Part I
Types and roles of active and intelligent
packaging
2.1 Introduction: the role of packaging in the food chain
Packaging has a significant role in the food supply chain and it is an integral
part both of the food processes and the whole food supply chain. Food
packaging has to perform several tasks as well as fulfilling many demands and
requirements. Traditionally, a food package makes distribution easier. It has
protected food from environmental conditions, such as light, oxygen, moisture,
microbes, mechanical stresses and dust. Other basic tasks have been to ensure
adequate labelling for providing information e.g., to the customer, and a proper
convenience to the consumer, e.g., easy opening, reclosable lids and a suitable
dosing mechanism. Basic requirements are good marketing properties,
reasonable price, technical feasibility (e.g., suitability for automatic packaging
machines, sealability), suitability for food contact, low environmental stress and
suitability for recycling or refilling. A package has to satisfy all these various
requirements effectively and economically. Some requirements and demands
are contradictory to each other, at least to some extent. For these reasons, a
modern food package should be optimised and integrated effectively with the
food supply chain. In this book, package optimisation is discussed in detail in
Chapter 21 and integrating active packaging, storage and distribution in Chapter
25.
For a long time packaging has also had an active role in processing,
preservation and in retaining quality of foods. Changes in the way food products
are produced, distributed, stored and retailed, reflecting the continuing increase
in consumer demand for improved safety, quality and extended shelf-life for
packaged foods, are placing greater demands on the performance of food
packaging. Consumers want to be assured that the packaging is fulfilling its
2
Active and intelligent packaging
An introduction
R. Ahvenainen, VTT Biotechnology, Finland
function of protecting the quality, freshness and safety of foods. The trend to
ensure the quality and safety of food without, or at least fewer, additives and
preservatives means that packaging has a more significant role in the
preservation of food and in ensuring the safety of food in order to avoid
wastage and food poisoning and to reduce allergies.
In this chapter active and intelligent packaging are introduced.
Various terms for new packaging methods can be found in the literature, such
as active, smart, interactive, clever or intelligent packaging. These terms are
often more or less undefined. For this reason, twelve partners from research and
industry formulated the joint definitions for active and intelligent packaging
systems in a European study ’Evaluating Safety, Effectiveness, Economic-
environmental Impact and Consumer Acceptance of Active and Intelligent
Packaging (ACTIPAK-FAIR CT98-4170)’ in the years 1999–2001. The main
objective of the study was to establish and implement active and intelligent
packaging systems within the relevant regulations for food packaging in Europe.
The project was coordinated by Mr Nico deKruijf, TNO, the Netherlands.
1, 2
According to the definitions of the Actipak project, active and intelligent
packaging are:
? Active packaging changes the condition of the packed food to extend shelf-
life or to improve safety or sensory properties, while maintaining the quality
of the packaged food.
? Intelligent packaging systems monitor the condition of packaged foods to
give information about the quality of the packaged food during transport and
storage.
2.2 Active packaging techniques
Food condition in the definition of active packaging includes various aspects
that may play a role in determining the shelf-life of packaged foods, such as
physiological processes (e.g., respiration of fresh fruit and vegetables), chemical
processes (e.g., lipid oxidation), physical processes (e.g., staling of bread,
dehydration), microbiological aspects (e.g., spoilage by micro-organisms) and
infestation (e.g., by insects). Through the application of appropriate active
packaging systems these conditions can be regulated in numerous ways and,
depending on the requirements of the packaged food, food deterioration can be
significantly reduced.
1
Active packaging techniques for preservation and improving quality and
safety of foods can be divided into three categories; absorbers (i.e. scavengers)
(Table 2.1), releasing systems (Table 2.2) and other systems (Table 2.3).
Absorbing (scavenging) systems remove undesired compounds such as oxygen,
carbon dioxide, ethylene, excessive water, taints and other specific compounds
(Table 2.1). Releasing systems actively add or emit compounds to the packaged
food or into the head-space of the package such as carbon dioxide, antioxidants
6 Novel food packaging techniques
Table 2.1 Examples of sachet, label and film type absorbing (scavenging) active
packaging systems for preservation and shelf-life extension of foods or improving their
quality and usability for consumers. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, ethylene and humidity
absorbers have the most significant commercial use, lactose and cholesterol removers are
not yet in use. Adapted from
5,6,9,22
Packaging type Examples of working
principle/
mechanism/reagents
Purpose Examples of possible
applications
Oxygen absorbers
(sachets, labels,
films, corks)
Ferro-compounds,
ascorbic acid, metal
salts, glucose
oxidases, alcohol
oxidase
Reduction/preventing
of mould, yeast and
aerobic bacteria
growth
Prevention of
oxidation of fats,
oils, vitamins,
colours
Prevention of
damage by worms,
insects and insect
eggs
Cheese, meat products,
ready-to-eat products,
bakery products,
coffee, tea, nuts, milk
powder
Carbon dioxide
absorbers
(sachets)
Calcium hydroxide
and sodium
hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide
Calcium oxide and
silica gel
Removing of carbon
dioxide formed
during storage in
order to prevent
bursting of a package
Roasted coffee
Beef jerkey
Dehydrated poultry
products
Ethylene
absorbers
(sachets, films)
Aluminium oxide
and potassium
permanganate
(sachets)
Activated carbon +
metal catalyst
(sachet)
Zeolite (films)
Clay (films)
Japanese oya stone
(films)
Prevention of too fast
ripening and
softening
Fruits like apples,
apricots, banana,
mango, cucumber,
tomatoes, avocados
and vegetables like
carrots, potatoes and
Brussels sprouts
Humidity
absorbers (drip-
absorbent sheets,
films, sachets)
Polyacrylates
(sheets)
Propylene glycol
(film)
Silica gel (sachet)
Clays (sachet)
Control of excess
moisture in packed
food
Reduction of water
activity on the
surface of food in
order to prevent the
growth of moulds,
yeast and spoilage
bacteria
Meat, fish, poultry,
bakery products, cuts
of fruits and
vegetables
Active and intelligent packaging 7
and preservatives (Table 2.2). Other systems may have miscellaneous tasks,
such as self-heating, self-cooling and preservation (Table 2.3).
Depending on the physical form of active packaging systems, absorbers and
releasers can be a sachet, label or film type. Sachets are placed freely in the
head-space of the package. Labels are attached into the lid of the package. Direct
contact with food should be avoided because it impairs the function of the
system and, on the other hand, may cause migration problems (see Chapter 22).
Films or materials having antimicrobial properties can be divided into two
types.
? Those from which an active substance emits or migrates to the head-space of
the package or to the surface of the food, respectively. In the first case, the
system does not need to be in direct contact with the food, but in the second
case it must be in contact (Table 2.2).
? Those that are effective against microbial growth without emitting or
migration of the active agents into the head-space of the package or to the
Table 2.1 (continued)
Packaging type Examples of working
principle/
mechanism/reagents
Purpose Examples of possible
applications
Absorbers of off
flavours, amines
and aldehydes
(films, sachets)
Cellulose acetate
film containing
naringinase enzyme
Ferrous salt and
citric or ascorbic acid
(sachet)
Specially treated
polymers
Reduction of
bitterness in
grapefruit juice
Improving the
flavour of fish and
oil-containing food
Fruit juices
Fish
Oil-containing foods
such as potato chips,
biscuits and cereal
products
Beer
UV-light
absorbers
Polyolefins like
polyethylene and
polypropylene doped
the material with a
UV-absorbent agent
Crystallinity
modification of
nylon 6
UV stabiliser in
polyester bottles
Restricting light-
induced oxidation
Light-sensitive foods
such as ham
Drinks
Lactose remover Immobilised lactase
in the packaging
material
Serving milk
products to the
people suffering
lactose intolerance
Milk and other dairy
products
Cholesterol
remover
Immobilised
cholesterol reductase
in the packaging
material
Improving the
healthiness of milk
products
Milk and other dairy
products
8 Novel food packaging techniques
Table 2.2 Examples of sachet and film type releasing active packaging systems for
preservation and shelf-life extension of foodstuffs or improving their quality. So far, none
of these systems are in wide commercial use. Adapted from
5,6,12,22,23
Packaging type Examples of working
principle/
mechanism/reagents
Purpose Examples of possible
applications
Carbon dioxide
emitters (sachets)
Ascorbic acid
Sodium hydrogen
carbonate and
ascorbate
Growth inhibition of
gram-negative
bacteria and moulds
Vegetables and fruits,
fish, meat, poultry
Ethanol emitters
(sachets)
Ethanol/water
mixture absorbed
onto silicon dioxide
powder generating
ethanol vapour
Growth inhibition of
moulds and yeast
Bakery products
(preferably heated
before consumption)
Dry fish
Antimicrobial
preservative
releasers (films)
Organic acids, e.g.
sorbic acid
Silver zeolite
Spice and herb
extracts
Allylisothiocyanate
Enzymes, e.g.
lyzozyme
Growth inhibition of
spoilage and
pathogenic bacteria
Meat, poultry, fish,
bread, cheese, fruit and
vegetables
Sulphur dioxide
emitters (sachets)
Sodium metabisulfite
incorporated in
microporous material
Inhibition of mould
growth
Fruits
Antioxidant
releasers (films)
BHA
BHT
Tocopherol
Maillard reaction
volatiles
Inhibition of
oxidation of fat and
oil
Dried foodstuffs
Fat-containing
foodstuffs
Flavouring
emitters (films)
Various flavours in
polymers
Minimisation of
flavour scalping
Masking off-odours
Improving the
flavour of food
Miscellaneous
Pesticide emitters
(the outer or inner
layer of
packaging
material)
Imazalil
Pyrethrins
Prevention of growth
of spoilage bacteria
Fungicidal or pest
control
Dried, sacked
foodstuffs, e.g., flour,
rice, grains
Active and intelligent packaging 9
Table 2.3 Various other examples of active packaging systems. Adapted from
5
Packaging type Examples of working
principle/
mechanism/reagents
Purpose Examples of possible
applications
Insulating
materials
Special non-woven
plastic with many air
pore spaces
Temperature control
for restricting
microbial growth
Various foods to be
stored refrigerated
Self-heating
aluminium or
steel cans and
containers
The mixture of lime
and water
Cooking or preparing
food via built-in
heating mechanism
Sake, coffee, tea,
ready-to-eat meals
Self-cooling
aluminium or
steel cans and
containers
The mixture of
ammonium chloride,
ammonium nitrate
and water
Cooling of food Non-gas drinks
Microwave
susceptors
Aluminium or
stainless steel
deposited on
substrates such as
polyester films or
paperboard
Drying, crisping and
ultimately browning
of microwave food
Popcorn, pizzas,
ready-to-eat foods
Modifiers for
microwave
heating
A series of antenna
structures that alter
the way microwaves
arrive at the food
Even heating, surface
browning, crisping
and selective heating
As above
Temperature-
sensitive films
The gas permeability
of the polymer is
controlled by filler
content, particle size
of the filler and
degree of stretching
of the film
To avoid anaerobic
respiration
Vegetables and fruits
UV-irradiated
nylon film
24, 25
The use of excimer
laser 193 nm UV
irradiation to convert
amide groups on the
surface of nylon to
amines
Growth inhibition of
spoilage bacteria
Meat, poultry, fish,
bread, cheese, fruit and
vegetables
FreshPad
26
Releasing natural
volatile oils,
absorbing oxygen
and excess juice
Growth inhibition of
bacteria
Moisture control
Self-life
improvement
Meat
Surface-treated
food packaging
materials
Fluorine-based
plasmas
27
Growth inhibition of
bacteria
10 Novel food packaging techniques
food, respectively. In this case, the material must be in direct contact with the
food (Table 2.3).
More detailed information about active packaging and its application is
available in Chapters 3–5 in Part I and the chapters in Parts II and III of this
book.
2.3 Intelligent packaging techniques
The definition of intelligent packaging in the Actipak project includes indicators
to be used for quality control of packed food (Table 2.4). They can be so-called
external indicators, i.e., indicators which are attached outside the package (time-
temperature indicators), and so-called internal indicators which are placed inside
the package, either to the head-space of the package or attached into the lid
(oxygen indicators for indication of oxygen or package leak, carbon dioxide
indicators, microbial growth indicators and pathogen indicators).
Time-temperature indicators are discussed in detail in Chapter 6, oxygen and
carbon dioxide indicators in Chapter 13 and microbial growth indicators, i.e.,
freshness indicators and pathogen indicators in Chapter 7. Furthermore, food
packaging can be intelligent in ways that give information, e.g., about the origin
Table 2.4 Examples of external and internal indicators and their working principle or
reacting compounds to be used in intelligent packaging for quality control of packed food.
Adapted from
5,22
Indicator Principle/reagents Gives information
about
Application
Time-temperature
indicators
(external)
Mechanical
Chemical
Enzymatic
Storage conditions
Foods stored under
chilled and frozen
conditions
Oxygen
indicators
(internal)
Redox dyes
pH dyes
Enzymes
Storage conditions
Package leak
Foods stored in
packages with reduced
oxygen concentration
Carbon dioxide
indicator
(internal)
Chemical Storage conditions
Package leak
Modified or controlled
atmosphere food
packaging
Microbial growth
indicators
(internal/external)
i.e. freshness
indicators
pH dyes
All dyes reacting
with certain
metabolites (volatiles
or non-volatiles)
Microbial quality of
food (i.e. spoilage)
Perishable foods such
as meat, fish and
poultry
Pathogen
indicators
(internal)
Various chemical
and immunochemical
methods reacting
with toxins
Specific pathogenic
bacteria such as
Escherichia coli
O157
Perishable foods such
as meat, fish and
poultry
Active and intelligent packaging 11
of food, authenticity, contents, use, and consumption-date expiration. It can also
track a product in the food supply chain, be anti-theft and tamper proof.
3
This
book does not cover these technologies, however, some future aspects
concerning them are dealt in the Chapter 25.
2.4 Current use of novel packaging techniques
In the USA, Japan and Australia, active and intelligent packaging systems are
already being successfully applied to extend shelf-life or to monitor food quality
and safety. Despite this, regardless of intensive research and development work
on active and intelligent packaging, there are only a few commercially
significant systems on the market. Oxygen absorbers added separately as small
sachets in the package head-space or attached as labels into the lid probably
have the most commercial significance in active food packaging nowadays.
Also, ethanol emitters/generators and ethylene absorbers are used, but to a lesser
extent than oxygen absorbers. Other commercially significant active techniques
include, e.g., absorbers for moisture and off-odour and absorbers/emitters for
carbon dioxide. With regard to intelligent packaging, time temperature
indicators and oxygen indicators are most used in those countries mentioned
above.
In Europe, only a few of these systems have been developed and are being
applied. This lag compared to the USA, Japan and Australia is partly due to to the
strict European regulations for food-contact materials that cannot keep up entirely
with technological innovations and currently prohibit the application of many of
these systems. In addition, exiguous knowledge about consumer acceptance,
economic aspects and the environmental impact of these novel technologies and, in
particular, the exiguous knowledge of hard evidence of their effectiveness and
safety demonstrated by independent researchers have inhibited commercial usage.
1
Furthermore, vacuum packaging and protective gas packaging (modified
atmosphere packaging) have had an established position in many European
countries since 1980. Vacuum packaging, gas packaging and active packaging
compete with to each other, at least to some extent. However, all these
technologies have their own advantages and disadvantages, and the best package
technology should be selected according to individual requirements case by case.
4
Discussions between VTT Biotechnology and various parties in the food
supply chain in Finland and also in other countries have shown that before
intelligent and active packaging systems can be launched in greater numbers
onto the market, a demonstration of the function and benefits of these systems in
the food supply chain is necessary. For this reason, VTT has just started a one-
year project ’Demonstration of intelligent packaging as a tool for quality control
in the food supply chain’ in Finland. The project is financed and supported by
Tekes, the National Technology Agency of Finland, packaging companies and
franchising groups.
12 Novel food packaging techniques
2.5 Current research
Many research institutes in Europe, such as TNO (the Netherlands), Pira
International and the Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association
(UK), University of Compostela (Spain), ADRIAC (France), University of
Ghent (Belgium), Distam (Italy) Technion-Israel Institute of Technology
(Israel), Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University (Denmark), Matforsk
and Norconserv (Norway) and VTT Biotechnology (Finland)
1,5
have been
working in recent years on shelf-life and quality assurance studies and
legislation aspects related to active and intelligent packaging. Outside Europe,
probably CSIRO, Australia and the University of Minnesota, Purdue University
6
and Clemson University USA,
7
University of Manitoba, Canada
8
have been the
more active.
With regard to the development of new active and intelligent packaging
systems, companies in Japan and the USA have innovated and patented most of
the active and intelligent systems available.
6,9,10,11
Furthermore, some research
institutes are also developing new systems, such as CSIRO in Australia,
12
SIK
and Lund University in Sweden,
13
Purdue University and University of
California in USA
6,14
and VTT Biotechnology.
15,16
VTT in Finland also started
a new five-year project ’Active, communicating package’ at the beginning of the
year 2002. The aim of this project is to develop an effective logistic system
based on wireless communication and active, intelligent and communicating
packages for sensitive food.
2.6 The legislative context
At least three types of regulation have an impact on the use of active and
intelligent packaging in foods. First, any need for food-contact approval should
be established before any form of active and intelligent packaging can be used.
Second, environmental regulations of packaging material usage can be expected
to increase in the near future. Third, there may be a need for labelling in cases
where active or intelligent packaging can give rise to consumer confusion.
Legislative demands regarding food packaging and food contact materials
include specific consumer protection and environmental concerns. In various
countries, legislation related to food contact materials has been framed. The
basic criteria for these regulations differ between countries. Some rules are
based on restrictions as to the composition of materials, whereas others regulate
mainly migration limits.
In the Actipak project mentioned in Section 2.1, non-European legislation on
active and intelligent food packaging concepts were screened. It appeared that
there are only a few specific regulations for these innovative concepts.
Generally, these new systems should meet the conventional requirements for
food contact materials.
Active and intelligent packaging 13
2.6.1 USA
In the USA, components directly added to the food or via packaging are
considered as food additives. Consequently, these active substances have to be
evaluated as additives according to rigorous toxicological testing prior to use. If
a substance is added to the packaging material and has only an indirect effect on
foods, then it should be subjected to regulations similar to those for migration of
monomers and other polymer components.
2.6.2 Japan
Considering new active and intelligent agents in food packaging materials, it has
to be primarily checked whether the agent is on the list of the Ministry of Health
and Welfare.
17
New components must be registered as chemicals according to
the Guidelines for Screening Toxicity Testing of Chemicals. In addition, for the
application of sachets, the packaging must be clearly labelled with the text ‘Do
not eat contents’, including a diagram demonstrating this warning.
18
2.6.3 Australia
In Australia, standard A12 of the Food Standards Codes up to the amendment of
31 October 1996 sets maximum levels for metals and other contaminants in
food, such as monomers and additives from packaging materials. Standard A13
of the Food Standards Codes sets out regulations regarding articles and materials
in contact with food. In this standard, the application of sachets containing
active agents is explicitly described; the main aspects are listed below.
1 (a) Packages of food may contain sachets of silicon dioxide for the purpose
of inhibiting the growth of mould or absorbing moisture.
(b) Sachets specified in (a) may contain ethanol and flavouring.
(c) There shall be written on the label on or attached to a sachet to which
the clause applies, in standard type, the words ‘MOULD INHIBITOR’
or ‘MOISTURE ABSORBER’ or words having the same or a similar
intent, immediately followed, in standard type of 3 mm, by the warning
‘DO NOT EAT’.
(d) Sachets to which this clause applies shall have at least one face with a
surface area not less than 10 cm
2
.
2 (a) Packages of food may contain sachets of reduced iron powder for the
purpose of absorbing oxygen.
(b) Sachets specified in paragraph (a) of this clause shall have at least one
face with a surface area of not less than 10 cm
2
, and may also contain
one or more of the following:
(i) calcium chloride (v) iron oxide
(ii) calcium hydroxide (vi) magnesium hydroxide
(iii) carbon, activated (vii) magnesium stearate
(iv) gypsum (viii) perlite
14 Novel food packaging techniques
(ix) salt (xii) zeolite
(x) talc (xiii) magnesium silicate
(xi) water (xiv) diatomaceous salts
(c) Such sachets should be labelled, in standard type 3 mm, with the words
‘OXYGEN ABSORBER’, or with words having the same or a similar
intent, immediately followed, in standard type of 3 mm, by the warning
‘DO NOT EAT’.
In fact, only in Australia is the content of ‘active’ sachets defined in a specific
regulation. In the USA and Japan, active or intelligent components are
considered as additives and are subject to FDA approval or must be evaluated
according to Japanese law, the Guidelines for Screening Toxicity Testing of
Chemicals. Active and intelligent components must be toxicologically safe.
Migration behaviour of active and intelligent concepts has not been explicitly
described in any of the above-mentioned regulations.
2.6.4 Europe
At the moment, no European regulation currently covers specifically the use
of active and intelligent packaging.
1
Furthermore, none of the European
countries has a specific regulation concerning active or intelligent packaging.
Only France and Spain have an additional list that probably contains
components used as active agents in active packaging concepts. In other
European countries the use of active agents is restricted to the components on
the positive list.
A few years ago, two initiatives were taken to implement active and
intelligent packaging within the European regulations. deKruijf and Rijk in
Chapter 22 describe the content of these initiatives.
2.7 Consumers and novel packaging
The food industry’s main concern about introducing active components to
packaging seems to be that consumers will consider the components harmful and
will not accept them.
19
Before the food industry can decide on the best available
active and/or intelligent packaging technique, studies are needed both in
domestic and foreign markets to evaluate consumer attitudes towards these
techniques. Even the naming of the ‘absorbers’ or ‘indicators’ may not sound
familiar to consumers.
10
Dr Liisa La¨hteenma¨ki discusses testing consumer
responses to new packaging concepts in Chapter 26. She will also give some
examples about the results of current research. Furthermore, Table 2.5 outlines
some potential problems and solutions that the food industry should take into
account before deciding to use active and/or intelligent packaging techniques.
Active and intelligent packaging 15
2.8 Future trends
2.8.1 Active packaging
Active packaging will probably increase in European countries in the near future
due to consumer preferences for minimally processed and naturally preserved
foods and the food industry’s eagerness to invest in product quality and safety.
The future trend in active packaging is to use absorbing or releasing compounds
incorporated in the packaging film or in an adhesive label to get rid of separate
objects in packaging and thus to avoid consumer resistance towards new
packaging techniques. In the near future these invisible active absorbers or
emitters will possibly be launched on the market on a larger scale.
The antimicrobial packaging materials are a potential way to decrease the
amount of preservatives and focus the function of preservatives more precisely
where microbial growth and spoilage mainly occur, on the surface of the food.
However, effective materials are still rather rare on the market and need much
research and development work. The more significant challenges in developing
these materials are, first, to find new physical, chemical and biological methods
to add preservatives effectively into packaging materials so that preservatives
are still active against the microbes or to treat packaging materials and polymers
in such a way that they are converted to antimicrobial. Secondly, to develop
antimicrobial materials that are effective against several spoilage and pathogenic
microbes. This obviously means that more than one preservative should be
incorporated into the same packaging material.
It is self-evident that these novel materials should have proper permeability
properties, good appearance, good mechanical properties and they must be
Table 2.5 Problems and solutions encountered with introducing new products using
active and/or intelligent packaging techniques
4
Problem/fear Solution
? Consumer attitude ! Consumer research: education and
information.
? Doubts about performance ! Storage tests before launching.
Consumer education and information.
? Increased packaging costs ! Use in selected, high quality products.
Marketing tool for increased quality
and quality assurance.
? False sense of security, ignorance of
date markings
! Consumer education and information.
? Mishandling and abuse ! Active compound incorporated into
label or packaging film.
Consumer education and information.
? False complaints and return of packs
with colour indicators
! Colour automatically readable at the
point of purchase.
? Difficulty of checking every colour
indicator at the point of purchase.
! Barcode labels: intended for quality
assurance for retailers only.
16 Novel food packaging techniques
reasonable in price, suitable for packaging machines already used in the food
industry and suitable for normal sealing procedures. In other words they must
have all those properties that traditional packaging materials have.
2.8.2 Intelligent packaging
There are several reasons for the bright future of intelligent packaging.
? The significance of freshness and safety will increase.
? The demands of consumers will increase.
? Globalisation and expansion of the marketing area make logistic chains
longer placing more demands on traceability.
? The facilitation of in-house control for industry and retailing in the complete
food supply chain. Intelligent packaging can also monitor product quality and
trace the critical points in the food supply chain.
Thus, an intelligent product quality control system enables more efficient
production, higher product quality and a reduced number of complaints from
retailers and consumers. Today the commercially available intelligent
concepts are labels reacting with a visible change in response to time and
temperature (TTI) or the presence of certain chemical compounds (leak
indicators, freshness indicators). In the future it can be expected that the
intelligent package can contain more complex invisible messages which can
be read at a distance. According to Byrne,
20
this type of electronic labelling
could soon be as common as bar coding today. A label could be introduced as
a chip but advances in ink technology might enable the use of clever printed
circuits as well. The advantages of printed structures include low price and
disposability. The security tags, which are already used today, are the first
examples of electronic labelling. Pre-programmed miniature radio frequency
identity tags have also been used in the identification of containers for
military supplies.
20
The tags can have either a built-in battery or can be
energised by the external transmitter.
In addition to information on product identification, date of manufacture,
price, etc., electronic tags could also function as a time-temperature, leak and/
or freshness indicator and as pilferage protection (all these different functions
in the same tag).
21
Electronic tags might also be informative labels and give
instructions about the use, healthiness, etc., of food. It could be expected that
advances in electronics, biotechnology (e.g., biosensors, immunodiagnostics),
enzyme technology, analytic methods (e.g., electronic nose), material
technology (intelligent materials, modification of polymers), (micro)-
electronics (price, printable structures), sensor technology and digital printing
would be followed by the emergence of new concepts of intelligent
packaging.
With regard to the development of freshness and pathogen indicators,
identification and quantification of the most influential volatile and non-volatile
metabolic compounds contributing to safety and spoilage with various foods are
Active and intelligent packaging 17
essential. A lot of information is already available (see Chapter 7), but a lot of
new research is still needed, particularly concerning pathogenic microbes.
Last but not least, intelligent packaging systems should be easy in use, low
cost, integrated in the packaging and capable of handling tasks. Furthermore,
they must correlate well with product quality (not with the environment), be
irreversible in colour change, easy to understand, easy to read (i.e. clear and
standardised colour changes, particularly if the indicator is to be read by a
consumer), and easy to store before use.
2.8.3 Intelligent food supply chain
In order to derive maximum benefit, technologies developed to ensure the safety
and quality of food (active and intelligent packages), to track and trace goods
through the logistic chain (barcodes, smart tags, RF-ID technologies) and to
produce packages just in time on demand and preferably personalised, will be
integrated with each other in the future. There are two ways to act, tagging or
marking of the goods. Tagging is still quite expensive and different kinds of
marking have great potential in consumer goods. The average price of the
consumer good is around 1.5 Euro, which means that the price of markings/tags
should be low. The tags can be active or passive. The information can be saved
in the memory of the tag and also up-dated with the reading device or the tag or
marking can act as a link to the information that can be read from the server via
network connections. The latter makes it possible to use much cheaper marking
methods and also to update the information whenever it is required. The course
of action should be selected on the basis of expenses and profits. The
technologies to add ambient intelligence in the goods are developing quickly
and the IST technologies to create new solutions for the control and
communication of the logistic chain are well developed. Mobile communication
devices are well accepted in Europe and could be used both for control and
consumer purposes.
It is very probable that in the future the management of the food supply
chain will be based on wireless communication and active, intelligent and
communicating packages. The packages will protect the food without
additives, inform about the product quality and history in every stage of the
logistic chain, guide the journey of the package, reduce product loss, and will
give real-time information to the consumer about the properties/quality/ use of
the product.
2.9 Sources of further information and advice
FLOROS, J.D., DOCK, L.L. and HAN, J.H. 1997. ’Active packaging technologies and
applications’. Food, Cosmetics and Drug Packaging January 1997, pp.
10–17.
ROONEY, M.L. (ed.). 1995. Active Food Packaging. Blackie Academic &
18 Novel food packaging techniques
Professional, an imprint of Chapman & Hall. Glasgow, UK. 260 pages.
SMOLANDER, M., HURME, E. and AHVENAINEN, R. 1997. ’Leak indicators for
modified-atmosphere packages’. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 8,
No. 4, pp. 101–6.
SMOLANDER M. (2000), ’Principles of smart packaging’, Packaging Technology
March/April 2000, pp. 9–12.
FABECH, B., HELLSTR?M, T., HENRYSDOTTER, G., HJULMAND-LASSEN, M., NILSSON,
J., RU
¨
DINGER, L., SIPILA
¨
INEN-MALM, T., SOLLI, E., SVENSSON, K.,
THORKELSSON, A
′
.E. and TUOMAALA, V. 2000. ’Active and intelligent food
packaging’. A Nordic report on the legislative aspects. TemaNord 2000:
584. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers, 84 pp. ISBN 92-893-
0520-7.
2.10 References
1. DE KRUIJF, N., VAN BEEST, M., RIJK, R., SIPILA
¨
INEN-MALM, T., PASEIRO L. and
DE MEULENAER, B. 2002. ‘Active and intelligent packaging: applications
and regulatory aspects’. Food Additives and Contaminants Vol. 19, pp.
144–62.
2. RIJK, R., VAN BEEST, M., DE KRUIJF, N., BOUMA, K., MARTIN, C., DE
MEULENAER, B. and SIPILA
¨
INEN-MALM, T. 2002. ‘Active and intelligent
packaging systems and the legislative aspects’. Food Packaging Bulletin.
Vol. 10, No. 9 & 10, pp. 2–10.
3. DAY, B.P.F. 2000. ‘Intelligent packaging for foodstuffs’. Food, Cosmetics
and Drug Packaging Vol. 23, No. 12, pp. 233–9.
4. HURME, E. and AHVENAINEN, R. 1996. ‘Active and smart packaging of
ready-made foods’. In: Minimal Processing and Ready Made Foods. T.
Ohlsson, R. Ahvenainen and T. Mattila-Sandholm (eds). Go¨teborg, SIK,
pp. 169–82.
5. HURME, E., SIPILA
¨
INEN-MALM, T., AHVENAINEN, R. and NIELSEN, T. 2002.
‘Active and intelligent packaging’. In: Minimal Processing Technologies
in the Food Industry. T. Ohlsson and N. Bengtsson (eds), Woodhead
Publishing Limited, Cambridge, England, pp. 87–123.
6. FLOROS, J.D., DOCK, L.L. and HAN, J.H. 1997. ‘Active packaging technologies
and applications’. Food, Cosmetics and Drug Packaging, Vol. 20, No. 1,
pp. 10–17.
7. COOKSEY, K. 2001. ‘Antimicrobial food packaging’. Food, Cosmetics and
Drug Packaging, 24, No. 7, 133–7.
8. HAN, J.H. 2000. ‘Antimicrobial food packaging’. Food Technology 54, No.
3, pp. 56–65.
9. ROONEY, M.L. (ed.). 1995. Active Food Packaging. Blackie Academic and
Professional, an imprint of Chapman & Hall. Glasgow, UK. 260 pages.
10. AHVENAINEN, R. and HURME, E. 1997. ‘Active and smart packaging for
meeting consumer demands for quality and safety’. Food Additives and
Active and intelligent packaging 19
Contaminants, 14, 6–7, pp. 753–63.
11. SMOLANDER, M., HURME, E. and AHVENAINEN, R. 1997. ‘Leak indicators for
modified-atmosphere packages’. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 8,
No. 4, pp. 101–6.
12. ROONEY, M.L. 1995. ‘Development of active and intelligent packaging
systems’. In: New Shelf-life Technologies and Safety Assessments. R.
Ahvenainen, T. Mattila-Sandholm. and T. Ohlsson, (eds), VTT
Symposium 148, Espoo 1995, pp. 75–83.
13. HO
¨
RNSTEN, G. 2001. ‘Active packaging: Immobilized enzymes integrated
within a laminate that remove oxygen from within the package’. In: The
proceedings of 2nd Nordic Foodpack, September 5–7, 2001. Norconserv,
Stavanger, Norway, 11 pp.
14. ANON. 2002. ‘Foodstuff packaging set to use organic sensor to provide
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p. 107.
15. SMOLANDER M. (2000), ‘Principles of smart packaging’, Packaging
Technology March/April 2000, pp. 9–12.
16. VARTIAINEN, J., MOTION, R., SKYTTA
¨
, E., ENQVIST, J., SIPILA
¨
INEN-MALM, T.,
HURME, E. and AHVENAINEN, R. 2002. ‘Antimicrobial Packaging Materials
Based on Traditional Food Preservatives’. 13th IAPRI World Conference
on Packaging and the 50th Anniversary of the Michigan State University
School of Packaging, June 23–28, 2002, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.
17. IGARASHI, S. 1996 TNO Japan Office, personal communications.
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sachet technology’. In: Active food packaging. M.L.Rooney (ed.). London,
Blackie Academic & Professional, pp. 143–73.
19. MIKKOLA, V., LA
¨
HTEENMA
¨
KI, L., HURME, E., HEINIO
¨
, R., KA
¨
A
¨
RIA
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INEN, T. and
AHVENAINEN, R. 1997. ‘Consumer attitudes towards oxygen absorbers in
food packages’. VTT Research Notes 1858, Espoo, 34 pp.
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21. ANON. 1994. ‘Talking boxes, food temperature sensors and other smart
packaging is not far off’. Quick Frozen Foods International 3682, 114.
22. FABECH, B., HELLSTR?M, T., HENRYSDOTTER, G., HJULMAND-LASSEN, M.,
NILSSON, J., Ru¨DINGER, L., SIPILA
¨
INEN-MALM, T., SOLLI, E., SVENSSON, K.,
THORKELSSON, A
′
.E. and TUOMAALA, V. 2000. ‘Active and intelligent food
packaging’. A Nordic report on the legislative aspects. TemaNord
2000:584. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers, 84 pp. ISBN 92-
893-0520-7.
23. DAY, B.P.F. 2000. ‘Underlying principles of active packaging technology’.
Food, Cosmetics and Drug Packaging Vol. 23, No. 7, pp. 134–9.
24. OZDEMIR, M. and SADIKOGLU, H. 1998. ‘A new emerging technology: laser-
induced surface modification of polymers’. Trends in Food Science &
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20 Novel food packaging techniques
activity of UV-irradiated nylon film for packaging applications’.
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26. ANON. 2001. ‘New approaches to packaging are being developed to
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food packaging polymers by plasmas’. Food Technology Vol. 53, No. 4,
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Active and intelligent packaging 21
