJT ICs. As a result, CMOS is used in all levels of integration, from SSI through VLSI (very large scale integration). When a high logic level is applied to the inverter’s input, the p-channel MOSFET Q1 will be turned off and the n-channel MOSFET Q2 will be turned on. This will cause the output to be shorted to ground through the low resistance path of Q2’s channel. The turned off Q1 has a very high channel resistance and acts nearly like an open. When a low logic level is applied to the inverter’s input, the p-channel MOSFET Q1 will be turned on and the n-channel MOSFET Q2 will be turned off. This will cause the output to be shorted to V DD through the low resistance path of Q1’s channel. The turned off Q2 has a very high channel resistance and acts nearly like an open. CMOS NAND gates are constructed by paralleling p-channel MOSFETs, one for each input, and putting in series an n-channel MOSFET for each input, as shown in the block diagram and schematic of Fig. 79.3. The NAND gate will produce a low output only when both Q3 and Q4 are turned on, creating a low resistance path from the output to ground through the two series channels. This can be accomplished by having a high on both input A and input B. This input condition will also turn off Q1 and Q2 . If either input A or input B or both is low, the respective parallel MOSFET will be turned on, providing a low resistance path for the output to V DD . This will also turn off at least one of the series MOSFETs, resulting in a high resistance path for the output to ground. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC ECL Logic Family ECL is a higher-speed logic family. While it does not offer as large a variety of IC chips as are available in the TTL family, it is quite popular for logic applications requiring high-speed switching. The active switching element used in the ECL family circuits is also the npn BJT. Unlike the TTL family, however, which switches the transistors into saturation when turning them on, ECL switching is designed to prevent driving the transistors into saturation. Whenever bipolar transistors are driven into saturation, their switching speed will be limited by the charge carrier storage delay, a transistor operational characteristic. Thus, the switching speed of ECL circuits will be significantly higher than for TTL circuits. ECL operation is based FIGURE 79.2 CMOS inverter circuit block diagram and operation. FIGURE 79.3 CMOS two-input NAND circuit block diagram and operation. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC on switching a fixed amount of bias current that is less than the saturation amount between two different transistors. The basic circuit found in the ECL family is the differential amplifier. One side of the differential amplifier is controlled by a bias circuit and the other is controlled by the logic inputs to the gate. This logic family is also referred to as current-mode logic (CML) because of its current switching operation. Logic Family Circuit Parameters Digital circuits and systems operate with only two states, logic 1 and 0, usually represented by two different voltage levels, a high and a low. The two logic levels actually consist of a range of values with the numerical quantities dependent upon the specific family that is used. Minimum high logic levels and maximum low logic levels are established by specifications for each family. Minimum device output levels for a logic high are called V OH(min) and minimum input levels are called V IH(min) . The abbreviations for maximum output and input low logic levels are V OL(max) and V IL(max) , respectively. Figure 79.4 shows the relationships between these parameters. Logic voltage level parameters are illustrated for selected prominent logic subfamilies in Table 79.3. As seen in this illustration, there are many operational incompatibilities between major logic family types. Noise margin is a quantitative measure of a device’s noise immunity. High-level noise margin (V NH ) and low-level noise margin (V NL ) are defined in Eqs. (79.1) and (79.2). FIGURE 79.4 Switching device logic levels. TABLE 79.3 Logic Signal Voltage Parameters for Selected Logic Subfamilies (in Volts) Subfamily V OH(min) V OL(max) V IH(min) V IL(max) 74xx 2.4 0.4 2.0 0.8 74LSxx 2.7 0.5 2.0 0.8 74ASxx 2.5 0.5 2.0 0.8 74ALSxx 2.5 0.4 2.0 0.8 74Fxx 2.5 0.5 2.0 0.8 74HCxx 4.9 0.1 3.15 0.9 74HCTxx 4.9 0.1 2.0 0.8 74ACxx 3.8 0.4 3.15 1.35 74ACTxx 3.8 0.4 2.0 0.8 74AHCxx 4.5 0.1 3.85 1.65 74AHCTxx 3.65 0.1 2.0 0.8 10xxx –0.96 –1.65 –1.105 –1.475 10Hxxx –0.98 –1.63 –1.13 –1.48 ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC V NH = V OH(min) – V IH(min) (79.1) V NL = V IL(max) – V OL(max) (79.2) Using the logic voltage values given in Table 79.3 for the selected subfamilies reveals that highest noise immunity is obtained with logic devices in the CMOS family, while lowest noise immunity is endemic to the ECL family. Switching circuit outputs are loaded by the inputs of the devices that they are driving, as illustrated in Fig. 79.5. Worst case input loading current levels and output driving current capabilities are listed in Table 79.4 for various logic subfamilies. The fan-out of a driving device is the ratio between its output current capabilities at each logic level and the corresponding gate input current loading value. Switching circuits based on bipolar transistors have fan-out limited primarily by the current-sinking and current-sourcing capabilities of the driving device. FIGURE 79.5 Current loading of driving gates. TABLE 79.4 Worst Case Current Parameters for Selected Logic Subfamilies Subfamily I OH(max) I OL(max) I IH(max) I IL(max) 74xx –400 mA 16 mA 40 mA –1.6 mA 74LSxx –400 mA 8 mA 20 mA –400 mA 74ASxx –2 mA 20 mA 200 mA –2 mA 74ALSxx –400 mA 8 mA 20 mA –100 mA 74Fxx –1 mA 20 mA 20 mA –0.6 mA 74HCxx –4 mA 4 mA 1 mA –1 mA 74HCTxx –4 mA 4 mA 1 mA –1 mA 74ACxx –24 mA 24 mA 1 mA –1 mA 74ACTxx –24 mA 24 mA 1 mA –1 mA 74AHCxx –8 mA 8 mA 1 mA –1 mA 74AHCTxx –8 mA 8 mA 1 mA –1 mA 10xxx 50 mA –50 mA –265 mA 500 nA 10Hxxx 50 mA –50 mA –265 mA 500 nA ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC CMOS switching circuits are limited by the charging and discharging times associated with the output resistance of the driving gate and the input capacitance of the load gates. Thus, CMOS fan-out depends on the frequency of switching. With fewer (capacitive) loading inputs to drive, the maximum switching frequency of CMOS devices will increase. The switching speed of logic devices is dependent on the device’s propagation delay time. The propagation delay of a logic device limits the frequency at which it can be operated. There are two propagation delay times specified for logic gates: t PHL , delay time for the output to change from high to low, and t PLH , delay time for the output to change from low to high. Average typical propagation delay times for a single gate are listed for several logic subfamilies in Table 79.5. The ECL family has the fastest switching speed. The amount of power required by an IC is normally specified in terms of the amount of current I CC (TTL family), I DD (CMOS family), or I EE (ECL family) drawn from the power supply. For complex IC devices, the required supply current is given under specified test conditions. For TTL chips containing simple gates, the average power dissipation P D(ave) is normally calculated from two measurements, I CCH (when all gate outputs are high) and I CCL (when all gate outputs are low). Table 79.5 compares the static power dissipation of several logic subfamilies. The ECL family has the highest power dissipation, while the lowest is attained with the CMOS family. It should be noted that power dissipation for the CMOS family is directly proportional to the gate input signal frequency. For example, one would typically find that the power dissipation for a CMOS logic circuit would increase by a factor of 100 if the input signal frequency is increased from 1 kHz to 100 kHz. The speed-power product is a relative figure of merit that is calculated by the formula given in Eq. (79.3). This performance measurement is normally expressed in picojoules (pJ). Speed-power product = (t PHL + t PLH )/2 ′ P D(ave) (79.3) A low value of speed-power product is desirable to implement high-speed (and, therefore, low propagation delay time) switching devices that consume low amounts of power. Because of the nature of transistor switching circuits, it is difficult to attain high-speed switching with low power dissipation. The continued development of new IC logic families and subfamilies is largely due to the trade-offs between these two device switching parameters. The speed-power product for various subfamilies is also compared in Table 79.5. Interfacing Between Logic Families The interconnection of logic chips requires that input and output specifications be satisfied. Figure 79.6 illus- trates voltage and current requirements. The driving chip’s V OH(min) must be greater than the driven circuit’s V IH(min) , and the driver’s V OL(max) must be less than V IL(max) for the loading circuit. Voltage level shifters must be TABLE 79.5Speed-Power Comparison for Selected Logic Subfamilies Propagation Static Power Delay Time, Dissipation, Speed-Power Subfamily ns (ave.) mW (per gate) Product, pJ 74xx 10 10 100 74LSxx 9.5 2 19 74ASxx 1.5 2 13 74ALSxx 4 1.2 5 74Fxx 3 6 18 74HCxx 8 0.003 24 ′ 10 –3 74HCTxx 14 0.003 42 ′ 10 –3 74ACxx 5 0.010 50 ′ 10 –3 74ACTxx 5 0.010 50 ′ 10 –3 74AHCxx 5.5 0.003 16 ′ 10 –3 74AHCTxx 5 0.003 14 ′ 10 –3 10xxx 2 25 50 10Hxxx 1 25 25 ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC used to interface the circuits together if these voltage requirements are not met. Of course, a driving circuit’s output must not exceed the maximum and minimum allowable input voltages for the driven circuit. Also, the current sinking and sourcing ability of the driver circuit’s output must be greater than the total current requirements for the loading circuit. Buffer gates or stages must be used if current requirements are not satisfied. All chips within a single logic family are designed to be compatible with other chips in the same family. Mixing chips from multiple subfamilies together within a single digital circuit can have adverse effects on the overall circuit’s switching speed and noise immunity. Defining Terms Fan-out: The specification used to identify the limit to the number of loading inputs that can be reliably driven by a driving device’s output. Logic level: The high or low value of a voltage variable that is assigned to be a 1 or a 0 state. Noise immunity: A logic device’s ability to tolerate input voltage fluctuation caused by noise without changing its output state. Propagation delay time: The time delay from when the input logic level to a device is changed until the resultant output change is produced by that device. Speed-power product: An overall performance measurement that is used to compare the various logic families and subfamilies. Truth table: A listing of the relationship of a circuit’s output that is produced for various combinations of logic levels at the inputs. Related Topic 25.3 Application-Specific Integrated Circuits References A. P. Chandrakasan and R. W. Brodersen, Low Power Digital CMOS Design, Boston: Kluwer Academic, 1995. D. J. Comer, Digital Logic and State Machine Design, 2nd ed., Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 1990. S. H. K. Embabi, A. Bellaouar, and M. I. Elmasry, Digital BiCMOS Integrated Circuit Design, Boston: Kluwer Academic, 1993. T. L. Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 5th ed., Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company, 1994. K. Gopalan, Introduction to Digital Microelectronic Circuits, Chicago: Irwin, 1996. J. D. Greenfield, Practical Digital Design Using ICs, 3rd ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1994. R. J. Prestopnik, Digital Electronics: Concepts and Applications for Digital Design, Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 1990. R. S. Sandige, Modern Digital Design, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990. M. Shoji, Theory of CMOS Digital Circuits and Circuit Failures, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992. R. J. Tocci, Digital Systems: Principles and Applications, 6th ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1995. S. H. Unger, The Essence of Logic Circuits, 2nd ed., New York: IEEE Press, 1996. J. F. Wakerly, Digital Design: Principles and Practices, 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1994. FIGURE 79.6 Circuit interfacing requirements. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC Further Information Data Books and Device Index: D. M. Howell, Ed. IC Master, Garden City, NY: Hearst Business Communications, annual. Engineering Staff, Advanced BiCMOS Technology Data Book, Dallas: Texas Instruments, 1994. Engineering Staff, Advanced High-Speed CMOS Logic Data Book, Dallas: Texas Instruments, 1996. Engineering Staff, ALS/AS Logic Data Book, Dallas: Texas Instruments, 1995. Engineering Staff, ECLinPS Data, Phoenix: Motorola, 1995. Engineering Staff, FACT Advanced CMOS Logic Databook, Santa Clara, Calif: National Semiconductor Corporation, 1993. Engineering Staff, FACT Data, Phoenix: Motorola, 1996. Engineering Staff, FACT & LS TTL Data, Phoenix: Motorola, 1992. Engineering Staff, Low-Voltage Logic Data Book, Dallas: Texas Instruments, 1996. Engineering Staff, MECL Data, Phoenix: Motorola, 1993. Journals and Trade Magazines: EDN, Highlights Ranch, Colo.: Cahners Publishing. Electronic Design, Cleveland, Ohio: Penton Publishing. Electronic Engineering Times, Manhasset, N.Y.: CMP Publications. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, Part I: Fundamental Theory and Applications, New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. Internet Addresses for Digital Device Data Sheets: Motorola, Inc. http://Design-net.com National Semiconductor Corp. http://www.national.com/design/index.html Texas Instruments, Inc. http://www.ti.com/sc/docs/schome.htm 79.2 Logic Gates (IC) 1 Peter Graham This section introduces and analyzes the electronic circuit realizations of the basic gates of the three technologies: transistor-transistor logic (TTL), emitter-coupled logic (ECL), and complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) logic. These circuits are commercially available on small-scale integration chips and are also the building blocks for more elaborate logic systems. The three technologies are compared with regard to speed, power consumption, and noise immunity, and parameters are defined which facilitate these comparisons. Also included are recommendations which are useful in choosing and using these technologies. Gate Specification Parameters Theoretically almost any logic device or system could be constructed by wiring together the appropriate configuration of the basic gates of the selected technology. In practice, however, the gates are interconnected during the fabrication process to produce a desired system on a single chip. The circuit complexity of a given chip is described by one of the following four rather broad classifications: ? Small-Scale Integration (SSI). The inputs and outputs of every gate are available for external connection at the chip pins (with the exception that exclusive OR and AND-OR gates are considered SSI). ? Medium-Scale Integration (MSI). Several gates are interconnected to perform somewhat more elaborate logic functions such as flip-flops, counters, multiplexers, etc. 1 Based on P. Graham, “Gates,” in Handbook of Modern Electronics and Electrical Engineering, C. Belove, Ed., New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1986, pp. 864–876. With permission. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC ?Large-Scale Integration (LSI). Several of the more elaborate circuits associated with MSI are intercon- nected within the integrated circuit to form a logic system on a single chip. Chips such as calculators, digital clocks, and small microprocessors are examples of LSI. ?Very-Large-Scale Integration (VLSI). This designation is usually reserved for chips having a very high density, 1000 or more gates per chip. These include the large single-chip memories, gate arrays, and microcomputers. Specifications of logic speed require definitions of switching times. These definitions can be found in the introductory pages of most data manuals. Four of them pertain directly to gate circuits. These are (see also Fig. 79.7): ?LOW-to-HIGH Propagation Delay Time (t PLH ). The time between specified reference points on the input and output voltage waveforms when the output is changing from low to high. ?HIGH-to-LOW Propagation Delay Tune (t PHL ). The time between specified reference points on the input and output voltage waveforms when the output is changing from high to low. ?Propagation Delay Time (t PD ). The average of the two propagation delay times: t PD = (t PD + t PHL ) /2. ?LOW-to-HIGH Transition Time (t TLH ). The rise time between specified reference points on the LOW-to- HIGH shift of the output waveform. ?HIGH-to-LOW Transition Time (t THL ). The fall time between specified reference points on the HIGH-to- LOW shift of the output waveform. The reference points usually are 10 and 90% of the voltage level difference in each case. Power consumption, driving capability, and effective loading of gates are defined in terms of currents. ?Supply Current, Outputs High (I xxH ). The current delivered to the chip by the power supply when all outputs are open and at the logical 1 level. The xx subscript depends on the technology. ?Supply Current, Outputs Low (I xxL ). The current delivered to the chip by the supply when all outputs are open and at the logical 0 level. ?Supply Current, Worst Case (I xx ). When the output level is unspecified, the input conditions are assumed to correspond to maximum supply current. FIGURE 79.7Definitions of switching times. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC ? Input HIGH Current (I IH ). The current flowing into an input when the specified HIGH voltage is applied. ? Input LOW Current (I IL ). The current flowing into an input when the specified LOW voltage is applied. ? Output HIGH Current (I OH ). The current flowing into the output when it is in the HIGH state. I OHmax is the largest I OH for which V OH 3 V OHmin is guaranteed. ? Output LOW Current (I OL ). The current flowing into the output when it is in the LOW state. I OLmax is the largest I OL for which V OL 3 V OLmax is guaranteed. The most important voltage definitions are concerned with establishing ranges on the logical 1 (HIGH) and logical 0 (LOW) voltage levels. ? Minimum High-Level Input Voltage (V IHmin ). The least positive value of input voltage guaranteed to result in the output voltage level specified for a logical 1 input. ? Maximum Low-Level Input Voltage (V ILmax ). The most positive value of input voltage guaranteed to result in the output voltage level specified for a logical 0 input. ? Minimum High-Level Output Voltage (V OHmin ). The guaranteed least positive output voltage when the input is properly driven to produce a logical 1 at the output. ? Maximum Low-Level Output Voltage (V OLmax ). The guaranteed most positive output voltage when the input is properly driven to produce a logical 0 at the output. ? Noise Margins. NM H = V OHmin – V IHmin is how much larger the guaranteed least positive output logical 1 level is than the least positive input level that will be interpreted as a logical 1. It represents how large a negative-going glitch on an input 1 can be before it affects the output of the driven device. Similarly, NM L = V ILmax – V OLmax is the amplitude of the largest positive- going glitch on an input 0 that will not affect the output of the driven device. Finally, three important definitions are associated with specifying the load that can be driven by a gate. Since in most cases the load on a gate output will be the sum of inputs of other gates, the first definition characterizes the relative current requirements of gate inputs. ? Load Factor (LF). Each logic family has a reference gate, each of whose inputs is defined to be a unit load in both the HIGH and the LOW conditions. The respective ratios of the input currents I IH and I IL of a given input to the corresponding I IH and I IL of the reference gate define the HIGH and LOW load factors of that input. ? Drive Factor (DF). A device output has drive factors for both the HIGH and the LOW output conditions. These factors are defined as the respective ratios of I OHmax and I OLmax of the gate to I OHmax and I OLmax of the reference gate. ? Fan-Out. For a given gate the fan-out is defined as the maximum number of inputs of the same type of gate that can be properly driven by that gate output. When gates of different load and drive factors are interconnected, fan-out must be adjusted accordingly. Bipolar Transistor Gates A logic circuit using bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) can be classified either as saturated or as nonsaturated logic. A saturated logic circuit contains at least one BJT that is saturated in one of the stable modes of the circuit. In nonsaturated logic circuits none of the transistors is allowed to saturate. Since bringing a BJT out of saturation requires a few additional nanoseconds (called the storage time), nonsaturated logic is faster. The fastest circuits available at this time are emitter-coupled logic (ECL), with transistor-transistor logic (TTL) having Schottky diodes connected to prevent the transistors from saturating (Schottky TTL) being a fairly close second. Both of these families are nonsaturated logic. All TTL families other than Schottky are saturated logic. Transistor-Transistor Logic TTL evolved from resistor-transistor logic (RTL) through the intermediate step of diode-transistor logic (DTL). All three families are catalogued in data books published in 1968, but of the three only TTL is still available. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC The basic circuit of the standard TTL family is typified by the two-input NAND gate shown in Fig. 79.8(a). To estimate the operating levels of voltage and current in this circuit, assume that any transistor in saturation has V CE = 0.2 and V BE = 0.75 V. Let drops across conducting diodes also be 0.75 V and transistor current gains (when nonsaturated) be about 50. As a starting point, let the voltage levels at both inputs A and B be high enough that T 1 operates in the reversed mode. In this case the emitter currents of T 1 are negligible, and the current into the base of T 1 goes out the collector to become the base current of T 2 . This current is readily calculated by observing that the base of T 1 is at 3 ′ 0.75 = 2.25 V so there is a 2.75-V drop across the 4-kW resistor. Thus I BI = I B2 = 0.7 mA, and it follows that T 2 is saturated. With T 2 saturated, the base of T 3 is at V C + V BE4 = 0.95 V. If T 4 is also saturated, the emitter of T 3 will be at V D3 + V CE4 = 0.95 V, and T 3 will be cut off. The voltage across the 1.6-kW resistor is 5 – 0.95 = 4.05 V, so the collector current of T 2 is about 2.5 mA. This means the emitter current of T 2 is 3.2 mA. Of this, 0.75 mA goes through the 1-kW resistor, leaving 2.45 mA as the base current of T 4 . Since the current gain of T 4 is about 50, it will be well into saturation for any collector current less than 100 mA, and the output at C is a logic 0. The corresponding minimum voltage levels required at the inputs are estimated from V BE4 + V ECI , or about 1.7 V. FlGURE 79.8Two-input transistor-transistor logic (TTL) NAND gate type 7400: (a) circuit, (b) symbol, (c) voltage transfer characteristic (V i to both inputs), (d) truth table. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC Now let either or both of the inputs be dropped to 0.2 V. T 1 is then biased to saturation in the normal mode, so the collector current of T 1 extracts the charge from the base region of T 2 . With T 2 cut off, the base of T 4 is at 0 V and T 4 is cut off. T 3 will be biased by the current through the 1.6-kW resistor (R 3 ) to a degree regulated by the current demand at the output C. The drop across R 3 is quite small for light loads, so the output level at C will be V CC – V BE3 – V D3 , which will be about 3.5 V corresponding to the logical 1. The operation is summarized in the truth table in Fig. 79.8(d), identifying the circuit as a two-input NAND gate. The derivation of the input-output voltage transfer characteristic [Fig. 79.8(c)], where V i is applied to inputs A and B simultaneously, can be found in most digital circuit textbooks. The sloping portion of the characteristic between V i = 0.55 and 1.2 V corresponds to T 2 passing through the active region in going from cutoff to saturation. Diodes D 1 and D 2 are present to damp out “ringing” that can occur, for example, when fast voltage level shifts are propagated down an appreciable length (20 cm or more) of microstripline formed by printed circuit board interconnections. Negative overshoots are clamped to the 0.7 V across the diode. The series combination of the 130-W resistor, T 3 , D 3 , and T 4 in the circuit of Fig. 79.8(a), forming what is called the totem-pole output circuit, provides a low impedance drive in both the source (output C = 1) and sink (output C = 0) modes and contributes significantly to the relatively high speed of TTL. The available source and sink currents, which are well above the normal requirements for steady state, come into play during the charging and discharging of capacitive loads. Ideally T 3 should have a very large current gain and the 130- W resistor should be reduced to 0. The latter, however, would cause a short-circuit load current which would overheat T 3 , since T 3 would be unable to saturate. All TTL families other than the standard shown in Fig. 79.8(a) use some form of Darlington connection for T 3 , providing increased current gain and eliminating the need for diode D 3 . The drop across D 3 is replaced by the base emitter voltage of the added transistor T 5 . This connection appears in Fig. 79.9(a), an example of the 74Hxx series of TTL gates that increases speed at the expense of increased power consumption, and in Fig. 79.9(b), a gate from the 74Lxx series that sacrifices speed to lower power dissipation. A number of TTL logic function implementations are available with open collector outputs. For example, the 7403 two-input NAND gate shown in Fig. 79.10 is the open collector version of Fig. 79.8(a). The open collector output has some useful applications. The current in an external load connected between the open collector and V CC can be switched on and off in response to the input combinations. This load, for example, FIGURE 79.9Modified transistor-transistor logic (TTL) two-input NAND states: (a) type 74Hxx, (b) type 74L00. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC might be a relay, an indicator light, or an LED display. Also, two or more open collector gates can share a common load, resulting in the anding together of the individual gate functions. This is called a “wired-AND connection.” In any application, there must be some form of load or the device will not function. There is a lower limit to the resistance of this load which is determined by the current rating of the open collector transistor. For wired-AND applications the resistance range depends on how many outputs are being wired and on the load being driven by the wired outputs. Formulas are given in the data books. Since the open collector configuration does not have the speed enhancement associated with an active pull-up, the low to high propa- gation delay (t PLH ) is about double that of the totem-pole output. It should be observed that totem-pole outputs should not be wired, since excessive currents in the active pull-up circuit could result. Nonsaturated TTL.Two TTL families, the Schottky (74Sxx) and the low-power Schottky (74LSxx), can be classified as nonsaturating logic. The transistors in these circuits are kept out of saturation by the connection of Schottky diodes, with the anode to the base and the cathode to the collector. Schottky diodes are formed from junctions of metal and an n-type semiconductor, the metal fulfilling the role of the p-region. Since there are thus no minority carriers in the region of the forward-biased junction, the storage time required to bring a pn junction out of saturation is eliminated. The forward-biased drop across a Schottky diode is around 0.3 V. This clamps the collector at 0.3 V less than the base, thus maintaining V CE above the 0.3-V saturation threshold. Circuits for the two-input NAND gates 74LS00 and 74S00 are given in Fig. 79.11(a) and (b). The special transistor symbol is a short-form notation indicating the presence of the Schottky diode, as illustrated in Fig. 79.11(c). Note that both of these circuits have an active pull-down transistor T 6 replacing the pull-down resistance connected to the emitter of T 2 in Fig. 79.9. The addition of T 6 decreases the turn-on and turn-off times of T 4 . In addition, the transfer characteristic for these devices is improved by the squaring off of the sloping region between V i = 0.55 and 1.2 V [see Fig. 79.8(c)]. This happens because T 2 cannot become active until T 6 turns on, which requires at least 1.2 V at the input. The diode AND circuit of the 74LS00 in place of the multi-emitter transistor will permit maximum input levels substantially higher than the 5.5-V limit set for all other TTL families. Input leakage currents for 74LSxx are specified at V i = 10 V, and input voltage levels up to 15 V are allowed. The 74LSxx has the additional feature of the Schottky diode D 1 in series with the 100-W output resistor. This allows the output to be pulled up to 10 V without causing a reverse breakdown of T 5 . The relative characteristics of the several versions of the TTL two-input NAND gate are compared in Table 79.6. The 74F00 represents one of the new technologies that have introduced improved Schottky TTL in recent years. FIGURE 79.10Open collector two-input NAND gate. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC TTL Design Considerations. Before undertaking construction of a logic system, the wise designer consults the information and recommendations provided in the data books of most manufacturers. Some of the more significant tips are provided here for easy reference. 1.Power supply, decoupling, and grounding. The power supply voltage should be 5 V with less than 5% ripple factor and better than 5% regulation. When packages on the same printed circuit board are FIGURE 79.11Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) nonsaturated logic. (a) Type 74LS00 two-input NAND gate, (b) type 74S00 two-input NAND gate, (c) significance of the Schottky transistor symbol. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC supplied by a bus there should be a 0.05-mF decoupling capacitor between the bus and the ground for every five to ten packages. If a ground bus is used, it should be as wide as possible, and should surround all the packages on the board. Whenever possible, use a ground plane. If a long ground bus is used, both ends must be tied to the common system ground point. 2.Unused gates and inputs. If a gate on a package is not used, its inputs should be tied either high or low, whichever results in the least supply current. For example, the 7400 draws three times the current with the output low as with the output high, so the inputs of an unused 7400 gate should be grounded. An unused input of a gate, however, must be connected so as not to affect the function of the active inputs. For a 7400 NAND gate, such an input must either be tied high or paralleled with a used input. It must be recognized that paralleled inputs count as two when determining the fan-out. Inputs that are tied high can be connected either to V CC through a 1-kW or more resistance (for protection from supply voltage surges) or to the output of an unused gate whose input will establish a permanent output high. Several inputs can share a common protective resistance. Unused inputs of low-power Schottky TTL can be tied directly to V CC , since 74LSxx inputs tolerate up to 15 V without breakdown. If inputs of low- power Schottky are connected in parallel and driven as a single input, the switching speed is decreased, in contrast to the situation with other TTL families. 3.Interconnection. Use of line lengths of up to 10 in. (5 in. for 74S) requires no particular precautions, except that in some critical situations lines cannot run side by side for an appreciable distance without causing cross talk due to capacitive coupling between them. For transmission line connections, a gate should drive only one line, and a line should be terminated in only one gate input. If overshoots are a problem, a 25- to 50-W resistor should be used in series with the driving gate input and the receiving gate input should be pulled up to 5 V through a 1-kW resistor. Driving and receiving gates should have their own decoupling capacitors between the V CC and ground pins. Parallel lines should have a grounded line separating them to avoid cross talk. 4.Mixing TTL subfamilies. Even synchronous sequential systems often have asynchronous features such as reset, preset, load, and so on. Mixing high-speed 74S TTL with lower speed TTL (74LS for example) in some applications can cause timing problems resulting in anomalous behavior. Such mixing is to be avoided, with rare exceptions which must be carefully analyzed. Emitter-Coupled Logic ECL is a nonsaturated logic family where saturation is avoided by operating the transistors in the common collector configuration. This feature, in combination with a smaller difference between the HIGH and LOW voltage levels (less than 1 V) than other logic families, makes ECL the fastest logic available at this time. The circuit diagram of a widely used version of the basic two-input ECL gate is given in Fig. 79.12. The power supply terminals V CC1 , V CC2 , V EE , and V TT are available for flexibility in biasing. In normal operation, V CC1 and V CC2 are connected to a common ground, V EE is biased to –5.2 V, and V TT is biased to –2 V. With these values the nominal voltage for the logical 0 and 1 are, respectively, –1.75 and –0.9 V. Operation with the V CC terminals grounded maximizes the immunity from noise interference. TABLE 79.6Comparison of TTL Two-Input NANDGates Propagation Noise Supply Current Delay Time Margins Load Drive TTL I CCH a I CCL t PLH t PHL NM H NM L Factor, Factor, Fan- Type (mA) (mA) (ns) (ns) (V) (V) H/L H/L out 74F00 2.8 10.2 2.9 2.6 0.7 0.3 0.5/0.375 25/12.5 33 74S00 10 20 3 3 0.7 0.3 1.25/1.25 25/12.5 10 74H00 10 26 5.9 6.2 0.4 0.4 1.25/1.25 12.5/12.5 10 74LS00 0.8 2.4 9 10 0.7 0.3 0.5/0.25 10/5 20 7400 4 12 11 7 0.4 0.4 1/1 20/10 10 74L00 0.44 1.16 31 31 0.4 0.5 0.24/0.1125 5/2.25 20 a See text for explanation of abbreviations. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC A brief description of the operation of the circuit will verify that none of the transistors saturates. For the following discussion, V CC1 and V CC2 are grounded, V EE is –5.2 V, and V TT is –2 V. Diode drops and base-emitter voltages of active transistors are 0.8 V. First, observe that the resistor-diode (D 1 and D 2 ) voltage divider establishes a reference voltage of –0.55 V at the base of T 3 , which translates to –1.35 V at the base of T 2 . When either or both of the inputs A and B are at the logical 1 level of –0.9 V, the emitters of T 1A , T 1B , and T 2 will be 0.8 V lower, at –1.7 V. This establishes the base-emitter voltage of T 2 at –1.35 – (–1.7 ) = 0.35 V, so T 2 is cut off. With T 2 off, T 4 is biased into the active region, and its emitter will be at about –0.9 V, corresponding to a logical 1 at the (A + B) output. Most of the current through the 365-W emitter resistor, which is [–1.7 – (–5.2)]/0.365 = 9.6 mA, flows through the 100-W collector resistor, dropping the base voltage of T 5 to –0.96 V. Thus the voltage level at the output terminal designated (A + B) is –1.76 V, corresponding to a logical 0. When both A and B inputs are at the LOW level of –1.75 V, T 2 will be active, with its emitter voltage at –1.35 – 0.8 = –2.15 V. The current through the 365-W resistor becomes [–2.15 – (–5.2)]/0.365 = 8.2 mA. This current flows through the 112-W resistor pulling the base of T 4 down to –0.94 V, so that the (A + B) output will be at the LOW level of –1.75 V. With T 1A and T 1B cut off, the base of T 5 is close to 0.0 V, and the (A + B) output will therefore be at the nominal HIGH level of –0.9 V. Observe that the output transistors T 4 and T 5 are always active and function as emitter followers, providing the low-output impedances required for driving capacitive loads. As T 1A and/or T 1B turn on, and T 2 turns off as a consequence, the transition is accomplished with very little current change in the 365-W emitter resistor. It follows that the supply current from V EE does not undergo the sudden increases and decreases prevalent in TTL, thus eliminating the need for decoupling capacitors. This is a major reason why ECL can be operated successfully with the low noise margins which are inherent in logic having a relatively small voltage difference between the HIGH and LOW voltage levels (see Table 79.7). The small level shifts between LOW and HIGH also permit low propagation times without excessively fast rise and fall times. This reduces the effects of residual capacitive coupling between gates, thereby lessening the required noise margin. For this reason the faster ECL (100xxx) should not be used where the speed of the 10xxx series is sufficient. A comparison of three ECL series is given in Table 79.7. The propagation times t PLH and t PHL and transition times t TLH and t THL are defined in Fig. 79.7. Transitions are between the 20 and 80% levels. FIGURE 79.12Emitter-coupled logic basic gate (ECL 10102): (a) circuit, (b) symbol. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC The 50-W pull-down resistors shown in Fig. 79.12 are connected externally. The outputs of several gates can therefore share a common pull-down resistor to form a wired-OR connection. The open emitter outputs also provide flexibility for driving transmission lines, the use of which in most cases is mandatory for interconnecting this high-speed logic. A twisted pair interconnection can be driven using the complementary outputs (A + B) and (A + B) as a differential output. Such a line should be terminated in an ECL line receiver (10114). Since ECL is used in high-speed applications, special techniques must be applied in the layout and intercon- nection of chips on circuit boards. Users should consult design handbooks published by the suppliers before undertaking the construction of an ECL logic system. While ECL is not compatible with any other logic family, interfacing buffers, called translators, are available. In particular, the 10124 converts TTL output levels to ECL complementary levels, and the 10125 converts either single-ended or differential ECL outputs to TTL levels. Among other applications of these translators, they allow the use of ECL for the highest speed requirements of a system while the rest of the system uses the more rugged TTL. Another translator is the 10177, which converts the ECL output levels to n-channel metal-oxide semiconductor (NMOS) levels. This is designed for interfacing ECL with n-channel memory systems. Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Logic Metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) technology is prevalent in LSI systems due to the high circuit densities possible with these devices. p-Channel MOS was used in the first LSI systems, and it still is the cheapest to produce because of the higher yields achieved due to the longer experience with PMOS technology. PMOS, however, is largely being replaced by NMOS (n-channel MOS), which has the advantages of being faster (since electrons have greater mobility than holes) and having TTL compatibility. In addition, NMOS has a higher function/chip area density than PMOS, the highest density in fact of any of the current technologies. Use of NMOS and PMOS, however, is limited to LSI and VLSI fabrications. The only MOS logic available as SSI and MSI is CMOS (complementary MOS). CMOS is faster than NMOS and PMOS, and it uses less power per function than any other logic. While it is suitable for LSI, it is more expensive and requires somewhat more chip area than NMOS or PMOS. In many respects it is unsurpassed for SSI and MSI applications. Standard CMOS (the 4000 series) is as fast as low- power TTL (74Lxx) and has the largest noise margin of any logic type. A unique advantage of CMOS is that for all input combinations the steady-state current from V DD to V SS is almost zero because at least one of the series FETs is open. Since CMOS circuits of any complexity are interconnections of the basic gates, the quiescent currents for these circuits are extremely small, an obvious advantage which becomes a necessity for the practicality of digital watches, for example, and one which alleviates TABLE 79.7Comparison of ECL Quad Two-Input NOR Gates (V TT = V EE = 5.2 V, V CC1 = 0 V) Power Power Supply Supply Propagation Transition Noise Terminal Current Delay Time Time Margins ECL V EE I E t PLH a t PHL t TLH b t THL b NM H NM L Test Type (V) (mA) (ns) (ns) (ns) (ns) (V) (V) Load ECL II 1012 –5.2 18 c 5 4.5 4 6 0.175 0.175 Fan-out of 3 95102 –5.2 11 2 2 2 2 0.14 0.145 50 W 10102 –5.2 20 2 2 2.2 2.2 0.135 0.175 50 W ECLIII 1662 –5.2 56 c 1 1.1 1.4 1.2 0.125 0.125 50 W 100102 d –4.5 55 0.75 0.75 0.7 0.7 0.14 0.145 50 W 11001 e –5.2 24 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.145 0.175 50 W a See text for explanation of abbreviations. d Quint 2-input NOR/OR gate. b 20 to 80% levels. e Dual 5/4-input NOR/OR gate. c Maximum value (all other typical). ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC heat dissipation problems in high-density chips. Also a noteworthy feature of CMOS digital circuits is the absence of components other than FETs. This attribute, which is shared by PMOS and NMOS, accounts for the much higher function/chip area density than is possible with TTL or ECL. During the time the output of a CMOS gate is switching there will be current flow from V DD to V SS , partly due to the charging of junction capacitances and partly because the path between V DD and V SS closes momentarily as the FETs turn on and off. This causes the dc supply current to increase in proportion to the switching frequency in a CMOS circuit. Manufacturers specify that the supply voltage for standard CMOS can range over 3 V ￡ V DD – V SS ￡ 18 V, but switching speeds are slower at the lower voltages, mainly due to the increased resistances of the “on” transistors. The output switches between low and high when the input is midway between V DD and V SS , and the output logical 1 level will be V DD and the logical 0 level V SS [Fig. 79.13(c)]. If CMOS is operated with V DD = 5 V and V SS = 0 V, the V DD and V SS levels will be almost compatible with TTL except that the TTL totem-pole output high of 3.4 V is marginal as a logical 1 for CMOS. To alleviate this, when CMOS is driven with TTL a 3.3-kW pull-up resistor between the TTL output and the common V CC , V DD supply terminal should be used. This raises V OH of the TTL output to 5 V. All CMOS inputs are diode protected to prevent static charge from accumulating on the FET gates and causing punch-through of the oxide insulating layer. A typical configuration is illustrated in Fig. 79.14. Diodes D 1 and D 2 clamp the transistor gates between V DD and V SS . Care must be taken to avoid input voltages that would cause excessive diode currents. For this reason manufacturers specify an input voltage constraint from V SS – 0.5 V to V DD + 0.5 V. The resistance R s helps protect the diodes from excessive currents but is introduced at the expense of switching speed, which is deteriorated by the time constant of this resistance and the junction capacitances. Advanced versions of CMOS have been developed which are faster than standard CMOS. The first of these to appear were des- ignated 74HCxx and 74HCTxx. The supply voltage range for this series is limited to 2 V ￡ V DD – V SS ￡ 6 V. The pin numbering of a given chip is the same as its correspondingly numbered TTL device. Furthermore, gates with the HCT code have skewed transfer char- acteristics which match those of its TTL cousin, so that these chips can be directly interchanged with low-power Schottky TTL. FIGURE 79.13(a) Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) NAND gate, (b) NOR gate, and (C) inverter transfer characteristic. FIGURE 79.14Diode protection of input transistor gates. 200 W < R s < 1.5 kW. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC More recently, a much faster CMOS has appeared and carries the designations 74ACxx and 74ACTxx. These operate in the same supply voltage range and bear the same relationship with TTL as the HCMOS. The driving capabilities (characterized by I OH and I OL ) of this series are much greater, such that they can be fanned out to 10 low-power Schottky inputs. The three types of CMOS are compared in Table 79.8. The relative speeds of these technologies are best illustrated by including in the table the maximum clock frequencies for D flip-flops. In each case, the frequency given is the maximum for which the device is guaranteed to work. It is worth noting that a typical maximum clocking of 160 MHz is claimed for the 74ACT374 D flip-flop. CMOS Design Considerations Design and handling recommendations for CMOS, which are included in several of the data books, should be consulted by the designer using this technology. A few selected recommendations are included here to illustrate the importance of such information. 1.All unused CMOS inputs should be tied either to V DD or V SS , whichever is appropriate for proper operation of the gate. This rule applies even to inputs of unused gates, not only to protect the inputs from possible static charge buildup, but to avoid unnecessary supply current drain. Floating gate inputs will cause all the FETs to be conducting, wasting power and heating the chip unnecessarily. 2.CMOS inputs should never be driven when the supply voltage V DD is off, since damage to the input- protecting diodes could result. Inputs wired to edge connectors should be shunted by resistors to V DD or V SS to guard against this possibility. 3.Slowly changing inputs should be conditioned using Schmitt trigger buffers to avoid oscillations that can arise when a gate input voltage is in the transition region. 4.Wired-AND configurations cannot be used with CMOS gates, since wiring an output HIGH to an output LOW would place two series FETs in the “on” condition directly across the chip supply. 5.Capacitive loads greater than 5000 pF across CMOS gate outputs act as short circuits and can overheat the output FETs at higher frequencies. 6.Designs should be used that avoid the possibility of having low impedances (such as generator outputs) connected to CMOS inputs prior to power-up of the CMOS chip. The resulting current surge when V DD is turned on can damage the input diodes. TABLE 79.8Comparison of Standard, High-Speed, and Advanced High-Speed CMOS Standard CMOS High-Speed CMOS Advanced CMOS NORGates Inverter Inverter Parameter Symbol Unit 4001B 4011UB 74HC04 74HCT04 74AC04 74ACT04 Supply voltage V DD -V SS V 15 15 6 5.5 5.5 5.5 Input voltage V IHmin V 11 12.5 4.2 2 3.85 2 thresholds V ILmax V 4 2.5 1.8 0.8 1.65 0.8 Guaranteed output V OHmin V 13.5 13.5 5.9 4.5 4.86 4.76 levels at V OLmax V 1.5 1.5 0.1 0.26 0.32 0.37 maximum IO Maximum I OH mA –8.8 –3.5 –4 –4 –24 –24 output currents I OL mA 8.8 8.8 4 4 24 24 Noise NM L V 2.5 2.5 1.7 0.54 1.33 .43 margins NM H V 2.5 2.5 1.7 2.5 1.01 1.24 Propagation t PLH ns 40 40 16 15 4 4.3 times t PHL ns 40 40 16 17 3.5 3.9 Max input I INmax mA 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 current leakage D-flip-flop 4013B 74HC374 74HCT374A 74AC374 74ACT374 max frequency f max MHz 7.0 N.A. 35 30 100 100 (guaranteed minimum) ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC While this list of recommendations is incomplete, it should alert the CMOS designer to the value of the information supplied by the manufacturers. Choosing a Logic Family A logic designer planning a system using SSI and MSI chips will find that an extensive variety of circuits is available in all three technologies: TTL, ECL, and CMOS. The choice of which technology will dominate the system is governed by what are often conflicting needs, namely, speed, power consumption, noise immunity, cost, availability, and the ease of interfacing. Sometimes the decision is easy. If the need for a low static power drain is paramount, CMOS is the only choice. It used to be the case that speed would dictate the selection; ECL was high speed, TTL was moderate, and CMOS low. With the advent of advanced TTL and, especially, advanced CMOS the choice is no longer clear-cut. All three will work at 100 MHz or more. ECL might be used since it generates the least noise because the transitions are small, yet for that same reason it is more susceptible to externally generated noise. Perhaps TTL might be the best compromise between noise generation and susceptibility. Advanced CMOS is the noisiest because of its rapid rise and fall times, but the designer might opt to cope with the noise problems to take advantage of the low standby power requirements. A good rule is to use devices which are no faster than the application requires and which consume the least power consistent with the needed driving capability. The information published in the manufacturers’ data books and designer handbooks is very helpful when choice is in doubt. Defining Term Logic gate: Basic building block for logic systems that controls the flow of pulses. Related Topics 25.3 Application-Specific Integrated Circuits ? 81.2 Logic Circuits References Advanced CMOS Logic Designers Handbook, Dallas: Texas Instruments, Inc., 1987. C. Belove and D. Schilling, Electronic Circuits, Discrete and Integrated, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979. FACT Data, Phoenix: Motorola Semiconductor Products, Inc., 1989. Fairchild Advanced Schottky TTL, California: Fairchild Camera and Instrument Corporation, 1980. W. I. Fletcher, An Engineering Approach to Digital Design, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980. High Speed CMOS Logic Data, Phoenix: Motorola Semiconductor Products, Inc., 1989. P. Horowitz and W. Hill, The Art of Electronics, 2nd ed., New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. MECL System Design Handbook, Phoenix: Motorola Semiconductor Products, Inc., 1988. H. Taub and D. Schilling, Digital Integrated Electronics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977. The TTL Data Book for Design Engineers, Dallas: Texas Instruments, Inc., 1990. Further Information An excellent presentation of the practical design of logic systems using SSI and MSI devices is developed in the referenced book An Engineering Approach to Digital Design by William I. Fletcher. The author pays particular attention to the importance of device speed and timing. The Art of Electronics by Horowitz and Hill is particularly helpful for its practical approach to interfacing digital with analog. Everything one needs to know about digital devices and their interconnection can be found somewhere in the data manuals, design handbooks, and application notes published by the device manufacturers. Unfortunately, no single publication has it all, so the serious user should acquire as large a collection of these sources as possible. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC 79.3 Bistable Devices Richard S. Sandige This section deals with bistable devices which are also commonly referred to as bistables, latches, or flip-flops. Bistable devices are memory elements. Each bistable provides storage for only 1-bit, i.e., it can store a 1 or a 0. Figure 79.15 shows a graphic classification of bistable devices. Manufacturers supply integrated circuit (IC) packages containing several bistable devices. One data book for the transistor-transistor logic (TTL) circuit technology lists 4-, 8-, 9-, and 10-bit latches in one IC package. The same data book lists 2-, 4-, 6-, 8-, 9-, and 10-bit flip-flops in one IC package. While a 1-bit bistable can only store 1 bit of information, 8-bit bistables are capable of storing 8 bits of information. Bistable devices implemented with logic gates are volatile devices. When power is first applied the first stored value of the bistable is random (it can store a 1 or a 0), and when power is removed the bistable loses its storage capability. Certain memories (also called stores) are nonvolatile and therefore retain their data when power is removed. These devices will not be discussed in this section. Basic Latches A latch can be either basic or gated. Figure 79.16 is an example of a basic S-R NOR latch implementation using two cross-coupled NOR gates. The logic symbol recommended for the S-R NOR latch by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is shown to the right of the logic circuit implementation. The input signal named S stands for set while the input signal named R stands for reset. Manufacturers often select Q as the output signal name for bistable devices in their data books. The Qs on the outputs are added for clarity and are not part of the IEEE symbol. The S-R NOR latch shown in Fig. 79.16 is a basic latch circuit since the S and R inputs are not gated with a control signal. The reduced characteristic table in Table 79.9 shows the operation of the S-R NOR latch circuit. For S R = 00, Q = Q 0 , illustrating that the output for the next state Q is the same as the present state output Q 0 . For S R = 01, Q = 0, specifying FIGURE 79.15Graphic classification of bistable devices. (Source: Modified from R. S. Sandige, Modern Digital Design, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990, p. 467. With permission.) FIGURE 79.16Basic S-R NOR latch implementation. (Source: Modified from R. S. Sandige, Modern Digital Design, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990, p. 448. With permission.) TABLE 79.9Reduced Characteristic Table for the S-R NOR Latch SRQOperation 00Q 0 no change 0 1 0 reset 101set 1 1 0 not normally allowed ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC that the output for the next state is reset. For S R = 10, Q = 1, indicating that the output for the next state is set. In most cases the input conditions S R = 11 are not allowed for two reasons. If S R = 11, then the alternate output for the bistable, shown in parentheses as in Fig. 79.16, is not logically correct as it is for all other input combinations. The second reason is more subtle since the next state of the bistable can be set or reset due to a critical race condition when the inputs are changed from 11 to 00. Such unpredictability is not desirable and therefore the S R = 11 condition is generally not allowed. Latches and flip-flops that contain a Q and a output (complementary outputs) provide double-rail outputs. The S-R NAND latch implementation shown in Fig. 79.17 uses two cross-coupled NAND gates. The tildes shown in the logic circuit diagram preceding S and R represent inline symbols for the logical complements of S and R, respectively, as recommended by the IEEE. Data books usually refer to the S-R NAND latch as the latch. The logic symbol recommended for the S-R NAND latch by IEEE is shown to the right of the logic circuit diagram. The ~S and ~R on the inputs and Qs on the outputs of the IEEE symbol are added for clarity and are not part of the IEEE symbol. The reduced characteristic table illustrated in Table 79.10 shows the operation of the S-R NAND latch circuit in Fig. 79.17. In most cases the input conditions ~S ~R = 00 (S R = 11) are not allowed for the same reasons provided above for the S-R NOR latch. For ~S ~R = 01 (S R = 10), Q = 1, indicating that the output for the next state is set. For ~S ~R = 10 (S R = 01), Q = 0, specifying that the output for the next state is reset. For ~S ~R = 11 (S R = 00), Q = Q 0 , illustrating that the output for the next state Q is the same as the present state output Q 0 . Gated Latches All other gate level latches and flip-flops are functionally equivalent to either the configuration of the cross- coupled NOR latch circuit or the cross-coupled NAND latch circuit. A gated S-R NOR latch circuit and a gated S-R NAND latch are illustrated in Fig. 79.18 along with the recommended IEEE symbol. The reduced charac- teristic table for both of these circuits is provided in Table 79.11. In each circuit both the S and R inputs are gated with a control signal C. Notice in the reduced characteristic table that the S and R inputs are only enabled, and thus have an effect on the output, when C = 1 (transparent mode). Whatever value the output has when C goes to 0 is latched, captured, or stored (memory mode). Like the basic latches, the input conditions for S R = 11 are not generally allowed for the gated S-R latches when C goes to 1. The gated D latch circuit is perhaps the most used latch circuit since the added Inverter shown in the circuit diagram in Fig. 79.19 ensures that the input conditions for S R = 11 cannot occur when C goes to 1. The reduced characteristic table for the gated D latch circuit is shown in Table 79.12. Flip-Flops We will use the term flip-flop to distinguish between the bistable device called a latch and the bistable device that allows feed-back without oscillation. Early types of flip-flops were of the master-slave (pulse-triggered) variety that had no data-lockout circuitry and caused a storage error if improperly used due to 1s and 0s catching. To prevent 1s and 0s catching, data-lockout (also called variable-skew) circuitry was added to a few FIGURE 79.17Basic S-R NAND latch implementation. (Source: Mod- ified from R. S. Sandige. Modern Digital Design, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990, p. 449. With permission.) Q Q SR- TABLE 79.10 Reduced Characteristic Table for the S-R NAND Latch ~S ~RQOperation 0 0 1 not normally allowed 011set 1 0 0 reset 11Q 0 no change ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC master-slave flip-flop types. Due to the better design features and popularity of edge-triggered flip-flops, master- slave flip-flops are not recommended for newer designs and in some cases have been made obsolete by manufacturers, making them difficult to obtain even for repair parts. For this reason only edge-triggered flip- flops will be discussed. FIGURE 79.18Gated S-R NOR and gated S-R NAND latch circuit. (Source: Modified from R. S. Sandige. Modern Digital Design, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990, p. 468. With permission.) FIGURE 79.19Gated D latch circuit. (Source: Modified from R. S. Sandige, Modern Digital Design, New York: McGraw- Hill, 1990, p. 470. With permission.) TABLE 79.11Reduced Characteristic Table for the Gated S-R Latches CSRQ Operation 000Q 0 no change 001Q 0 no change 010Q 0 no change 011Q 0 no change 100Q 0 no change 1 0 1 0 reset 1 1 0 1 set 1 1 1 0,1 reset (S-R NOR), set (S-R NAND) TABLE 79.12 Reduced Characteristic Table for the Gated D Latch CDQOperation 00Q 0 no change 1Q 0 no change 1 0 0 reset 11set ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC Edge-Triggered Flip-Flops Two types of edge-triggered flip-flops are predominantly used in modern designs. These are the D type and J- K type. The D type is perhaps the most used because its circuitry generally takes up less real estate on an IC chip and because most engineers consider it an easier device with which to design. An example of a positive edge-triggered D flip-flop circuit is shown in Fig. 79.20. The reduced characteristic table illustrating the oper- ation of this flip-flop is shown in Table 79.13. The main difference between a latch and an edge-triggered flip-flop is the question of transparency. The gated D latch is transparent (the Q output follows the D input when the control input C = l) and it latches, captures, or stores the value at the D input at the time the control input C goes to 0. The positive edge-triggered D flip-flop is never transparent from its data input D to its output Q. When the control input C is 0 the output Q does not follow the D input and remains unchanged; however, the value at the D input is latched, captured, or stored at the time the control input C makes a 0 to 1 transition. The characteristic that makes edge-triggered flip-flops desirable for feedback applications is that, due to their nontransparent property, their outputs can be fed back as inputs to the device without causing oscillation. This is true for all types of edge-triggered flip- flops. A negative edge-triggered J-K flip-flop circuit is shown in the circuit diagram in Fig. 79.21 with its corresponding IEEE symbol. Notice that the J-K flip-flop requires eight logic gates compared to only six logic gates for the D flip-flop in Fig. 79.20. The reduced characteristic table for this negative edge-triggered flip-flop is shown in Table 79.14. Notice in the reduced characteristic table (Table 79.14 for the J-K flip-flop) when the J and K inputs are both 1 and the control input C makes a 1 to 0 transition, the flip-flop toggles, i.e., the next state output Q FIGURE 79.20Positive edge-triggered D flip-flop circuit. (Source: Modified from R. S. Sandige, Modern Digital Design, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990, p. 490. With permission.) TABLE 79.13Reduced Characteristic Table for Positive Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop PRE CLR CDQ Operation 0 0 X X 1 not normally allowed 0 1 X X 1 preset 1 0 X X 0 clear 11- 1 1 set 11- 0 0 reset 110XQ 0 no change TABLE 79.14 Reduced Characteristic Table for Negative Edge-Triggered J-K Flip-Flop PRE CLR CJKQ Operation 0 0 X X X 1 not normally allowed 0 1 X X X 1 preset 1 0 X X X 0 clear 11ˉ 00Q 0 no change 11ˉ 101set 11ˉ 0 1 0 reset 11ˉ 11Q 0 toggle 111XXQ 0 no change ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC changes to the complement of the present state output Q 0 . By simply connecting J and K together and renaming it T for toggle, one can obtain a negative edge-triggered T flip-flop. Special Notes on Using Latches and Flip-Flops Since bistable devices are asynchronous fundamental mode sequential logic circuits, only one input is allowed to change at a time. This means that for proper operation for a basic latch, only one of the data inputs S or R for a S-R NOR latch (~S or ~R for a S-R NAND latch) may be changed at one time. For a gated latch this means for proper operation the data inputs S and R or data input D must meet a minimum setup (t su ) and hold time (t h ) requirement, i.e., the data input(s) must be stable for a minimum time period, prior to the control input C changing the latch from the transparent mode to the memory mode. For proper operation of an edge-triggered flip-flop this means that the data input D or data inputs J and K must meet a minimum setup time and hold time requirement relative to the control input C changing from 0 to 1 (positive edge- triggered) or from 1 to 0 (negative edge-triggered). In manufacturers’ data books, the control input C is often named the enable input for latches and the clock (CLK) input for flip-flops. Defining Terms Bistable, latch, and flip-flop: Names used in place of the term bistable device. Critical race:A change in two input variables that results in an unpredictable output value for a bistable device. Edge-triggered: Term used to describe the edge of a positive or negative pulse applied to the control input of a nontransparent bistable device to latch, capture, or store the value indicated by the data input(s). Fundamental mode:Operating mode of a circuit that allows only one input to change at a time. Memory element:A bistable device or element that provides data storage for a logic 1 or a logic 0. Reduced characteristic table: A tabular representation used to illustrate the operation of various bistable devices. Setup and hold time requirement:Setup time (hold time) is the time required for the data input(s) to be held stable prior to (or after) the control input C changes to latch, capture, or store the value indicated by the data input(s). Toggle:Change of state from logic 0 to logic 1 or from logic 1 to logic 0 in a bistable device. Transparent mode:Mode of a bistable device where an output responds to data input signal changes. Volatile device: A memory or storage device that loses its storage capability when power is removed. FIGURE 79.21Negative edge-triggered J-K flip-flop circuit. (Source: Modified from R. S. Sandige. Modern Digital Design, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990, p. 493. With permission.) ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC Related Topics 25.3 Application-Specific Integrated Circuits?81.3 Resistors and Their Applications References ANSI/IEEE Std 91-1984, IEEE Standard Graphic Symbols for Logic Functions, New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. ANSI/IEEE Std 991-1986, IEEE Standard for Logic Circuit Diagrams, New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. D. L. Dietmeyer, Logic Design of Digital Systems, 2nd ed., Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1988. F. J. Hill and G. R. Peterson, Introduction to Switching Theory & Logical Design, 3rd ed., New York: John Wiley, 1981. E. L. Johnson and M. A. Karim, Digital Design Pragmatic Approach, Boston: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt Pub- lishers, 1987. I. Kampel, A Practical Introduction to the New Logic Symbols, 2nd ed., London: Butterworths, 1986. C. H. Roth, Jr., Fundamentals of Logic Design, 4th ed., St. Paul: West Publishing, 1992. R. S. Sandige, Modern Digital Design, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990. Texas Instruments, The TTL Data Book, vol. 3, Advanced Low-Power Schottky, Advanced Schottky, Dallas: Texas Instruments, 1984. Further Information The monthly magazine IEEE Transactions on Computers presents papers discussing bistable devices, for example, “A Simulation-Based Method for Generating Tests for Sequential Circuits” in its December 1990 issue, pp. 1456–1463. Another monthly magazine, IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design, sometimes presents papers dis- cussing bistable devices, for example, “Schematic Generation with an Expert System” in its December 1990 issue, pp. 1289-1306. 79.4 Optical Devices H. S. Hinton Since the first demonstration of optical logic devices in the late 1970s, there have been many different experi- mental devices reported. Figure 79.22 categorizes optical logic devices into four main classes. The first division is between all-optical and optoelectronic devices. All-optical devices are devices that do not use electrical currents to create the nonlinearity required by digital devices. These devices can be either single-pass devices (light passes through the nonlinear material once) or they can use a resonant cavity to further enhance the optical nonlinearity (multiple passes through the same nonlinear material). Optoelectronic devices, on the other hand, use electrical currents and electronic devices to process a signal that has gone through an optical- to-electrical conversion process. The output of these devices is either provided by electrically driving an optical source such as a laser or LED (detect/emit) or by modulating some external light source (detect/modulate). Below each of these categories are listed some of the devices that have been experimentally demonstrated. All-Optical Devices To create an all-optical logic device requires a medium that will allow one beam of light to affect another. This phenomenon can arise from the cubic response to the applied field. These third-order processes can lead to purely dielectric phenomena, such as irradiance-dependent refractive indices. By exploiting purely dielectric third-order nonlinearities, such as the optical Kerr effect, changes can be induced in the optical constants of the medium which can be read out directly at the same wavelength as that inducing them. This then opens up ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC the possibilities for digital optical circuitry based on cascadable all-optical logic gates. Although there have been many different all-optical gates demonstrated, this section will only briefly review the soliton gate (single-pass) and one example of the nonlinear Fabry-Perot structures (cavity-based). Single-Pass Devices An example of an all-optical single-pass optical logic gate is the soliton NOR gate. It is an all-fiber logic gate based on time shifts resulting from soliton dragging. A NOR gate consists of two birefringent fibers connected through a polarizing beamsplitter with the output filtered by a polarizer as shown in Fig. 79.23. The clock pulse, which provides both gain and logic level restoration, propagates along one principal axis in both fibers. For the NOR gate the fiber length is trimmed so that in the absence of any signal the entering clock pulse will arrive within the output time window corresponding to a “1.” When either or both of the input signals are incident, they interact with the clock pulse through soliton dragging and shift the clock pulse out of the allowed output time window creating a “0” output. In soliton dragging two temporally coincident, orthogonally polarized pulses interact in the fiber through cross-phase modulation and shift each other’s velocities. This velocity shift converts into a time shift after propagating some distance in the fiber. To implement the device, the two input signal pulses g 1 and g 2 are polarized orthogonal to the clock. The signals are timed so that g 1 and the clock FIGURE 79.22Classification of optical logic devices. FIGURE 79.23Soliton NOR gate: (a) physical implementation, (b) timing diagram. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC pulse coincide at the input to the first fiber and g 2 and the clock pulse coincide (in the absence of g 1 ) at the input to the second fiber. At the output the two input signals are blocked by the polarizer, allowing only the temporally modified clock pulse to pass. In a prototyped demonstration this all-optical NOR gate required 5.8 pJ of signal energy and provided an effective gain of 6. Cavity-Based Devices Cavity-based optical logic devices are composed of two highly reflective mirrors that are separated by a distance d [Fig. 79.24(a)]. The volume between the mirrors, referred to as the cavity of the etalon, is filled with a nonlinear material possessing an index of refraction that varies with intensity according to n c = n 0 + n 2 g c where n 0 is the linear index of refraction, n 2 is the nonlinear index of refraction, and g c is the intensity of light within the cavity. In the ideal case, the characteristic response of the reflectivity of a Fabry-Perot cavity, R fp , is shown in Fig. 79.24(b). At low intensities, the cavity resonance peak is not coincident with the wave- length of the incident light; thus the reflectivity is high, which allows little of the incident light to be transmitted [solid curves in Fig. 79.24(b)]. As the intensity of the incident light g increases, so does the intercavity light intensity which shifts the resonance peak [dotted curve in Fig. 79.24(b)]. This shift in the resonant peak increases the transmission which in turn reduces the reflectivity. This reduction in y will continue with increasing g until a minimum value is reached. It should be noted that in practice all systems of interest have both intensity-dependent absorption and n 2 . To implement a two-input NOR gate using the characteristic curve shown in Fig. 79.24(c) requires a third input which is referred to as the bias beam, g b .This energy source biases the etalon at a point on its oper- ating curve such that any other input will exceed the nonlinear portion of the curve moving the etalon from the high reflection state. This is illustrated in Fig. 79.24(c) where the g b combines with the inputs g 1 and g 2 to exceed the threshold of the nonlinear characteristic curve. The first etalon-based optical logic device was in the form of a non- linear interference filter (NLIF). A simple interference filter has a general form similar to a Fabry-Perot etalon, being constructed by depositing a series of thin layers of transparent material of various refractive indices on a transparent substrate. The first several layers deposited form a stack of alternating high and low refractive indices, all of optical thickness equal to one quarter of the operating wavelength. The next layer is a low integer (1–20) number of half wavelengths thick and finally a further stack is deposited to form the filter. The two outer stacks have the property of high reflectivity at one wavelength, thus playing the role of mirrors forming a cavity. A high finesse cavity is usually formed when both mirrors are identical, i.e., of equal reflectivity. However, unlike a Fabry-Perot etalon with a nonabsorptive material in the cavity, matched (equal) stack reflectivities do not give the optimum cavity design to minimize switch power because of the absorption in the spacer (which may be necessary to induce nonlinearity). A balanced design which takes into account the effective decrease in back mirror reflectivity due to the double pass through the absorbing cavity is preferable and also results in greater contrast between bistable states. The balanced design is easily achieved by varying one or all of the available parameters: number of periods, thickness and refractive index of each layer within either stack. Optoelectronic Devices Optoelectronic devices take advantage of both the digital processing capabilities of electronics and communi- cations capabilities of the optical domain. This section will review both the SEED-based optical logic gates and the pnpn structures that have demonstrated optical logic. FIGURE 79.24(a) Nonlinear Fabry-Perot etalon, (b) reflection peaks of NLFP, and (c) NLFP in reflection (NOR). ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC Detect/Modulate Devices In the most general terms the self-electro-optic effect device (SEED) technology corresponds to any device based on multiple quantum well (MQW) modulators. The basic physical mechanism used by this technology is the quantum confined Stark effect. This mechanism creates a shift in the bandedge of a semiconductor with an applied voltage. This is illustrated in Fig. 79.25(a). This shift in the bandedge is then used to vary the absorption of incident light on the MQW material. When this MQW material is placed in the intrinsic region of a pin diode and electrically connected to a resistor as shown in Fig. 79.25(b) the characteristic curve shown in Fig. 79.25(c) results. When the incident intensity, g i , is low there is no current flowing through the pin diode or resistor; thus the majority of the voltage is across the pin diode. If the device is operating at the wavelength l 0 , the device will be in a low absorptive state. As the incident intensity increases so does the current flowing in the pin diode; this in turn reduces the voltage across the diode which increases the absorption and current flow. This state of increasing absorption creates the nonlinearity in the output signal, y, shown in Fig. 79.25(c). Optical logic gates can be formed by optically biasing the R-SEED close to the nonlinearity, g b , and then applying lower level data signals g 1 and g 2 to the device. The S-SEED, which behaves like an optical inverting S-R latch, is composed of two electrically connected MQW pin diodes as illustrated in Fig. 79.26(a). In this figure, the device inputs include the signal, g i (Set), and FIGURE 79.25(a) Absorption spectra of MQW mate- rial for both 0 and 5 V, (b) schematic of MQW pin diode, (c) input/output characteristics of MQW pin diode. FIGURE 79.26Symmetric self-electro-optic effect device (S-SEED). (a) S-SEED with inputs and outputs, (b) power transfer characteristics, and (c) optically enabled S-SEED. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC its complement, i (Reset), and a clock signal. To operate the S-SEED the g i and i inputs are also separated in time from the clock inputs as shown in Fig. 79.25(b). The g i and i inputs, which represent the incoming data and its complement, are used to set the state of the device. When i > g i , the S-SEED will enter a state where the upper MQW pin diode will be reflective, forcing the lower diode to be absorptive. When g i > i the opposite condition will occur. Low switching intensities are able to change the device’s state when the clock signals are not present. After the device has been put into its proper state, the clock beams are applied to both inputs. The ratio of the power between the two clock beams should be approximately one, which will prevent the device from changing states. These higher energy clock pulses, on reflection, will transmit the state of the device to the next stage of the system. Since the inputs g i and i are low-intensity pulses and the clock signals are high- intensity pulses, a large differential gain may be achieved. This type of gain is referred to as time-sequential gain. The operation of an S-SEED is determined by the power transfer characteristic shown in Fig. 79.26(c). The optical power reflected by the y i window, when the clock signal is applied, is plotted against the ratio of the total optical signal power impinging on the g i and i windows (when the clock signal is not applied). Assuming the clock power incident on both signal windows, g i and i , the output power is proportional to the reflectivity, R i . The ratio of the input signal powers is defined as the input contrast ratio C in = P g /P i . As C in is increased from zero, the reflectivity of the y i window switches from a low value, R 1 , to a high value, R 2 , at a C in value approximately equal to the ratio of the absorbances of the two optical windows: T = (1 – R 1 )/(1 – R 2 ). Simultaneously, the reflectivity of the other window (y i ) switches from R 2 to R 1 . The return transition point (ideally) occurs when C in = (1 – R 2 )/(1 – R 1 ) = l/T. The ratio of the two reflectivities, R 2 /R 1 , is the output contrast, C out . Typical measured values of the preceding parameters include C out = 3.2, T = 1.4, R 2 = 50% and R 1 = 15%. The switching energy for these devices has been measured at ~7 fJ/mm 2 . The S-SEED is also capable of performing optical logic functions such as NOR, OR, NAND, and AND. The inputs will also be differential, thus still avoiding any critical biasing of the device. A method of achieving logic gate operation is shown in Fig. 79.27. The logic level of the inputs will be defined as the ratio of the optical power on the two optical windows. When the power of the signal incident on the g i input is greater than the power of the signal on the i input, a logic “1” will be present on the input. On the other hand, when the power of the signal incident on the g i input is less than the power of the signal on the i input, a logic “0” will be incident on the input. For the noninverting gates, OR and AND, we can represent the output logic level by the power of the signal coming from the y output relative to the power of the signal coming from the output. As before, when the power of the signal leaving the y output is greater than the power of the signal leaving the output, a logic FIGURE 79.27Logic using S-SEED devices. g g g g g g g g g g g y y ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC “1” will be represented on the output. To achieve AND operation, the device is initially set to its “off” or logic “0” state (i.e., y low and high) with preset pulse, Preset y incident on only one pin diode as shown in Fig. 79.27. If both input signals have logic levels of “1” (i.e., set = 1, reset = 0), then the S-SEED AND gate is set to its “on” state. For any other input combination, there is no change of state, resulting in AND operation. After the signal beams determine the state of the device, the clock beams are then set high to read out the state of the AND gate. For NAND operation, the logic level is represented by the power of the output signal relative to the power of the y output signal. That is, when the power of the signal leaving the output is greater than the power of the signal leaving the y output, a logic “1” is present on the output. The operation of the OR and NOR gates is identical to the AND and NAND gates, except that preset pulse Preset y is used instead of the preset pulse Preset. Thus, a single array of devices can perform any or all of the four logic functions and memory functions with the proper optical interconnections and preset pulse routing. Detect/Emit Devices Detect/emit devices are optoelectronic structures that detect the incoming signal, process the information, and then transfer the information off the device through the use of active light emitters such as LEDs or lasers. An example of a detect/emit device is the “thyristor-like” pnpn device as illustrated in Fig. 79.28(a). It is a digital active optical logic device with “high” and “low” light-emitting optical output states corresponding to electrical states of high impedance (low optical output) or low impedance (high optical output). The device can be driven from one state to the other either electrically or optically. The optical output can be either a lasing output or light-emitting diode output. There are several devices that are based on this general structure. The double heterostructure optoelectronic switch (DOES) is actually an npnp structure that is designed as an integrated bipolar inversion channel heterojunction field-effect transistor (BICFET) phototransistor controlling and driv- ing either an LED or microlaser output. The second device is a pnpn structure referred to as a vertical-to-surface transmission electrophotonic device (VSTEP). The operation of these pnpn structures can be illustrated through the use of load lines. For the simplest device, the load consists of a resistor and a power supply. In Fig. 79.28(b), we see that for small amounts of light, the device will be at point A. Point A is in a region of high electrical impedance with little or no optical output. As the input light intensity increases, there is no longer an intersection point near A and the device FIGURE 79.28pnpn devices: (a) basic structure, (b) voltage/output characteristics, (c) input/output characteristics, and (d) timing diagram of device operation. y y y y ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC will switch to point B [Fig. 79.28(c)]. At this point the electrical impedance is low and light is emitted. When the input light is removed, the operating point returns via the origin to point A by momentarily setting the electrical supply to zero [Fig. 79.28(d)]. These devices can be used as either optical OR or AND gates using a bias beam and several other optical inputs. The device can also be electrically switched. Assuming no input intensity, the initial operating point is at point A. By increasing the power supply voltage, the device will switch to point C. Point C like point B is in the region of light emission and low impedance. To turn off the device, the power supply must then be reduced to zero, after which it may be increased up to some voltage where switching occurs. A differential pnpn device made by simply connecting two pnpn devices in parallel and connecting that combination in series with a resistive load is illus- trated in Fig. 79.29. The operation of the device can be described as follows. When the device is biased below threshold, that is, with the device unilluminated, both optical switches are “off.” When the device is illuminated, the one with the highest power is switched “on.” The increase in current leads to a voltage drop across the resistor which in turn leads to a lowering of the voltage across both optical switches. Therefore, the one with the lower input cannot be switched “on.” Unless both inputs were illuminated with precisely the same power and both devices had identical characteristics (both of these are impossible), only one of the two optical switches will emit light. The required input optical switching energy density can be quite low if the device without light is biased critically just below threshold. Since incoherent light from an LED cannot be effectively collected from small devices or focused onto small devices, a lasing pnpn is needed. Microlaser-based structures are also required to reduce the total power dissipation to acceptable levels. Surface-emitting microlasers provide an ideal laser because of their small size, single-mode operation, and low thresholds. The surface-emitting microlasers consist of two AlAs/AlGaAs dielectric mirrors with a thin active layer in between. This active layer typically consists of one or a few MQWs. The material can be etched vertically into small posts, typically 1–5 mm in diameter. Thresholds are typically on the order of milliwatts. The switching speed of these devices is limited by the time it takes the photogenerated carriers to diffuse into the light-emitting region. Optical turn-off times are also limited by the RC time constant. For devices made so far, the RC time constants are in the range of 1–10 ns, and optical switch-on times were ~10 ns. Performance of the devices is expected to improve as the areas are reduced; switching times comparable to the best electronic devices (~10 ps) are possible, although the optical turn-on times of at least the surface-emitting LED devices will continue to be slower since this time is determined by diffusion effects and not device capacitance and resistance. Lasing devices should offer improved optical turn-on times. Another approach to active devices is to combine lasers/modulators with electronics and photodiodes as has been proposed for optical interconnections of electronic circuits. Since the logic function is implemented with electronic circuitry, any relatively complex functionality can be achieved. Several examples of logic gates have been made using GaAs circuitry and light-emitting diodes. Again surface-emitting microlasers provide an ideal emitter for this purpose, because of their small size and low threshold current. However, the integration of these lasers with the required electrical components has yet to be demonstrated. Limitations In the normal operating regions of most devices, a fixed amount of energy, the switching energy, is required to make them change states. This switching energy can be used to establish a relationship between both the switching speed and the power required to change the state of the device. Since the power required to switch the device is equal to the switching energy divided by the switching time, a shorter switching time will require more power. As an example, for a photonic device with an area of 100 mm 2 and a switching energy of 1 fJ/mm 2 to change states in 1 ps requires 100 mW of power instead of the 100 mW that would be required if the device were to switch at 1 ns. Thus, for high power signals the device will change states rapidly, while low power signals yield a slow switching response. FIGURE 79.29Differential pnpn device. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC Some approximate limits on the possible switching times of a given device, whether optical or electrical, are illustrated in Fig. 79.30. In this figure the time required to switch the state of a device is on the abscissa while the power/bit required to switch the state of a device is on the ordinate. The region of spontaneous switching is the result of the background thermal energy that is present in a device. If the switching energy for the device is too low, the background thermal energy will cause the device to change states spontaneously. To prevent these random transitions in the state of a device, the switching energy required by the device must be much larger than the background thermal energy. To be able to differentiate statistically between two states, this figure assumes that each bit should be composed of at least 1000 photons. Thus, the total energy of 1000 photons sets the approximate boundary for this region of spontaneous switching. For a wavelength of 850 nm, this implies a minimum switching energy on the order of 0.2 fJ. For the thermal transfer region, it is assumed that for continuous operation, the thermal energy present in the device cannot be removed any faster than 100 W/cm 2 (1 mW/mm 2 ). There has been some work done to indicate that this value could be as large as 1000 W/cm 2 . This region also assumes that there will be no more than an increase of 20°C in the temperature of the device. Devices can be operated in this region using a pulsed rather than continuous mode of operation. Thus, high energy pulses can be used if sufficient time is allowed between pulses to allow the absorbed energy to be removed from the devices. The cloud in Fig. 79.30 represents the performance capabilities of current electronic devices. This figure illustrates that optical devices will not be able to switch states orders of magnitude faster than electronic devices when the system is in a continuous rather than a pulsed mode of operation. There are, however, other considerations in the use of photonic switching devices than how fast a single device can change states. Assume that several physically small devices need to be interconnected so that the state infor- mation of one device can be used to control the state of another device. To communicate this information, there needs to be some type of interconnection with a large bandwidth that will allow short pulses to travel between the separated devices. Fortunately, the optical domain can support the bandwidth necessary to allow bit rates in excess of 100 Gb/s, which will allow high-speed communication between these individual switching devices. In the electrical domain, the communications bandwidth between two or more devices is limited by the resistance, capacitance, and inductance of the path between the different devices. Therefore, even though photonic devices cannot switch orders of magnitude faster than their electronic counterparts, the communi- cations capability or transmission bandwidth present in the optical domain should allow higher data rate systems than are possible in the electrical domain. Defining Terms Light-amplifying optical switch (LAOS):Vertically integrated heterojunction phototransistor and light-emit- ting diode which has latching thyristor-type current-voltage characteristics. Liquid-crystal light valve (LCLV):Optical controlled spatial light modulator based on liquid crystals. FIGURE 79.30Fundamental limitations of optical logic devices. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC Multiple quantum well (MQW): Collection of alternating thin layers of semiconductors (e.g., GaAs and AlGaAs) that results in strong peaks in the absorption spectrum which can be shifted with an applied voltage. Nonlinear Fabry-Perot (NLFP): Fabry-Perot etalon or interferometer that has an optically nonlinear medium in its cavity. Optical logic etalon (OLE): Pulsed nonlinear Fabry-Perot etalon that requires two wavelengths (l 1 = signal, l 2 = clock). PLZT/Si: Technology based on conventional silicon electronics using silicon detectors for the device inputs and PLZT modulators for the outputs. Sagnac logic gate: An all-optical gate based on a Sagnac interferometer. A Sagnac interferometer is composed of two coils of optical fiber arranged so that light from a single source travels clockwise in one and counterclockwise in the other. SEED technology: Any device based on multiple quantum well (MQW) modulators. Soliton: Any isolated wave that propagates without dispersion of energy. Surface-emitting laser logic (CELL): Device that integrates a phototransistor with a low threshold vertical- cavity surface-emitting laser. Related Topic 43.1 Introduction References H. S. Hinton, “Architectural consideration for photonic switching networks,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, 6, 1988. M. N. Islam et al., “Ultrafast all-optical fiber-soliton gates,” in Proceedings on Photonic Switching, vol. 8, H. S. Hinton and J. W. Goodman, eds., Washington, D.C.: Optical Society of America, 1991, pp. 98–104. J. L. Jewell et al., “Use of a single nonlinear Fabry-Perot etalon as optical logic gates,” Applied Physics Letters, 44, 1984. K. Kasahara et al., “Double heterostructure optoelectronic switch as a dynamic memory with lowpower con- sumption,” Applied Physics Letters, 52, 1988. A. L. Lentine et al., “Symmetric self-electrooptic effect device: Optical set-reset latch, differential logic gate, and differential modulator/detector,” IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 25, 1989. J. E. Midwinter, “Digital optics, optical logic or smart interconnect or optical logic,” Physics in Technology, 19, 1988. D. A. B. Miller, “Quantum well self-electro-optic effect devices,” Optical and Quantum Electronics, 22, 1990. P. W. Smith, “On the physical limits of digital optical switching and logic elements,” Bell System Technical Journal, 61, 1982. S. D. Smith, “Optical bistability, photonic logic, and optical computation,” Applied Optics, 25, 1986. G. W. Taylor et al., “A new double heterostructure optoelectronic device using molecular beam epitaxy,” Journal of Applied Physics, 59, 1986. Further Information Books which cover this material in more detail include: H. H. Arsenault, T. Szoplik, and B. Macukow, Optical Processing and Computing, New York: Academic Press, 1989. H. M. Gibbs, Optical Bistability: Controlling Light with Light, New York: Academic Press, 1985. M. N. Islam, Ultrafast Fiber Switching Devices and Systems, London: Cambridge University Press, 1992. A. D. McAulay, Optical Computer Architectures, New York: John Wiley, 1991. B. S. Wherrett and F. A. P. Tooley, Optical Computing, Scottish Universities Summer School in Physics, 1989. ? 2000 by CRC Press LLC