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Yale Law School
Henry Hansmann
Research Paper No. 300
What is Corporate Law?
Reinier Kraakman
1
What is Corporate Law?
HENRY HANSMANN and REINIER KRAAKMAN
1.1 Introduction
What is the common structure of the law of business corporations—or, as it
would be put in the UK, company law—across different national jurisdictions?
Although this question is rarely asked by corporate law scholars, it is critically
important for the comparative investigation of corporate law. Recent scholar-
ship emphasizes the divergence among European, American, and Japanese cor-
porations in corporate governance, share ownership, capital markets, and
business culture.
1
But, notwithstanding the very real differences across jurisdic-
tions along these dimensions, the underlying uniformity of the corporate form is
at least as impressive. Business corporations have a fundamentally similar set of
legal characteristics—and face a fundamentally similar set of legal problems—in
all jurisdictions.
Consider, in this regard, the basic legal characteristics of the business corpor-
ation. To anticipate our discussion below, there are five of these characteristics,
most of which will be easily recognizable to anyone familiar with business
affairs. They are: legal personality, limited liability, transferable shares, dele-
gated management under a board structure, and investor ownership. These
characteristics are—for reasons we will explore—induced by the economic
exigencies of the large modern business enterprise. Thus, corporate law every-
where must, of necessity, provide for them. To be sure, there are other forms of
business enterprise that lack one or more of these characteristics. But the
remarkable fact—and the fact that we wish to stress—is that, in market econ-
omies, almost all large-scale business firms adopt a legal form that possesses all
five of the basic characteristics of the business corporation. Indeed, most small
jointly-owned firms adopt this corporate form as well, although sometimes with
deviations from one or more of the five basic characteristics to fit the special
needs of closely held firms. (Throughout this book, we will follow the usual
1
See, e.g., Ronald J. Gilson and Mark J. Roe, Understanding the Japanese Keiretsu: Overlaps
Between Corporation Governance and Industrial Organization, 102 Yale Law Journal 871 (1993);
Mark J. Roe, Some Differences in Corporation Structure in Germany, Japan, and the United States,
102 Yale Law Journal 1927 (1993); Bernard S. Black and John C. Coffee, Hail Britannia? Insti-
tutional Investor Behavior Under Limited Regulation,92Michigan Law Review 1997 (1994);
Klaus J. Hopt and Eddy Wymeersch (eds.), Comparative Corporate Governance:Essays and
Materials (1997); and Mark J. Roe, Political Determinants of Corporate Governance
(2003).
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 1
practice of using the term ‘closely held’ to refer to corporations whose shares—
unlike those of ‘publicly held’ corporations—do not trade freely in impersonal
markets, either because the shares are held by a small number of persons or
because they are subject to restrictions that limit their transferability.)
Self-evidently, a principal function of corporate law is to provide business
enterprises with a legal form that possesses these five core attributes. By making
this form widely available and user-friendly—i.e., by altering background prop-
erty rights
2
and providing off-the-shelf housekeeping rules—corporate law en-
ables entrepreneurs to transact easily through the medium of the corporate
entity, and thus lowers the costs of business contracting. Of course, the number
of provisions that the typical corporation statute devotes to defining the corpor-
ate form is likely to be only a small part of the statute as a whole. Nevertheless,
these are the provisions that comprise the legal core of corporate law that is
shared by every jurisdiction. In this Chapter, we briefly explore the contracting
efficiencies (some familiar and some not) that accompany these five features of
the corporate form, and that, we believe, have helped to propel the worldwide
diffusion of the corporate form.
Like corporate law itself, however, our principal focus in this book is not on
establishing the corporate form per se, but rather on a second, equally important
function of corporate law: that is, constraining value-reducing forms of oppor-
tunism among the constituencies of the corporate enterprise. In particular, we
address three principal conflicts within the corporation: those between managers
and shareholders, those among shareholders, and those between shareholders
and the corporation’s other constituencies, including creditors and employees.
All three of these generic conflicts give rise to problems that are usefully charac-
terized as what economists call ‘agency problems.’ Consequently, Chapter 2
examines these three agency problems, both in general and as they arise in the
corporate context, and surveys the range of legal strategies that can be employed
to deal with those problems.
The reader might object that these agency conflicts—which, in our view,
occupy most of corporate law—are not uniquely ‘corporate.’ After all, any
form of jointly-owned enterprise must expect conflicts among its owners, man-
agers, and third-party contractors. We agree; insofar as the corporation is only
one of several legal forms for the jointly-owned firm, it faces the same generic
agency problems that confront all jointly-owned firms. Nevertheless, the char-
acteristics of this particular form matter a great deal, since it is the form that is
chosen by most large-scale enterprises—and, as a practical matter, the only form
that widely held firms can choose in many jurisdictions.
3
Moreover, the unique
2
See Henry Hansmann and Reinier Kraakman, The Essential Role of Organizational Law, 110
Yale Law Journal 387 (2000).
3
Only the corporate form is available in many jurisdictions to the extent that large-scale enter-
prises are forced to look to the public equity markets for financing. Some jurisdictions permit the
equity of non-corporate entities to trade in the public markets as well: for example, in the U.S., the
equity securities of so-called ‘master’ limited partnerships and limited liability companies may be
registered for public trading.
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 2
2 Introduction
features of this form determine the contours of its agency problems. To take an
obvious example, the fact that shareholders enjoy limited liability—while, say,
general partners in a partnership do not—has traditionally made creditor pro-
tection far more salient in corporate law than it is in partnership law. Similarly,
the fact that corporate investors may trade their shares is the foundation of
the anonymous trading stock market—an institution that has encouraged the
separation of ownership from control, and so has sharpened the management–-
shareholder agency problem.
In this book, we explore the role of corporate law in minimizing agency
problems—and thus, making the corporate form practicable—in the most
important categories of corporate actions and decisions. More particularly,
Chapters 3–8 address, respectively, six categories of transactions and decisions
that involve the corporation, its owners, its managers, and the other parties
with whom it deals. Most of these categories of firm activity are, again, generic,
rather than uniquely corporate. For example, Chapter 3 addresses the govern-
ance mechanisms that operate over the firm’s ordinary business decisions, while
Chapter 4 turns to the checks that operate on the corporation’s transactions with
creditors. As before, however, if similar agency problems arise in similar contexts
across all forms of jointly-owned enterprise, the response of corporate law turns
in part on the unique legal features that characterize the corporate form.
Taken together, the latter six chapters of our book cover nearly all of the
important problems in corporate law—apart, that is, from the fundamental
project of establishing the corporate form itself. In each Chapter, we describe
how the basic agency problems of the corporate form manifest themselves in the
given category of corporate activity, and then explore the range of alternative
legal responses that are available. We illustrate these alternative approaches with
examples from the corporate law of various prominent jurisdictions. We explore
the patterns of homogeneity and the patterns of heterogeneity that appear.
Where there are significant differences across jurisdictions, we seek to address
both the sources and the consequences of those differences. Our examples are
drawn principally form a handful of major representative jurisdictions, including
France, Germany, Japan, the U.S., and the UK, though we also make reference to
the law of other jurisdictions to make special points.
In emphasizing a strongly functional approach to the issues of comparative
law, this book differs from some of the more traditional comparative law
scholarship, both in the field of corporate law and elsewhere.
4
We join an
emerging tendency in comparative law scholarship by seeking to give a highly
integrated view of the role and structure of corporate law that provides a clear
framework within which to organize an understanding of individual systems,
both alone and in comparison with each other.
5
Moreover, while comparative
4
Compare, e.g., Arthur R. Pinto and Gustavo Visentini (eds.), The Legal Basis of Corporate
Governance in Publicly Held Corporations,AComparative Approach (1998).
5
Other examples of this trend include Dennis C. Mueller and B. Burcin Yurtoglu, Country Legal
Environments and Corporate Investment Performance,1German Economic Review 187 (2000);
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 3
What is Corporate Law? 3
law scholarship often has a tendency to emphasize differences between juris-
dictions, our approach is to focus on similarities. Doing so, we believe, illumin-
ates an underlying commonality of structure that transcends national boundaries.
It also provides important perspective on the potential basis for the international
integration of corporate law that must necessarily take place as economic activity
continues to become more global in scope in the decades to come.
We realize that the term ‘functional,’ which we have used here and in our title,
means different things to different people, and that some of the uses to which
that term has been put in the past—particularly in the field of sociology—have
made the term justifiably suspect. It would perhaps be more accurate to call our
approach ‘economic’ rather than ‘functional,’ though the sometimes tendentious
use of economic argumentation in legal literature has also caused many scholars,
particularly outside of the United States, to be as wary of ‘economic analysis’ as
they are of ‘functional analysis.’ For the purposes at hand, however, we need not
commit ourselves on fine points of social science methodology. We need simply
note that the exigencies of commercial activity and organization present prac-
tical problems that have a rough similarity in developed market economies
throughout the world, that corporate law everywhere must necessarily address
these problems, and that the forces of logic, competition, interest group pressure,
imitation, and compatibility tend to lead different jurisdictions to choose
roughly similar solutions to these problems.
That is not to say that our objective here is just to explore the commonality of
corporate law across jurisdictions. Of equal importance, we wish to offer a
common language and a general analytic framework with which to understand
the purposes that can potentially be served by corporate law, and with which to
compare and evaluate the efficacy of different legal regimes in serving those
purposes.
6
Indeed, it is our hope that the analysis offered in this book will be of
use not only to students of comparative law, but that it will be equally valuable
Rafael La Porta, Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes, Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny, Law and Finance,
106 Journal of Political Economy 1113 (1998); Henry Hansmann and Ugo Mattei, The Func-
tions of Trust Law: A Comparative Legal and Economic Analysis,73New York University Law
Review 434 (1998); Konrad Zweigert and Hein Ko¨tz, Introductionto Comparative Law (3rd ed.
translated from the German by Tony Weir, 1998); Ugo Mattei, Comparative Law and Economics
(1997).
6
In very general terms, our approach echoes that taken by Dean Robert Clark in his important
treatise, Corporate Law (1986), and Frank Easterbrook and Daniel Fischel, in their more recent
discussion of U.S. law, The Economic Structure of Corporate Law (1991). However, our
analysis differs from—and goes beyond—that offered by these and other commentators in several
key respects. First, and most obviously, we present a comparative analysis that addresses the corporate
law of multiple jurisdictions. Second, we provide an integrated functional overview that stresses the
agency problems at the core of corporate law, rather than focusing on more particular legal insti-
tutions and solutions. Finally, we offer a more expansive account than do other commentators of the
functions of central features of the corporate form such as limited liability and the governance
structure of the corporate board. Our analysis, moreover, is informed not only by a comparative
perspective across jurisdictions, but also by a comparative perspective across legal forms for business
enterprise.
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 4
4 Introduction
to those who simply wish to have a more solid framework within which to view
their own country’s corporation law.
Likewise, we take no strong stand here in the current debates on the extent to
which corporate law is or should be ‘converging,’ much less on what it might
converge to.
7
That is a subject on which reasonable minds can differ. Indeed, it is
a subject on which the reasonable minds that have written this book sometimes
differ.
8
Rather, we are seeking to set out a conceptual framework and a factual
basis with which that and other important issues facing corporate law can be
fruitfully explored.
1.2 What is a Corporation?
As we noted above, the five core structural characteristics of the business corpor-
ation are: (1) legal personality, (2) limited liability, (3) transferable shares, (4)
centralized management under a board structure, and (5) shared ownership by
contributors of capital. In virtually all economically important jurisdictions,
there is a basic statute that provides for the formation of firms with all of these
characteristics, at least as the default regime. This is to say that firms formed
under the statute will have these characteristics unless (if the statute permits)
those who form the firm make explicit provision for omitting one or more of
them. As this pattern suggests, these characteristics have strongly complemen-
tary qualities for many firms. Together, they make the corporation uniquely
attractive for organizing productive activity. But these characteristics also gener-
ate tensions and tradeoffs that lend a distinctively corporate character to the
agency problems that corporate law must address.
While our principal focus is on companies that share all five of these core
characteristics, firms that have only some but not all of these characteristics are
also commonplace. Sometimes these firms are formed under a jurisdiction’s basic
corporation statute, taking advantage of the statute’s flexibility to omit one or
more of the characteristics that are provided for simply as defaults. Other times
these firms are formed under special ‘close’ corporation statutes that, in addition,
provide mechanisms for restricting the transferability of shares—such as those
7
Compare Lucian A. Bebchuk and Mark J. Roe, A Theory of Path Dependence in Corporate
Ownership and Governance,52Stanford Law Review 127 (1999); William M. Bratton and Joseph
A. McCahery, Comparative Corporate Governance and the Theory of the Firm: The Case Against
Global Cross Reference,38Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 213 (1999); John C.
Coffee, The Future as History: The Prospects for Global Convergence in Corporate Governance
and its Significance,93Northwestern University Law Review 641 (1999); Ronald J. Gilson,
Globalizing Corporate Governance: Convergence of Form or Function,49American Journal of
Comparative Law 329 (2001); and Amir N. Licht, The Mother of All Path Dependencies: Toward a
Cross-Cultural Theory of Corporate Governance Systems,26Delaware Journal of Corporate
Law 147 (2001).
8
The views of the principal authors of this chapter are briefly set out in Henry Hansmann and
Reinier Kraakman, The End of History for Corporate Law,89Georgetown Law Journal 439
(2001).
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 5
What is Corporate Law? 5
governing the German Gesellschaft mit beschra¨nkter Haftung (GmbH), the
French Socie′te′ a` responsabilite′ limite′e (SARL), the British private corporation,
the Japanese close corporation, and the close corporation forms that are pro-
vided for in some U.S. jurisdictions. Most of the larger firms organized under
these statutes are full corporations in precisely the sense that we intend. But even
when a closely held firm drops a core feature of the corporate form (typically
the board of directors), it shares the remaining characteristics and problems
of this form. Likewise, our analysis extends to important aspects of legal
regimes addressed to the regulation of corporate groups, such as the German
Konzernrecht.
9
Much of what we say here also applies to firms that are governed by special
statutes—such as those for limited liability companies
10
or business trusts
11
—
that omit one or more of the core characteristics from their default regime.
While these statutes are not corporate law statutes,
12
our analysis offers insight
into the interpretation of these bodies of law, and we shall occasionally address
them explicitly.
1.2.1 Legal personality
As an economic entity, a firm fundamentally serves as a nexus of contracts: a
single contracting party that coordinates the activities of suppliers of inputs and
of consumers of products and services.
13
The first and most important contribu-
9
While group law is most developed in Germany, other jurisdictions have elements of group law
as well. See, e.g., Klaus J. Hopt (ed.), Groups of Companies in European Laws:Legal and
Economic Analyses on Multinational Enterprises (1982); Clive M. Schmitthoff and Frank
Wooldridge (eds.), Groups of Companies (1991). See also infra 4.1.2.
10
The American limited liability company statutes, which are of relatively recent origin, are not the
equivalent of the European close corporation statutes, such as the German GmbH statute or the
French SARL statute. Rather, the American limited liability company is a highly flexible hybrid of
corporate and partnership forms that does not impose either delegated management under a board
structure or transferable shares as the default regime. See, e.g., National Conference of Commission-
ers on Uniform State Laws, Uniform Limited Liability Company Act §§203, 405, 502, 503 (1995).
11
The business trust is a statutory form that has developed in the U.S. as an evolution of the basic
Anglo-American private trust. In its contemporary form—perhaps best illustrated by the business trust
statute found in the U.S. state of Delaware—the form is essentially an empty shell. It provides for what
we term below affirmative asset partitioning, as well as for limited liability. Other features of an
organization formed under the Act—including the governance structure and rights to earnings and
assets—are left to be specified (in the certificate of trust) by the firm’s organizers, with virtually no
restraints imposed on the choices that can be made. For further discussion and references, see
Hansmann and Mattei, supra note 5; Hansmann and Kraakman, supra note 2.
12
See infra 1.3.1.
13
The nexus of contracts image of the firm originates with Michael Jensen and William Meckling,
Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure,3Journal of
Financial Economics 305 (1976), building on Armen Alchian and Harold Demsetz, Production,
Information Costs, and Economic Organization,62American Economic Review 777 (1972). We
mean this description literally: a firm is, in fact, the common legal counterparty in numerous contracts
with suppliers, employees, and customers. We do not comment on why production is organized in this
fashion, nor do we join the controversy over whether relationships among the firm and its participants
can be described exhaustively in contractual terms. See, e.g., Robert Clark, Agency Costs versus
Fiduciary Duties, in John W. Pratt and Richard J. Zeckhauser (eds.), Principals and Agents:
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 6
6 What is a corporation?
tion of corporate law, as of other forms of organizational law, is to permit a firm
to serve this role by providing for the creation of a legal person—a contracting
party distinct from the various individuals who own or manage the firm, or are
suppliers or customers of the firm.
14
The core element of legal personality (as we use the term here) is what the civil
law refers to as ‘separate patrimony.’ This is the ability of the firm to own assets
that are distinct from the property of other persons, such as the firm’s investors,
and that the firm is free not only to use and sell but—most importantly—pledge
to creditors. Elsewhere we have termed this asset-pledging effect of legal person-
ality ‘affirmative asset partitioning’ to emphasize that it involves shielding the
assets of the entity—the corporation—from the creditors of the entity’s managers
and owners.
15
Where corporations are concerned, there are two relatively distinct rules of
law involved. The first is a priority rule that grants to creditors of the firm, as
security for the firm’s debts, a claim on the firm’s assets that is prior to the claims
of the personal creditors of the firm’s owners. This rule is shared by all modern
legal forms for enterprise organization, including partnerships. The consequence
of this priority rule is that a firm’s assets are automatically pledged as security for
all contractual liabilities entered into by the firm. Its obvious advantage is to
increase the credibility of the firm’s contractual commitments.
The second rule—a rule of ‘liquidation protection’—provides that the individ-
ual owners of the corporation (the shareholders) cannot withdraw their share of
firm assets at will, thus forcing partial or complete liquidation of the firm, nor
can the personal creditors of an individual owner foreclose on the owner’s share
of firm assets. This liquidation protection rule serves to protect the going concern
value of the firm against destruction either by individual shareholders or their
creditors. In contrast to the priority rule just mentioned, it is not found in some
other standard legal forms for enterprise organization, such as the partnership.
Legal entities, such as the business corporation, that are characterized by both
these rules—priority for business creditors and liquidation protection—can
therefore be thought of as having ‘strong form’ legal personality, as opposed to
the ‘weak form’ legal personality found in partnerships, which are characterized
only by the priority rule and not by liquidation protection.
The pattern of creditors’ rights created by strong form legal personality is, in
effect, the converse of that created by limited liability. It protects the assets of the
The Structure of Business 55 (1984). What matters for our purposes is that the firm organizes
production in large part by entering formal contracts with numerous other parties.
14
It is sometimes said that partnerships (or trusts, or various other forms) are not legal persons, in
contrast to corporations. Jurists who take that view have, of course, a conception of legal personality
that differs from ours. Our own view is that legal personality is most helpfully viewed in terms of the
rules of creditors’ rights we describe here. Those who are uncomfortable with this use of the term
‘legal personality’ can simply ignore our use of that term here, which is not important in itself and is
not meant to suggest anything broader than what we say, and focus instead on the specific rules of law
that we describe under that heading.
15
See Hansmann and Kraakman, supra note 2.
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 7
What is Corporate Law? 7
firm from the creditors of the firm’s owners, while limited liability protects the
assets of the firm’s owners from the claims of the firm’s creditors. Strong form
legal personality reinforces the stability and creditworthiness of the firm and,
when combined with limited liability, isolates the value of the firm from the
personal financial affairs of the firm’s owners sufficiently to permit the firm’s
shares to be freely traded.
The priority rule component of corporate legal personality requires special
legal doctrine to be effective. It could not feasibly be replicated, in the absence of
such doctrine, simply by contracting among a business’s owners and their
creditors because contracts among these parties cannot bind the individual
creditors of the firm’s owners.
16
The same is true of the liquidation protection
feature of corporate law so far as it binds the creditors of a firm’s owners. (The
owners could bind themselves not to liquidate the firm simply by contract, as
members of partnerships in fact often do.) This distinguishes legal personality
from the other four basic elements of the corporate form discussed here, which
could all in theory be crafted by contractual means even if the law did not
provide for a standard form of enterprise organization that embodies them.
17
1.2.2 Limited liability
The corporate form effectively imposes a default term in contracts between a
firm and its creditors whereby the creditors are limited to making claims against
the assets that are the property of the firm itself, and have no further claim
against the personal assets of the firm’s shareholders (or managers). This limita-
tion of owner liability distinguishes the corporate form from some other import-
ant forms of organization that have legal personality (as we define the latter
feature here), including in particular partnerships.
Historically, limited liability has not always been associated with the corpor-
ate form. Some important corporate jurisdictions long made unlimited share-
holder liability for corporate debts the governing rule.
18
Nevertheless, today
16
To establish the priority of business creditors by contract, a firm’s owners would have to contract
with its business creditors to include subordination provisions, with respect to business assets, in all
contracts between individual owners and individual creditors. Not only would such provisions be
cumbersome to draft and costly to monitor, but they would be subject to a high degree of moral
hazard—an individual owner could breach her promise to subordinate the claims of her personal
creditors on the firm’s assets with impunity, since this promise would be unenforceable against personal
creditors who were not party to the bargain. See Hansmann and Kraakman, supra note 2, 407–9.
17
See id. Authority doctrines, which determine when an agent has power to bind her principal to
contracts, and which form a component of the fourth characteristic (delegated management) of the
corporate form described here, arguably also require background rules of law, and hence constitute an
exception to this statement. See John Armour and Michael Whincop, The Proprietary Structure of
Corporate Law (Working Paper 2001).
18
Limited liability did not become a standard feature of the British law of joint stock companies
until the mid-nineteenth century, and in the American state of California shareholders bore unlimited
personal liability for corporation obligations until 1931. See Paul L. Davies, Gower and Davies’
Principles of Modern Company Law 40–46 (6th ed., 1997); Phillip Blumberg, Limited Liability
and Corporate Groups,11Journal of Corporate Law 573 (1986).
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 8
8 What is a corporation?
limited liability has become a nearly universal feature of the corporate form. This
evolution indicates strongly the value of limited liability as a contracting tool and
financing device.
Elsewhere we have described limited liability as ‘defensive asset partitioning’
to distinguish it from the ‘affirmative’ partitioning effects of legal personality.
19
While legal personality permits the business to own assets, and thus serves as a
kind of floating lien favoring business creditors over the individual creditors of
investors and managers, limited liability reserves shareholders’ individual assets
exclusively for their personal creditors. Thus, legal personality and limited
liability together set up a default regime whereby a shareholder’s personal assets
are pledged as security to his personal creditors, while corporation assets are
reserved for corporation creditors. In an enterprise of any substantial magnitude,
this allocation generally increases the value of both types of assets as security for
debt. It permits creditors of the corporation to have first claim on the corpor-
ation’s assets, which those creditors have a comparative advantage in evaluating
and monitoring. Conversely, it permits an individual’s personal creditors to have
first claim on personal assets, which those creditors are in a good position to
evaluate and monitor and which creditors of the corporation, conversely, are
not in a good position to check. As a consequence, legal personality and
limited liability together can reduce the overall cost of capital to the firm
and its owners.
A related aspect of asset partitioning is that limited liability permits firms to
isolate different lines of business for the purpose of obtaining credit. By separ-
ately incorporating, as subsidiaries, distinct ventures or lines of business, the
assets associated with each venture can conveniently be pledged as security just
to the creditors who deal with that venture. Those creditors are commonly well
positioned to assess and keep track of the value of those assets, but may have
little ability to monitor the corporation’s other ventures.
Finally, by virtue of limited liability, the formation of corporations and sub-
sidiary corporations can be used as a means of sharing the risks of transactions
with the parties with whom a firm contracts, in situations in which the latter
parties are in a better position to bear those risks. Thus, limited liability can play
a valuable contracting role even in situations where a corporation has a single
shareholder who does not require the corporate form to raise equity capital, as in
the case of the parent company of a wholly owned subsidiary.
20
Beyond this function of defensive asset partitioning, limited liability permits
flexibility in the allocation of risk and return between equityholders and debt-
holders, reduces transaction costs of collection in case of insolvency, and
19
See Hansmann and Kraakman, supra note 2. Note that the defensive asset partitioning estab-
lished by a rule of limited liability is less fundamental, in the sense that it can be achieved by contract,
without statutory fiat, at lower cost than can the affirmative asset partitioning established by the
doctrinal element of legal personality. Id.
20
See, e.g., Richard Posner, The Rights of Creditors of Affiliated Corporations,43University of
Chicago Law Review 499 (1976); Henry Hansmann and Reinier Kraakman, Toward Unlimited
Shareholder Liability for Corporate Torts, 100 Yale Law Journal 1879 (1991).
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 9
What is Corporate Law? 9
simplifies and substantially stabilizes the pricing of stock
21
—something we shall
say more about below in the discussion of transferability of shares.
Limited liability also plays an important function—but more subtle and less
often remarked—in facilitating delegated management, which is the fourth of
the core characteristics of the corporate form. In effect, by shifting downside
business risk from shareholders to creditors, limited liability enlists creditors as
monitors of the firm’s managers, a task which they may be in a better position to
perform than are the shareholders in a firm in which share ownership is widely
dispersed.
22
We should emphasize that when we refer to limited liability, we mean speci-
fically limited liability incontract—that is, limited liability to voluntary creditors
who have contractual claims on the corporation. The compelling reasons for
limited liability in contract generally do not extend to limited liability in tort—
that is, limited shareholder liability to persons who are involuntary creditors of
the corporation, such as third parties who have been injured as a consequence of
the corporation’s negligent behavior. Limited liability to involuntary creditors is
arguably not a necessary feature of the corporate form, nor even a socially
valuable one, as we discuss more thoroughly in Chapter 4.
1.2.3 Transferable shares
Fully transferable shares in ownership are yet another basic characteristic of the
business corporation that distinguishes the corporation from the partnership and
from various other standard-form legal entities as well. Transferability permits
the firm to conduct business uninterruptedly as the identity of its owners
changes, thus avoiding the complications of member withdrawal that are
common among, for example, partnerships, cooperatives, and mutuals. This in
turn enhances the liquidity of shareholders’ interests and makes it easier for
shareholders to construct and maintain diversified investment portfolios.
Fully transferable shares do not necessarily mean freely tradable shares. Even
if shares are transferable, they may not be tradable without restriction in public
markets, but rather just transferable among limited groups of individuals or with
the approval of the current shareholders or of the corporation. Free tradability
maximizes the liquidity of shareholdings and the ability of shareholders to
diversify their investments. It also gives the firm maximal flexibility in raising
capital. For these reasons, all jurisdictions provide for free tradability as the
default regime for at least one class of corporations (sometimes referred to as
‘open’ corporations). However, free tradability can also make it difficult to
21
See, e.g., Paul Halpern, Michael Trebilcock and Stuart Turnbull, An Economic Analysis of
Limited Liability in Corporation Law,30University of Toronto Law Journal 117 (1980);
Frank Easterbrook and Daniel Fischel, Limited Liability and the Corporation, 52 University of
Chicago Law Review 89 (1985); Susan E. Woodward, Limited Liability in the Theory of the Firm,
141 Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 601 (1985).
22
See Hansmann and Kraakman, supra note 2.
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 10
10 What is a corporation?
maintain negotiated control arrangements. Consequently, all jurisdictions also
provide mechanisms for restricting transferability. Sometimes this is done by
means of a separate statute, such as the special European statutes for close
corporations, while other jurisdictions simply provide for restraints on transfer-
ability as an option under a basic corporation statute.
Transferability of shares, as we have already suggested, is closely connected
both with the liquidation protection that is a feature of strong form legal
personality, and with limited liability. Absent either of these rules, the credit-
worthiness of the firm as a whole could change, perhaps fundamentally, as the
identity of its shareholders changed. Consequently, the value of shares would be
difficult for potential purchasers to judge. Perhaps more importantly, a seller of
shares could impose negative or positive externalities on his fellow shareholders
depending on the wealth of the person to whom he chose to sell. It is therefore
not surprising that strong form legal personality, limited liability, and transfer-
able shares tend to go together, and are all features of the standard corporate
form everywhere. This is in contrast to the conventional general partnership,
which lacks all of these features.
1.2.4 Delegated management with a board structure
Delegated management is an attribute of nearly all large firms with numerous
fractional owners. Delegation permits the centralization of management neces-
sary to coordinate productive activity. Equally important, delegation of decision-
making power to specific individuals notifies third parties as to who in the firm
has the authority to make binding agreements. The authority issue, in particular,
quickly becomes intractable in a firm in which numerous owners and managers
are not distinct, as in a large general partnership that fails to allocate authority
by agreement and to signal this allocation of authority clearly to third parties.
Organizational forms differ, however, in the way in which they delegate
management power and authority. The limited partnership and the common-
law private trust, for example, typically invest full control rights in a general
partner or trustee who cannot be displaced without cause. By contrast, corporate
law typically vests principal authority over corporate affairs in a board of
directors or similar committee organ that is periodically elected, exclusively or
primarily, by the firms’shareholders. More specifically, business corporations are
distinguished by a governance structure in which all but the most fundamental
decisions are put in the hands of a board of directors that has four basic
features.
23
First, the board is, at least as a formal matter, separate from the operational
managers of the corporation. The nature of this separation varies according to
23
This is not to say that other legal entities, such as partnerships, business trusts, or limited liability
companies, cannot have a board structure similar to that of a typical corporation; in fact, they often
do. But those forms, unlike the corporation form, do not presume a board of directors as a matter
of law.
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 11
What is Corporate Law? 11
whether the board has one or two tiers. In two-tier boards, top corporate officers
occupy the board’s second (subordinate) tier, but are generally absent from the
first (supervisory) tier, which is at least nominally independent from the firm’s
hired officers (i.e. from the firm’s senior managerial employees). In single-tier
boards, in contrast, hired officers may be members of, or even dominate, the
board itself. Regardless of the actual allocation of power between a firm’s
directors and officers, the legal distinction between them formally divides all
corporate decisions that do not require shareholder approval into those requir-
ing approval by the board of directors and those that can be made by the firm’s
hired officers on their own authority. This formal distinction between the board
and hired officers facilitates a separation between, on the one hand, initiation
and execution of business decisions, which is the province of hired officers, and
on the other hand the monitoring and ratification of decisions, and the hiring of
the officers themselves, which are the province of the board. That separation
serves as a useful check on the quality of decision-making by hired officers.
24
It
also performs the key function—noted earlier—of permitting third parties to rely
on a well-defined institution to formally bind the firm in its transactions with
outsiders.
Second, the board is formally distinct from the firm’s shareholders. This
separation economizes on the costs of decision-making by avoiding the need to
inform the firm’s ultimate owners and obtain their consent for all but the most
fundamental decisions regarding the firm. Beyond this, a separately-constituted
board can also provide a check on opportunistic behavior by controlling share-
holders—either toward their fellow shareholders or toward other parties who
deal with the firm, such as creditors or employees—by providing a convenient
target of personal liability for decisions made by the firm. Membership on the
board can likewise provide minority shareholders or other constituencies, such
as employees or creditors, with a means for obtaining credible access to infor-
mation or direct participation in firm decision-making. Also, by assigning desig-
nated individuals a specific role as decision-makers on behalf of the enterprise,
the corporate form enhances the probability that those individuals will respond
in a principled fashion to the interests of all corporate constituencies simply
through moral principles and social pressure, quite apart from formal legal or
electoral accountability.
Third, the board of a corporation is elected—at least in substantial part—by
the firm’s shareholders. The obvious utility of this approach is to help assure that
the board remains responsive to the interests of the firm’s owners, who bear the
costs and benefits of the firm’s decisions and whose interests, unlike those of
other corporate constituencies, are not strongly protected by contract. This
requirement of an elected board distinguishes the corporate form from other
legal forms, such as nonprofit corporations or business trusts, that permit or
24
See Eugene Fama and Michael Jensen, Agency Problems and Residual Claims,26Journal of
Law and Economics 327 (1983).
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 12
12 What is a corporation?
require a board structure, but do not require election of the board by the firm’s
(beneficial) owners.
Fourth, the board ordinarily has multiple members. This structure—as op-
posed, for example, to a structure concentrating authority in a single trustee, as
in many private trusts—facilitates mutual monitoring and checks idiosyncratic
decision-making. However, there are exceptions. For example, most close cor-
poration statutes, such as those governing Germany’s GmbH or France’s SARL,
permit business planners to dispense with a collective board in favor of a single
general director or one-person board—the evident reason being that, for a very
small corporation, most of the board’s legal functions, including its service as
shareholder representative and focus of liability, can be discharged effectively by
a single elected director who also serves as the firm’s principal manager.
1.2.5 Investor ownership
There are two key elements in the ownership of a firm, as we use the term
‘ownership’ here: the right to control the firm, and the right to receive the
firm’s net earnings. The law of business corporations is principally designed to
facilitate the organization of investor-owned firms—that is, firms in which both
elements of ownership are tied to investment of capital in the firm. More
specifically, in an investor-owned firm, both the right to participate in con-
trol—which generally involves voting in the election of directors and voting to
approve major transactions—and the right to receive the firm’s residual earnings,
or profits, are typically proportional to the amount of capital contributed to the
firm. Business corporation statutes universally provide for this allocation of
control and earnings as the default rule.
There are other forms of ownership that play an important role in contem-
poraryeconomies,andotherbodiesoforganizationallaw—includingotherbodies
of corporate law—that are specifically designed to facilitate the formation of
those other types of firms.
25
For example, cooperative corporation statutes—
which provide for all of the four features of the corporate form just described
except for transferable shares, and often permit the latter as an option as well—
allocate voting power and shares in profits proportionally to acts of patronage,
which may be the amount of inputs supplied to the firm (in the case of a producer
cooperative), or the amount of the firm’s products purchased from the firm (in
the case of a consumer cooperative). Indeed, business corporations are effect-
ively a special kind of producer cooperative, in which control and profits are tied
to supply of a particular type of input, namely capital. As a consequence,
business corporations could, in principle, be formed under a well-designed
general cooperative corporation statute. But the law provides, instead, a special
25
For a discussion of the varieties of forms of ownership found in contemporary economies
and their respective economic roles, and of the relationship between these forms and the different
bodies of organizational law that govern them, see Henry Hansmann, The Ownership of Enter-
prise (1996).
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 13
What is Corporate Law? 13
statutory form for corporations owned by investors of capital (‘capital coopera-
tives,’ as we might think of them).
26
This specialization follows from the dominant role that investor-owned firms
have come to play in contemporary economies, and the consequent advantages
of having a form that is specialized to the particular needs of such firms, and that
signals clearly to all interested parties the particular character of the firm with
which they are dealing. The dominance of investor ownership among large firms,
in turn, reflects several conspicuous efficiency advantages of that form. One is
that, among the various participants in the firm, investors are often the most
difficult to protect simply by contractual means.
27
Another is that investors of
capital have (or can be induced to have) peculiarly homogeneous interests among
themselves, hence minimizing the potential for costly conflict among those who
share governance of the firm.
28
Specialization to investor ownership is yet another respect in which the law of
business corporations differs from the law of partnership. The partnership form
typically does not presume that ownership is tied to contribution of capital, and
though it is often used in that fashion, it is also commonly used to assign
ownership of the firm in whole or in part to contributors of labor or of other
factors of production—as in the prototypical two-person partnership in which
one partner supplies labor and the other capital. As a consequence, the business
corporation is less flexible than the partnership in terms of assigning ownership.
To be sure, with sufficient special contracting and manipulation of the form,
ownership shares in a business corporation can be granted to contributors of
labor or other factors of production, or in proportion to consumption of the
firm’s services. Moreover, as the corporate form has evolved, it has achieved
greater flexibility in assigning ownership, either by permitting greater deviation
from the default rules in the basic corporate form (e.g., through restrictions on
share ownership or transfer), or by developing a separate and more adaptable
form for closely held corporations. Nevertheless, the default rules of corporate
law are generally designed for investor ownership, and deviation from this
pattern can be awkward. The complex arrangements for sharing rights to
earnings, assets, and control between entrepreneurs and investors in high-tech
start-up firms offer a familiar example.
29
Sometimes corporate law itself deviates from the assumption of investor
ownership to permit or require that persons other than investors of capital—
for example, creditors or employees—participate to some degree in either con-
trol or net earnings or both. Worker codetermination is a conspicuous example.
26
Cooperative corporation statutes, in turn, commonly prohibit the grant of ownership shares—
voting rights and rights to a share of profits—to persons who simply contribute capital to the firm,
thus preventing the formation of investor-owned firms under the cooperative corporation statutes.
27
See, e.g., Oliver Williamson, Corporate Governance,93Yale Law Journal 1197 (1984).
28
See Hansmann, supra note 25.
29
Stephen N. Kaplan and Per Stro¨mberg, Financial Contracting Theory Meets the Real World: An
Empirical Analysis of Venture Capital Contracts,70Review of Economic Studies 281 (2003).
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 14
14 What is a corporation?
The wisdom and means of providing for such non-investor participation remains
one of the basic controversies in corporate law. We shall of course address this
subject further in Chapter 3.
Most jurisdictions also have one or more corporate forms—such as the U.S.
nonprofit corporation, the civil law foundation and association, and the UK
company limited by guarantee—that provide for formation of nonprofit firms.
These are firms in which no person may participate simultaneously in both the
right to control and the right to residual earnings (which is to say, they have no
owners). These nonprofit corporations, however, like cooperative corporations,
will not be within the specific focus of our attention here. Thus, when we use the
term ‘corporation’ in this book, we refer only to the business corporation, and
not to other types of incorporated entities. When there is potential for ambiguity,
we will explicitly use the term ‘business corporation’ to make specific reference
to the investor-owned company that is our principal focus.
1.3 What Does Corporate Law Include?
All jurisdictions have a least one statute that establishes a basic corporate form
with the five characteristics described above. Nevertheless, corporate law as we
understand it here generally extends well beyond the bounds of this core statute.
1.3.1 Secondary and partial corporations forms
First, all major jurisdictions have multiple secondary or partial corporate law
statutes. Secondary statutes include separate statutes for special classes of firms
such as foreign firms or governmentally owned enterprise. Partial corporate law
statutes provide for separately defined statutory entities that have, or at least are
permitted to have, some but not all of the five core characteristics described
above. Examples include limited partnerships, limited liability companies, and
statutory business trusts. To the extent that these forms include the core charac-
teristics of the corporation, our discussion will help to illuminate their role and
structure.
We consider close companies—the German GmbH, the French SARL, the
Japanese close corporation, the American close corporation, and the British
private corporation—to exhibit all of the canonical features of the corporate
form. They differ from public companies chiefly because their shares, though
transferable at least in principle, do not trade freely in a public market. By
contrast, statutes that merely permit business planners to create firms with the
legal characteristics of business corporations, such as typical American limited
liability company statutes and business trust statutes, are not corporate law
statutes. Large scale enterprise, regardless of its statutory origins, tends to
exhibit most or all of the core characteristics of the corporation form. But a
body of statutory or decisional law belongs to corporate law only to the extent
Kraakman / The Anatomy of Corporate Law Final Proof 25.2.2004 8:38am page 15
What is Corporate Law? 15
that it provides for, or at least responds to, these characteristics. It does not
belong to the extent that it is merely an empty vessel within which planners may,
by contracting, create a contractually-devised corporate form. On the other
hand, the analysis offered in this book also offers insight into the interpretation
of those bodies of law where they are used to form entities that share the
characteristics of business corporations.
1.3.2 Additional sources of corporate law
There are bodies of law that, at least in some jurisdictions, are incorporated in
statutes or decisional law that are separate from basic corporate law, and from
the alternative forms just described, but that are nonetheless exclusively con-
cerned with particular core characteristics of the corporate form as we define
them here.
To begin, the well-known German law of groups, or Konzernrecht, qualifies
limited liability and limits the discretion of boards of directors in corporations
that are closely related through cross ownership, seeking to protect the creditors
and minority shareholders of corporations with controlling shareholders. Where
subsidiaries are organized under the open corporation statute (Aktiengesetz), the
rights of controlled companies are delimited by this statute itself, which provides
for the regulation of both contractually formalized group relationships and de
facto control relationships among corporations. Where subsidiaries are organ-
ized under the close corporation statute (GmbH-Gesetz), the parallel law of
corporate groups is judge-made rather than statutory. Either way, however,
Konzernrecht is clearly an integral part of German corporate law. (We describe
the German Konzernrecht in greater detail in Chapter 4.)
Similarly, the statutory rules in many jurisdictions that require employee
representation on a corporation’s board of directors—such as, conspicuously,
the German or Dutch law of codetermination—qualify as elements of corporate
law even though they occasionally originate outside the principal corporate law
statutes, because they impose a detailed structure of employee participation on
the boards of directors of large corporations. American securities law, which
applies to large corporations, importantly structures board representation by
establishing elaborate election procedures, regulating transferability of shares in
various contexts, and imposing detailed disclosure rules. Stock exchange rules,
which can regulate numerous aspects of the internal affairs of exchange-listed
firms, can also serve as an additional source of corporate law, as can other forms
of self-regulation, such as the UK’s City Code rules on takeovers and mergers.
30
These supplemental bodies of law are necessarily part of the overall structure
of corporate law, and we shall be concerned here with all of them.
30
We term such self-regulation a source of ‘law’ in part because it is commonly supported, directly
or indirectly, by law in the narrow sense. The self-regulatory authority of the American stock
exchanges, for example, is both reinforced and constrained by the U.S. Securities Exchange Act and
the administrative rules promulgated by the Securities and Exchange Commission under that Act.
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16 What does corporate law include?
1.3.3 Non-corporate law constraints
There are, of course, many constraints imposed on companies by bodies of law
designed to serve objectives that are largely unrelated to the core characteristics
of the corporate form, and therefore do not fall within the scope of corporate law
as we define it here.
Bankruptcy law, or ‘insolvency law,’ as it is termed in the UK, is an example. As
we have noted, a major contribution of the corporation as a legal form is the ability
to partition assets for purposes of pledging them as security to different groups of
creditors. Bankruptcy law plays an important role in enforcing the claims that
derive from this partitioning. Nevertheless, the problems of bankruptcy presented
by corporations are often shared by other types of legal entities, and the elements
of bankruptcy law that address those problems are not, in many jurisdictions,
confined to entities formed as business corporations.
31
Consequently, we do not
treat most aspects of bankruptcy law here as part of corporate law.
Similarly, although the types of firms that typically organize as corporations
present particular problems for tort liability—especially when it comes to the
liability of the corporation for the acts of corporate employees—these and other
problems addressed by tort law are often presented by other types of entities, and
we do not address them here directly. Much the same is true, moreover, for the
types of issues traditionally considered within the realm of contract law, criminal
law, and labor law. While, in each of those areas, firms organized as corporations
present, to some degree, particular problems, those problems are not so distinct-
ively connected to the core features of a corporation as to lead us to address them
here as part of what we consider basic corporate law.
There are, however, some exceptions. For example, the UK doctrine of ‘wrong-
ful trading’ in insolvency, while formally an aspect of bankruptcy law, focuses
specifically on the duties of corporate directors. The problems of labor contracting
presented by large firms are, in some jurisdictions, addressed by specific regulation
of the basic elements of the corporate form as we have described them here, such as
the composition of the firm’s board of directors. The extension of limited liability
beyond contract to tort, which has come to be considered a basic feature of the
corporate form nearly everywhere, is another exception. In cases such as these,
there is a blurring of the boundaries between corporate law and other fields of
law—bankruptcy, labor, or tort law—that must be addressed here.
1.4 What is the Goal of Corporate Law?
What is the goal of corporate law, as distinct from its immediate functions of
defining a form of enterprise and containing the conflicts among the participants
31
For example, the reorganization provisions under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code,
while most commonly invoked by companies, are not confined to such entities, but apply as well to
partnerships and even individuals.
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What is Corporate Law? 17
in this enterprise? As a normative matter, the overall objective of corporate
law—as of any branch of law—is presumably to serve the interests of society
as a whole. More particularly, the appropriate goal of corporate law is to
advance the aggregate welfare
32
of a firm’s shareholders, employees, suppliers,
and customers without undue sacrifice—and, if possible, with benefit—to third
parties such as local communities and beneficiaries of the natural environment.
This is what economists would characterize as the pursuit of overall social
efficiency.
It is sometimes said that the goals of corporate law should be narrower. In
particular, it is sometimes said that the appropriate role of corporate law is
simply to assure that the corporation serves the best interests of its shareholders
or, more specifically, to maximize financial returns to shareholders or, more
specifically still, to maximize the market price of corporate shares. Such claims
can be viewed in two ways.
First, these claims can be taken at face value, in which case they neither
describe corporate law as we see it, nor do they offer a normatively appealing
aspiration for that body of law. There would be little to recommend a body of
law that, for example, permits corporate shareholders to enrich themselves
through transactions that make creditors or employees worse off by $2 for
every $1 that the shareholders gain.
Second, such claims can be understood as saying, more modestly, that focusing
principally on the maximization of shareholder returns is, in general, the best
means by which corporate law can serve the broader goal of advancing overall
social welfare. In general, creditors, workers, and customers will consent to deal
with a corporation only if they expect to be better off themselves as a result.
Consequently, the corporation—and, in particular, its shareholders—has a direct
pecuniary interest in making sure that corporate transactions are beneficial, not
just to the shareholders, but to all parties who deal with the firm. We believe that
this second view is—and surely ought to be—the appropriate interpretation of
statements by legal scholars and economists asserting that shareholder value is
the proper object of corporate law.
Whether, in fact, the pursuit of shareholder value is generally an effective
means of advancing social welfare is an empirical question on which reasonable
minds can differ. While each of the authors of this book have individual views on
this claim, we do not take a strong position on it in the Chapters that follow.
Rather, we undertake the broader task of offering an analytic framework within
which this question can be explored and debated.
32
When we speak here of advancing or maximizing the ‘aggregate welfare’ of society we are using
a metaphor that is conceptually a bit loose. There is no coherent way to put a number on society’s
aggregate welfare, much less to maximize that number—and particularly so when many benefits are in
appreciable part non-pecuniary. What we are suggesting here might be put more precisely in the
language of welfare economics as pursuing Kaldor-Hicks efficiency within acceptable patterns of
distribution.
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18 What is the goal of corporate law?
To say that the pursuit of aggregate social welfare is the appropriate goal of
corporate law is not to say, of course, that the law always serves that goal.
Legislatures and courts are sometimes less attentive to overall social welfare than
to the particular interests of some influential constituency, such as corporate
managers, controlling shareholders, or organized workers. Moreover, corporate
law everywhere continues to bear the imprint of the historical path through
which it has evolved, and reflects as well various non-efficiency-oriented intel-
lectual and ideological currents that have sometimes influenced its formation.
The corporate law of all jurisdictions clearly shows, to a greater or lesser degree,
the weight of these various influences.
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What is Corporate Law? 19
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