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I Cereal Crops: Economics, Statistics and Uses Cereals Cereals are the fruits of cultivated grasses, members of the monocotyledonous family Gramineae. The principal cereal crops are wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice, maize, sorghum and the millets. Cereals have been important crops for thou- sands of years; indeed, the successful production, storage and use of cereals has contributed in no small measure to the development of modern civilization. the period 1960-1989 are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.1. Production The world production of wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice (paddy), maize, sorghum and millet was estimated at 1233 million tonnes (Mt) in 1969-1971, rising to 1652 Mt in 1981, and to 1784 Mt in 1987-1989.* The total world production of the eight major cereals in 1987-1989 would have been sufficient to provide approximately 350 kg of cereal grain per head per annum, or about 960 g per head per day, if shared equally among the entire world population. This is a slight reduction on the figure estimated for 1981, which was 370 kg of cereal Area The area occupied by the eight cereals averaged grain per head per annum, indicating that the 665 million ha over the 3-year period of increase in total world production is not quite 1969-1971, and increased to 719 M ha on average keeping pace with the increase in world population. in the period 1979-1981. There was a slight fall, The average human consumption of cereals is to an average of 691 M ha, in the period only about one half of these figures, as a variable 1987-1989. Between 1965 and 1989 the area proportion is used for other purposes, mainly under wheat, barley, maize, rice and sorghum animal feed, industrial processing, and seed, and has shown a small increase, whereas the area there is considerable wastage. Thus, in 1984-1986, under oats, rye and millet has decreased slightly. of a world total domestic supply of 1677 Mt of all The total area occupied by cereals in 1987-1989 cereals, 49% was used for human food, giving an was 5.3% of the entire land surface of the world. average consumption of 171 kg per head per The annual world area and production and the annum, 37% was used for animal feed, 10% for average world yield of the individual cereals over processing and other uses, and 4% for seed. World crops * Crop data for earlier years have been derived from Grain Crops and Grain Bulletin by permission of the Commonwealth Secretariat; those for later years form F.A.O. Production Year Books and F.A.O. Trade Year Books or F.A.O. Food Balance Sheets, and from H-GCA Cereal Statistics. 1 250 200 yl 2 01 C c { 150- G? 5 loo- 5 2 - - Area Wheat /-e-- Rice Maize paddy ! 30 25 m E 2 Y \ .c s o I5 z c; 5 Maize Rice, paddy - Yield - 0 -¡¯ /-e-¡¯ -Wheat Barley // 35-/ Sorghum 20-i:::s - 4 lo-x.fl. - fi Ml11et 0¡® I I I I I I CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 3 t/ha), corn meal (2.04 t/ha) and white wheat flour (1.72 t/ha) by the respective figures for energy content in kJ/g (15.7 for milled rice, 16.6 for corn meal, 16.1 for white wheat flour). As regards food protein yield, rice, producing 0.18 t/ha of protein (in milled rice), is second only to wheat, produc- ing 0.19 t/ha (in white flour), followed by oats, producing 0.15 t/ha (in oatmeal). Yield The proportion of the total harvested area contributed by each of the eight cereals is similar to, or greater than, the proportion of the total production, except for maize and rice (see Table 1.1). This is because the yields of wheat, barley, oats, rye and sorghum do not vary greatly among themselves (and that for millet is very low), whereas the yields of maize and paddy rice are about 1.7 times the average yield of all the other cereals (apart from millet). Taking all the cereals together, the average yield for the whole world increased progressively from 18.1 q/ha in Cultivation 1969-1971 to 22.5 q/ha in 1981, and to 25.8 yield of maize increased by 11.8 q/ha (from 24.7 maize (cf. p. 99), and that of rice (paddy) increased by 12.1 q/ha (from 22.6 q/ha in 1969 to 34'7 q/ha in 1989)y whereas that Of a11 Other cereals together increased by only 3.9 q/ha on average (from 13.8 to 17.7 q/ha). The percentage distribution of the world cereals area and produc- tion and the world average yields for each cereal over the period 1987-1989 are shown in Table 1.1 TABLE 1.1 World Cereal Area, Production and Yield for the Period 1987-1989* Wheat Wheat is grown throughc ! world, from although the crop is most successful between the South. In altitude, it ranges from sea level to 3050 m in Kenya and 4572 m in Tibet. It is adaptable to a range of environmental conditions from xerophytic to littoral. Wheat grows best on heavy loam and clay, although it makes a satisfactory crop on lighter land. The crop repays heavy nitrogenous manuring. Wheat flourishes in subtropical, warm tempe- rate and c001 temperate c1imates* An annua1 rainfall of 229-762 mm, falling more in spring than in summer, suits it best. The mean summer Cereal area production (q/hat) The seed is sown in late autumn (winter wheat) 29 or in spring (spring wheat). Winter wheat can be Wheat 32 Barley 11 10 22.6 grown in places, e.g. northwestern Europe, Oats 3 2 17.8 where excessive freezing of the soil does not occur. The grain germinates in the autumn and Rye 2 2 Rice (paddy) 21 27 Maize 19 25 34.5 grows slowly until the spring. Frost would affect Sorghum 7 3 14.0 the young plants adversely, but a covering of snow protects them and promotes tillering. In Millet 5 2 countries such as the Canadian prairies and the steppes of Russia that experience winters too severe for winter sowing, wheat is sown as early as possible in the spring, so that the crop may be harvested before the first frosts of autumn. The area of production of spring wheat is being extended progressively northwards in the northern hemisphere by the use of new varieties bred for their quick-ripening characteristics. dha in 1987-1989* Between 1969 and 1989Y the the borders of the arctic to near the equator, to 36*5 q/ha)Y largely through the use Of hybrid latitudes of 300 and 600 North and 270 and 400 Percentage Percentage Average of total of total yield temperature should be 13°C (56°F) or more. 23.3 :!:: 7.8 * Data derived from F.A.O. Production Year Book (1990). t N.B. 1 q/ha = 0.79 cwt/ac. As sources of carbohydrate related to land use, rice, producing 38.1 x lo6 kJ/ha, ranks first among cereal grains, followed by maize with 33.9 x lo6 kJ/ha and wheat with 27.7 x lo6 kJ/ha. These figures are obtained by multiplying the 1989 average world yield of milled rice (2.43 4 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS Times of sowing and harvesting of the wheat in Ireland an average yield of 79.7 q/ha was crop in the various growing countries are natur- obtained, and 76.5 q/ha in the Netherlands; yields ally dependent upon local climatic conditions; of 42-75 q/ha were general in other northwestern wheat is being harvested in some country in every European countries in the same year. However, month of the year. However, the storage facilities in more primitive agricultural communities, in most wheat-growing countries are adequate to and in countries with less favourable climatic permit the best part of a year¡¯s harvest being conditions, yields are still around 12 q/ha. The stored; thus, the British miller can buy wheat improvements in wheat yields since 1956/61 are from any exporting country at almost any time particularly striking in Europe (both Western and of the year. The times of harvest for the principal Eastern), China, and IndialPakistan (see Fig. 1.2). wheat-growing countries are shown in Table 1.2. Wheat yield also depends upon the type of wheat sown: winter wheat (autumn-sown), with TABLE 1.2 a longer growing period than spring wheat, normally produces a higher yield than spring- Country sown wheat (cf. p. 79). The yield of durum wheat (cf. p. 79), which is grown in drier areas, is lower than that of bread wheat. India February The present yield of wheat in the U.K. (71 China May Italy June-July France June- July qiha in 1991) is over three times the pre-war figure of 23 q/ha. In the U.S.A., yields have increased U.S.A. May-September Former Soviet Union July-September Canada July-September from 9 q/ha pre-war to 25 qlha in 1987. England August-September The capacity for cereal production continues to increase due to the use of higher-yielding Australia October-January Argentina November- January varieties, and by changes in husbandry. The ultimate aim of the grower is to obtain the maximum yield of ¡®millable¡¯ wheat, just as it is of the plant breeder, even when he directs Area, production, yield Between 1965 and 1989 the world wheat area his attention towards the breeding of varieties showed a small increase (215-227 M ha) while which are resistant to drought, frost and diseases wheat production doubled, from 261 to 537 Mt (Percival, 1921). per annum, reflecting the increase in world aver- Both the yield and the quality of the wheat age yield over the period, from 12 to 23.6 crop are affected by conditions of soil, climate q/ha. This increase has been due to the use of and farm management. The yield of flour obtain- more highly yielding varieties, the greater use of able from the wheat during milling is dependent fertilizers, and improved husbandry. upon the degree of maturation - the extent to The area under wheat, the production, and the which individual grains are filled out with endo- average yield in the principal wheat-producing sperm. Premature ripening, sometimes brought countries and regions of the world, for four on by high temperatures prevailing in the later selected periods (1956/61, 1969/71, 1979/81 and part of the season, produces shrivelled grain, 1986/88) are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.2. which is of high protein content because relatively In the period 1986188 the former Soviet Union more protein than starch is laid down in the and China each produced 18% of the world crop, endosperm during the early stages of ripening, Western Europe 15.3%, IndiaPakistan 12%, the whereas the reverse holds during the later stages. U.S.A. 11.2%, Eastern Europe 9.1%, Canada 5% The effect of treatment with nitrogenous ferti- and Turkey 4%. lizers depends on the time of application and the The yield varies considerably among producing availability of nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen taken countries and regions, and is related to the water up by the wheat plant early in growth results in supply and the intensity of cultivation. In 1990 increased tillering (see Ch. 2) which can result in Times of Wheat Harvest Harvest time CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 5 USSR W Europe USA China IndidPok E Europe Canada Turkey Australia Argentina Africa Wheat oreo million ha USSR W Europe USA China Indio/Pak E Europe Canada Turkey Australia Argentina Africa Wheat production million t Million tonnes USSR W Europe USA China lndia/Pak E Europe Canada Turkey 0 1956161 1969/71 m 1979/81 = 1986/88 Wheat yield q/ha Austra Lia Argentina Africa Quintals/ hectare FIG 1.2 Area, production and yield of wheat in the main producing countries and regions of the world in 1956-1961, 1969- 1971, 1979-1981 and 19861988. (Sources: Grain Crops (Commonwealth Secretariat); F.A.O.). 6 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS increased grain yield. If prolonged tillering occurs, the last ears formed may not ripen but produce small immature grains. Nitrogen taken up after heading is laid down as additional protein in the seed, with a consequent improvement in nutritive value and often baking quality also. Possible ways of making nitrogen available at a late stage of growth are the early application of slow-acting fertilizers or the late application of foliar sprays, e.g. urea, possibly by means of aircraft. Green Revolution This is an expression used to describe the rapid spread of high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice in many developing countries, particularly in Asia. The threat of a massive famine in these countries has been averted, at least in the short run, through the success of the Green Revolution. and rice, and of their use, are: higher, often doubled, yield of grain per unit of area, combined with a similar protein content (thus giving the possibility of a doubled yield of protein); a larger return of grain per unit of fertilizer applied and per man-hour of labour expended; higher yield of protein per unit of irrigation water; early maturation; less sensitivity to day length, giving greater flexibility in planting time and the 1980 in Sri Lanka. possibility of two or even three crops per year. The effect of the Green Revolution in India, for example, has been to increase the amount of wheat available to the total population from 23.4 kg per person in 1967 to 52.5 kg per person in 1984-1 986. The most rapid exploitation of the Green Revolution occurs in areas where the land is most productive, and where a high proportion of the land is already irrigated. Other regions are less well suited to benefit from the Green Revolution. Crop movements the baker, etc); ability, appearance, chemical composition. (average 19%) of the entire world wheat crop was exported from the producing country to other countries. Of the total exports of wheat, as These criteria of quality are dependent upon grain, in 1990, 33% was provided by European the variety of wheat grown and upon environment countries, 28% by the U.S.A., 18% by Canada, 12% by Australia, 6% by Argentina, 1% by the former Soviet Union, and 1% by Saudi Arabia. About nine-tenths of the wheat exports are in the form of unmilled grain, the remainder as flour. The major exporters of wheat flour in 1990 were France (23.5% of the total), Italy (17.8%), U.S.A. (12.9%), BelgiudLuxembourg (8.6%) and Germany FR (7.3%). American flour goes to a large number of countries, but mostly to Egypt (55% of total U.S. flour exports in 1989/90) and the Yemen. Much of the flour exported from Canada goes to Morocco and Cuba. France has big markets for flour in her former African territories. European imports accounted for 16% of the world movement of wheat in 1990. Other large importers of wheat in 1990 were the former Soviet Union (15%), China (13%), Japan (6%), Characteristics of the new varieties of wheat Egypt (6%), India/Bangladesh/Pakistan (¡®+yo), Iran (4%), Algeria (3%) and Korea (3%). Wheat flour is imported principally by Egypt, Libya, Syria, Cuba, Hong Kong, Cameroon and Yemen. These countries absorbed about 53% of the total trade in wheat flour in 1989/90. Imports of flour decrease sharply when a domestic flour- milling industry is established: this happened about 1960 in the Philippines, 1977 in Egypt, Utilization certain Gountries are shown in Table 1.3. Wheat quality ¡®Quality¡¯ in the general sense means ¡®suitability for some particular purpose¡¯; as applied to wheat, the criteria of quality are: ~ yield of end product (wheat, for the grower; flour, for the miller; bread or baked goods, for Data for the domestic utilization of wheat in 0 ease of processing; Over the period 1977/78 to 1990/91, 16-22% nature of the end product: uniforfity, palat- CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 7 TABLE 1.3 Domestic Consumption of Common Wheat in Certain Countries Total Percentage of total consumption usage Human Industrial Source Country Year (thousand t) food usage* Feed Seed of data World 1984186 507,691 66.5 6.7 20.2 6.6 2 EC 1989/90 58,080 53.8 4.6 36.6 5.0 1 Bel.1Lux. 1710 61.6 19.3 17.1 2.0 1 Denmark 1946 17.0 - 78.1 4.9 1 France 11,671 43.8 5.0 45.0 6.2 1 Germany, FR 10,118 41.8 5.9 49.3 3.0 1 Greece 1790 82.1 - 6.7 11.2 1 Ireland 710 42.3 12.7 43.0 2.0 1 Italy 10,310 80.0 0.6 12.6 6.8 1 Netherlands 1995 53.0 20.5 25.2 1.3 1 Portugal 1050 81.9 - 14.3 3.8 1 Spain 5413 67.1 1.1 24.9 6.9 1 U.K. 11,367 43.6 5.1 48.2 3.1 1 Australia 1984/86 3587 43.4 10.3 22.2 24.1 2 Canada 5618 37.0 - 41.0 22.0 2 Japan 6140 80.7 9.5 9.6 0.2 2 New Zealand 360 78.3 0.6 17.5 3.6 2 Turkey 19,020 50.6 24.4 16.3 8.7 2 U.S.A. 29,828 59.7 - 32.0 8.3 2 Former Soviet Union 96,204 40.1 10.7 39.2 10.0 2 domestic * Including waste. Sources: (1) EC Commission Documents, via HGCA Cereal Statistics (1991a); (2) F.A.O. Food Balance Sheets, 1990. - climate, soil and manurial or fertilizer treat- for example, bread, biscuits or cakes. He wants his ment. Within the limits of environment, quality flour to yield the maximum quantity of goods which is influenced by characteristics that can be varied meet rigid specifications, and therefore requires raw by breeding, and is further modified during materials of suitable and constant quality. harvesting, farm drying, transportation and The consumer requires palatability and good storage. appearance in the goods he purchases; they should have high nutritive value and be reasonably priced. Quality requirements Field damage to wheat Wheat passes through many hands between the field and the table: all those who handle it are The yield of wheat may be reduced, and its interested in the quality of the cereal, but in quality impaired, by the attack of various fungal different ways. and animal pests in the field. The grower requires good cropping and high Rusts yields. He is not concerned with quality (provided the wheat is ¡®fit for milling¡¯ or ¡®fit for feeding¡¯) unless he sells the grain under a grading system These are fungal diseases caused by species of associated with price differentials (cf. p. 88). the genus Puccinia. Yellow or Stripe Rust (P. The miller requires wheat of good milling striifomzis) and Brown or Leaf Rust (P. recondita quality - fit for storage, and capable of yielding tritici) sometimes occurring in the west of Britain, the maximum amount of flour suitable for a are particularly troublesome in the U.S.A., particular purpose. Canada and Argentina, and generally in countries with a hot climate. The baker requires flour suitable for making, 8 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS Rusts exist in many physiological races or forms, and from time to time new races arise to which hitherto resistant strains of cereals may be susceptible. Thatcher wheat (cf. p. 83) was resistant to Stem Rust when released, but proved a variety, bred for Canadian and U.S. HRs areas, which is resistant to Stem Rust 15B. Yellow Rust is spread by air currents, and attacks cereal plants in favourable weather in May and June in central and western Europe. Bright leaves; the patches increase in size and in number and eventually prevent photosynthesis occurring in the leaves, and the plant starves. In a bad attack, 80-90% of potential yield may be lost. Immunity to rust, a varietal character, was bred permitted in the U.K.), copper carbonate, or formaldehyde. Loose smut at flowering time. The disease is of little import- ance to the miller, but is of concern to the grower because infected plants fail to produce seed. It can be controlled by seed treatmentS with, for examp1e, hot water, hot forma1dehyde, Or the formation of quinones which are fungi-toxic. Mildew The fungus Eysiphe graminis infects the leaves of cereal plants during warm humid weather in ~~~il- to be susceptible to race 15B in 1950. Selkirk is The fungus ustilago nuda infects wheat plants orange-yellow patches of spots appear on the benomyl with thiram (Benlate T) which induce into wheat by Biffen, using Rivet (Triticum tul'gidum), Club (T. compactum) or Hungarian Red June, later producing greyish white patches of spores, or 'mildew'. The leaf surface becomes (T. aestivum) as the immune parent. The charac- ter for immunity was recessive, appearing in one- obfiterated by the fungus, reducing or prevenhg photosw~esis, and the plants become unable to quarter of the plants which, however, bred true for immunity in the F1 and subsequent genera- develop normal grains. Even a mild attack reduces the yield. Systemic fungicides are useful against tions. Yellow Rust can be controlled by treatment with benodonil (Calirus) and by a mixture of resistant varieties. mildew, which is best controlled, however, by the growing of resistant varieties. Britain include Atem and Triumph (barleys), and polyram and tridemorph (CaliGn) or by growing New varieties of cereals resistant to mildew in Some improvement in resistance to rust in wheat has been achieved by incorporating part Fenman and Torfrida (wheats). However, most of the varieties of spring and winter wheat recom- Of a chromosome derived from rye* However, mended by the National Institute of Agricultural doughs made from flour of such substitution lines B~~~~~ in ~~i~~i~ are moderately resistant to (cf. p. 211) (Martin and Stewart, 1991). the Welsh Plant Breeding Institute, Aberysnvyth. Common bunt, stinking smut Take-all; Eye-spot This is a disease caused by the fungus Tilletia Gaeumannomyces graminis and Pseudocercos- caries. The fungus enters the plant below ground, porella hqotrichoides, the fungi causing take-all and becomes systemic, and invades the ovaries. As eye-spot diseases, live in the soil, and may survive the grain grows, it becomes swollen and full of on straw or stubble for a year or more. Plants black spores. Bunted grains are lighter in density affected by these diseases have empty or half-filled than normal grains and can be separated from the ears, and prematurely ripened or shrivelled grains. latter at the cleaning stage by aspiration or Take-all may be controlled by suitable crop succes- flotation (see Ch. 5). Bunt imparts an unpleasant sion. Eye-spot on winter wheat is controllable by taint of rotten fish (due to trimethylamine) to the treatment with benomyl, carbendazim, or a flour and gives it an off-white colour . The disease formulation of thiophanate-methyl (Cercobin). is satisfactorily controlled by seed dressing Other fungal diseases of wheat are Leaf Spot, with organo-mercury compounds (not currently caused by Mycosphaerella graminicola (= Septoria may display an UIKkk'able degree of stickiness mildew. Mildew-resistant oats have been bred at CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 9 tritici), Glume Blotch (Leptosphaeria nodorum Thrips tritici) . A systemic fungicide recommended against Septoria on wheat is Tilt, a triazole. Flag Smut can be controlled by seed treatment and by the growing of resistant varieties. Eelworm = Septoria nodomm) and F1ag Smut (urocYstis The larvae oftiny insects ofthe genus Hap/&,.ips and of other genera in the order Thysanoptera (¡®fringe wing¡¯), known as thrips, frequently attack the developing inflorescence of wheat in western Europe, but generally complete their develop- ment and leave the plants before the grain matures. In cold, wet harvest years, however, the adult insects occasionally fail to escape from the plant, and become occluded in the crease (cf. p. does not affect milling or baking quality of the wheat, but insects remaining in the creaSe are fragmented during milling and contribute towards the insect fragment count of the milled flour (Kent, 1969). Wheat may be attacked by the ee1wormy the worms, which are of microscopic dimensions. Infected grains are known as ¡®ear cockle¡¯ (not to be confused with ¡®corn cockle¡¯, the seeds of the weed Agrostemma githago). Wheat bug Bugs of the species Aelia rostrata and Eurygaster integriceps attack the wheat plants and puncture the immature grains, introducing with their saliva a ProteolYtic enzyme which modifies the Protein, preventing the formation of a strong gluten (cf. P. 200). Flour milled from buggy wheat gives dough that CollaPseS and becomes runny if more than 5% of attacked grain is present. Steam treatment of the attacked wheat for a few seconds (BP NO. 523,116) is beneficial in inactivating the enzymes, which are localized near the exterior of the grain. The baking properties of flour milled from buggy wheat are improved by increasing the acidity of the dough, since the proteolytic enzyme in the bug saliva has an optimum pH of 8.5. Wheat bug damage is generally restricted to crops grown Harvesting in the former Soviet Union, the Mediterranean littoral, eastern Europe and the Near East. Dormanc y After the wheat appears to be ripe, it needs a Wheat blossom midge The damage caused by the midge Sitodiplosis further period of maturation before it is capable mosellana varies greatly with year and locality. of germination (cf. p. 36); during this period the The female midge lays eggs in the wheat floret. wheat is said to be ¡®dormant¡¯. Dormancy is a The feeding larvae use part of the plant juices valuable characteristic conferring a degree of for their development; in consequence, infested resistance to sprouting at harvest time. The factor grains become shrivelled. Secondary effects are appears to be related to enzymic activity; how- reduced germination capacity and seed weight, ever, not all varieties show a period of dormancy, increased alpha-amylase activity, and poorer and the factor appears to be linked genetically to baking quality of the flour. redness of bran colour. Anguina thtici, the grains becoming filled with 40: see ~i~. 1.3). ~~~~~k by thrips apparently Rustic Shoulder Knot moth The larvae of the Rustic Shoulder Knot moth (Apamea sordens) feed on the developing wheat grains in the field. The young larvae penetrate the grains at the brush end and hollow them out. The fully developed larva may attain a length of 28 mm. Secondary effects of heavy attack by A. sordens are loss of flour yield, discoloration and an increased micro-organism Count in the flour (due to infection of the exposed endosperm surfaces by fungi). Attack, in Britain, is more prevalent in Scotland and the north of England than in the south. 10 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS FiG 1.3 Female thrips insect partly buried in the ventral crease of a wheatgrain. (Scanning Electon micrograph by A. D. Evers, reproduced with permission of the copyright holder Leica Cambridge Ltd.) Harvesting by binder Combine harvesting Wheat can be safely harvested by binder at When harvested by combine harvester, a moisture contents up to 19%, stooked in the field, machine which both cuts the stems and threshes and stored in ricks, where it will dry with the the grain, the moisture content of the wheat minimum of deterioration. However, harvesting should not exceed 15% for in1mediate storage, or by binder is no longer practised in the U .K. 19% if the wheat can be dried promptly. Correct CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 11 mould development, but overheating damage may ensue if the grain is dried too rapidly at too high a temperature (cf. p. 114). The damage may not be obvious until the milled flour is baked. Heat damage to the protein of wheat may be detected by the Turbidity test, which estimates the content of soluble proteins (Harrison, et al., 1969; cf. p. 185). setting of the harvester to give efficient threshing coupled with minimum mechanical damage to the grain is important. Since 1943, when combine harvesters were first used in Britain, an increasing proportion of the wheat crop has been harvested by this means every year (cf. p. 87). The number of combines in use in the U.K. in 1979 was 55,000, but had fallen to 50,980 by 1989, notwith- standing a small increase in the area laid down to cereals: 3,862,000 ha in 1979, 3,903,280 in 1989. Cultivation Harvesting hazards Barley is grown in temperate climates mainly Cold weather at harvest time may result in as a spring crop and has geographic distribution imperfect ripening, or in delayed ripening. If rain generally similar to that of wheat. Barley grows follows ripening, fungal infection of the chaff, well on well-drained soils, which need not be so spreading to the seed, may occur. fertile as those required for wheat. Both winter barley (autumn sown) and spring barley are grown, a higher yield being obtained from the Sprouting in the ear winter barley. In the U.K., spring barley pre- The tendency to sprout, or germinate, in the dominated until recently - 93% of the total ear depends on varietal characteristics and on barley crop was spring sown in 1970 - but the atmospheric conditions. Hot dry weather hastens proportion of winter barley is increasing, and maturation; if followed by rain while the crop is reached 62% of the total barley crop in 1991. In still in the field, the conditions favour sprouting. that year, the average yield of winter barley in Wheat is less likely to sprout in a wet harvest if the U.K. was estimated at 59.6 q/ha, that of the season is cool. spring barley 47.9 q/ha; thus, winter barley Badly sprouted wheat is not of ¡®millable quality¡¯, provided 65.8% of the total crop (H-GCA, 1991b). but mildly sprouted wheat may be described as Barley may be attacked in the field by various ¡®millable¡¯ and yet have an undesirably high activity insect pests, such as wireworm, Hessian fly, frit of certain enzymes, particularly alpha-amylase fly and aphids, and by fungi such as Helmintho- (cf. pp. 67 and 199), because the damage may not sporium, smut (Ustilago), mildew (Eysiphe be visible. The (Hagberg) Falling Number test graminis hordei), leaf rust (Puccinia gruminis), for alpha-amylase activity is described on p. 184. leaf scald (Rhyncosporium secalzs). Leaf scald is Mycelium of fungi such as Aspergillus, Pen- particularly prevalent in wet years. icillium, Alternaria and Cladosporium is frequently present in and within the pericarp of sound Area, production, yield wheat. In wet harvesting conditions, growth of mycelium within the pericarp may be sufficiently The world area laid down to barley increased prolific to cause discoloration and spoilage of from 40 M ha in 1937-1940 to 76 M ha in 1989, the milled flour. Fungal-infected wheat is still with production increasing from 83 Mt (annual millable, although the flour quality will be inferior. average 1961-1966) to 171 Mt in 1991/92. In Some improvement of flour colour may result 1991/92, contributions to world production were: from repeated dry scouring of the wheat and, in the EC (12 countries) 29.8% (of which France the milling process, by increased draught on the 6.3%, Spain 5.4%, Germany FR 8.3%, the U.K. purifiers (cf. p. 156). 4.5%), former Soviet Union 25.2%, Canada 7.6%, Wheat harvested wet needs drying to prevent the U.S.A. 5.9%, and Eastern Europe 8.5%. Barley 12 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS The highest yields are obtained in intensively cultivated areas. In 1991, an average yield of 53 q/ha was obtained in the U.K., 60 q/ha in BelgiundLuxembourg, 61 q/ha in France, and 52 q/ha in Denmark and Germany FR. Yields were lower in New Zealand (44 q/ha in 1989), Canada (25 q/ha in 1990) and the U.S.A. (26 q/ha in 1990), while in India, Pakistan and the Middle East countries yields ranged between 6 and 23 q/ha in 1989. Crop movement The proportion of the world crop of barley that moved in world commerce rose from 5% in 1937-1940 to 12.6% in 1988. In 1988, the largest exporters were France (with 23% of the total exports), Canada (13%), U.K. (13%) and the U.S.A. (10%). European countries were the principal importers of barley until 1961, when Chinese imports of over 1 Mt matched those of the U.K. (0.97 Mt) and Germany FR (0.96 Mt). In 1989/90 the principal importers of barley were the former Soviet Union (4.3 Mt), Saudi Arabia (2.8 Mt), Japan (1.1 Mt), Libya (0.6 Mt) and China (0.5 Mt). Uti,ization The principal uses for barley are as feed for animals, particularly pigs, in the form of barley meal (see Ch. 15), for malting and brewing in the manufacture of beer, and for distilling in whisky manufacture (see Ch. 9). There is little use for barley as human food in Europe and North America, but it is widely used for this purpose in Asian countries. Even there, however, its use as human food is declining as preferred grains become more plentiful. Domestic usage of barley in recent years in certain countries is shown in Table 1.4. TABLE 1.4 Domestic Utilization of Barley domestic Total Percentage of total consumption usage Human Industrial Source Country Year (thousand t) food usage* Feed Seed of data World 1984186 173,420 5.3 15.0 73.1 6.6 2 EC 1989/90 37,904 0.3 17.1 77.8 4.8 1 Bel./Lux. 899 0.4 42.9 54.5 2.2 1 Denmark 3629 - 5.5 90.1 4.4 1 France 4387 0.4 6.5 85.8 7.3 1 Germany, FR 9285 0.4 25.6 71.2 2.8 1 Greece 774 - 6.5 87.8 5.7 1 Ireland 947 - 12.7 82.8 4.5 1 Italy 2497 0.4 10.0 86.0 3.6 1 Netherlands 818 0.6 37.3 61.4 0.7 1 Portugal 170 - 23.5 66.5 10.0 1 Spain 8388 - 7.4 84.8 7.8 1 U.K. 61 10 0.2 30.3 65.9 3.6 1 Australia 1984186 1027 0.6 31.6 53.9 13.8 2 Canada 7777 0.2 5.8 88.0 5.9 2 Japan 2442 5.9 38.2 55.4 0.4 2 New Zealand 436 0.5 48.2 41.7 9.6 2 U.S.A. 10,482 1.5 29.6 64.6 4.2 2 Morocco 2453 61.0 9.4 21.7 7.8 2 China 3104 61.6 28.9 6.0 3.5 2 India 1781 72.8 8.7 12.0 6.5 2 Ethiopia 1044 79.4 14.9 - 5.7 2 * Including waste. Sources: (1) EC Commission Documents, via H-GCA Cereal Statistics (1991a); (2) F.A.O. Food Balance Sheets, (1990). CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 13 Human consumption so well. In the U.K., oats are grown extensively Th f b I ti h ti d ( th h in Scotland and the north of England where e use o ar ey or uman 00 0 er t an" " " h" " " better-quallty crops are obtained than m t e for beer) IS relatively small m the developed th I 1990 b t 50°1 f th U K" Th " h U K f I d sou. n a ou 10 0 e ..crop was countnes. us,mt e .., romatota omes- , .' ( . th ) th " d" "I " . f 6 1 M . 1989/90 I b wmter oats sown m e autumn , e remam er tiC UtilZatiOn 0 .t m , on y a out, . t ,sprmg oa s . 12,000 t of barley products were used for human food. Data for human consumption of barley products (pearl barley, malt) for certain countries in 1984/86 are given in Table 1.5. Relatively high consumers are grouped into regions: the Far East (Korea DPR and Republic), the Middle East (Ethiopia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Yemen Arab Republic). In these countries much of the barley is consumed as pearled grain for soups, as flour for flat-type bread, and as ground grain to be cooked and eaten as porridge. However, the consumption of wheat products exceeds that of barley products in all the countries mentioned. There is no country in the world in which the diet is based exclusively, or even mainly, on milled barley products. TABLE 1.5 Human Consumption of Barley Products 1984/86 Average (kg/hd/yr) 5.1 3.1 1.2 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 68.3 19.0 17.6 14.4 14.4 11.5 9.9 9.9 8.2 7.3 6.6 6.3 6.1 5.5 Peru Finland Japan Bel/Lux U.S.A. Germany, FR Netherlands New Zealand Canada Australia Denmark France U.K. Italy Morocco Ethiopia Algeria Iran Afghanistan Iraq Libya Tunisia Bulgaria Yemen, Arab Republic Poland Norway Korea, DPR Korea, Rep. Area, production, yield The world area under oats was about 45 M ha in 1956/61 and since then steadily declined to a low of 22 M ha in 1988, i.e. by 51%, increasing slightly to 23.7 M ha in 1989. The decline affected most of the major producing countries, and particularly the U.S.A., which contributed only 12% of the total world area in 1989 as com- pared with 32% in 1946-1951. Other major contributors to the world area in 1989 were the former Soviet Union (48.5%), Canada (6.6%), Australia (4.8%) and Poland (3.6%). In the U .K., oats occupied a larger area than wheat until 1960; subsequently, the area sown to oats steadily decreased, and by 1991 was only 5.3% of that sown to wheat. The decline in production since 1956/61 has been only 27%, viz. from 59 to 42 M t annually, because of the steady increase in average yield. Production has declined more steeply in the U .S.A. than in the other major producing coun- tries on account of area restriction. Total world production in 1989 was 42.6 M t. The principal producing countries, with their contribution to the total, were the former Soviet Union 40%, U.S.A. 13%, Canada 8%, Poland 5.6%, Australia 4% and Germany FR 3.7%. Pre-war yields of 24-26 q/ha in the Netherlands had increased to 50 q/ha by 1991. The increase in yield over the same period in the U.K. has been from 20 to 48 q/ha, and in Belgium/ Luxembourg from 20 to 42 q/ha. Yields in Denmark and Germany FR in 1991 were 48 q/ha. In some countries, however, yields are much lower, e.g. 14 q/ha in Australia and Argentina in 1989. The average yield in the former Soviet Union remained almost constant at about 8.8 q/ha from 1937-1940 until 1965, but increased to 15.3 q/ha in 1978, and reached 16.6 q/ha in 1986 (14.8 q/ha in 1989). Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation, Food Balance Sheets 1984-86, Rome 1990. Oats Cultivation The oat crop is widely cultivated in temperate regions; it is more successful than wheat or barley in wet climates, although it does not stand cold 14 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS Crop movement The bu1k Of the Oat crop is consumed On the farm where it is produced. Only 4% of the total crop entered world commerce in 1988. Exports 1937-1940 to 1.67 Mt in 1988. Over this period, been the biggest exporters, contributing at least 75% of the total world exports between 1955 and 1966, but less since then (54% in 1988), with an increasing contribution coming from Sweden (13% in 1988) and France (8% in 1988). European countries were the biggest importers of oats in 1961-1962, and accounted for 85-95% of total imports. Germany FR, Netherlands and Switzerland were the individual countries taking the largest quantities. In 1988, the U.S.A. was the largest importer (52% of total imports), with Switzerland taking 7.5% of the total. The U.S.A. has changed from being an exporter in 1981 to a big importer in 1988. Exports were nearly eight times the size of imports in 1981 in the U.S.A., but by 1988 imports (o.82 Mt) were Over 1oo times as large as exports. the nutritional value of OatS for the human cholesterol (see Ch. 14). Utilization A small proportion of the oat crop is milled to provide products for the human diet: oatmeal for porridge and oatcake baking, rolled oats for porridge, oat flour for baby foods and for the manufacture of ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, and 'white groats' for making 'black puddings' -a popular dish in the Midlands of England. Most of the crop, however, is used for animal feeding, Of Oats have> however> doub1ed from 0'75 Mt in This change may reflect increased interest in Argentina> U'S*A*> Canada and Austra1ia have diet, particularly as regar& its effect on blood TABLE 1.6 Domestic Utilization of Oats Total Percentage of total consumption usage Human Industrial Source Country Year (thousand t) food usage* Feed Seed of data World 1984186 48,919 5.3 7.4 78.2 9.1 2 EC 1989190 4878 10.0 2.3 82.5 5.2 1 Bel./Lux. 147 4.1 - 92.5 3.4 1 Denmark 150 20.0 - 76.7 3.3 1 France 798 1.3 1.2 91.5 6.0 1 Germany, FR 2044 7.8 3.9 85.4 2.9 1 Greece 62 3.2 - 83.9 12.9 1 Ireland 106 14.2 - 81.1 4.7 1 Italy 37 1 - - 90.6 9.4 1 Netherlands , 80 31.2 2.5 65 .O 1.3 1 Portugal 100 - - 80.0 20.0 1 Spain 489 0.8 0.6 89.0 9.6 1 U.K. 531 44.1 3.2 48.4 4.3 1 Australia 1984186 1381 3.1 7.0 77.3 12.6 2 Brazil 15 1 88.0 2.7 - 9.3 2 Canada 2788 2.8 - 92.0 5.2 2 China 497 63.5 4.6 25.0 6.9 2 Finland 1124 2.2 1.2 87.7 8.9 2 Germany DR 646 20.9 3.7 71.5 3.9 2 Korea DPR 182 72.0 4.4 19.8 3.8 2 Poland 2640 2.3 5.3 82.5 9.9 2 Sweden 1173 2.5 6.0 83.2 8.3 2 U.S.A. , 7343 8.6 - 84.8 6.6 2 Former Soviet Union 20,808 2.1 14.1 72.3 11.5 2 domestic Includes waste. Sources: (1) EC Commission Documents, via H-GCA Cereal Statistics (1991a); (2) F.A.O. Food Balance Sheets (1990). CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 15 although increased mechanization on farms has grain of Scandinavian and eastern European reduced the quantity of oats required for feeding countries (see Ch. 8). horses. On good soil, rye is a less profitable crop than The domestic utilization of oats in various wheat, but on light acid soil it gives a more countries is shown in Table 1.6. satisfactory yield. The rye crop nevertheless In 1978, out of a total of 148,000 t used for benefits from manurial treatment. It is more human consumption and industrial purposes resistant than wheat to most pests and diseases in the U.K., milled oat products (flour, meal, (although it is more liable to attack by ergot: see groats, rolled oats and flakes) produced in the below), and can better withstand cold. Thus, rye U.K. mills amounted to only 46,000 t. However, tends to be grown on land just outside the belt domestic consumption of oatmeal and oat pro- which gives the most satisfactory return to the ducts is increasing in the U.K.: from 0.42 wheat crop, such as areas of northern and eastern oz/head/week in 1984 it has risen to 0.63 ozl Europe that have a temperate climate. head/week in 1988 (MAFF Household food Rye is occasionally infested by Mildew (Epsiph consumption and expenditure, 1989). graminis f.secale), Stalk Rust (Urocystis occulta), Stem Rust (Puccinia graminis) - which can be dangerous and Brown Rust (Puccinia dispersa). Types of rye resistant to Stem Rust and Brown Human consumption Data for the human consumption of milled oat Rust have been bred (Starzycki, 1976). products in certain countries, 1984-1986 average, Ergot and ergotism are shown in Table 1.7. In general, consumption of milled oat products is very small in comparison with consumption of milled Ergot is the name given to the sclerotia of wheat products. Thus, in the thirteen countries the fungus Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul., which listed in Table 1.7, average consumption figures infects many species of grasses and is particularly for oat products and wheat products were 3.3 and liable to infect rye in humid summers (see Fig. 80.2 kg/head/year, respectively, in 1984-1986. 1.4). Wheat, barley and oats are also attacked, This low level of consumption can be regarded as but comparatively rarely. an indication of the relatively minor importance Ergot has been associated with rye because the of milled oat products in the human diet. latter was generally grown on soils which were too poor to give a useful crop of other cereals but which provide suitable conditions for Claviceps. Rye grown on good land, from fresh seed, is probably no more liable than wheat or barley to Australia 2.8 Ireland 2.7 become ergotized. Canada 3.0 Korea, DPR Os4 Ergot is a toxic contaminant: when consumed in Denmark 5.1 Norway 2.5 Finland 5.2 Sweden 3.5 quantity it causes gangrenous ergotism, a disease Germany, DR 8.1 Former Soviet Union 1.6 which was known as ¡®Holy fire¡¯ or ¡®St Anthony¡¯s Iceland 3.0 U.K. 2-7 Fire¡¯ in the 11th to 16th centuries - although its connection with ergot was not then known. Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation, Food The fungus Claviceps infects the flower of the rye plant and invades the seed as it develops. Eventually the whole of the tissue of the seed is replaced by a dense mass of fungal mycelium, and the seed grows to a large size, protruding from the ear. The sclerotia of Claviceps, average length 14.6 mm and thickness 6.5 mm, are brittle when dry, dull greyish or purple-black in colour TABLE 1.7 Consumption of Milled Oat Products, 198446 Average (kglheadlyear) U.S.A. 2.6 Balance Sheets 1984-86, Rome, 1990. Rye Cultivs tion Rye (Secale cereale L.) is a bread grain, second only to wheat in importance, and the main bread 16 TECHNOLOGY FIG 1.4 Spikes of rye showing ergot sclerotia. (Photo by W. C. Moore. Reproduced from Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Bulletin. No. 129, Cereal diseases, with permission of the Controller of H.M.S.O.) on the outside, dull pinkish white within. They consist of a pseudo-parenchyma of closely-matted fungal hyphae. Alkaloids present in ergot sclerotia include ergotoxine and ergotamine, both of which have an active principal known as lysergic acid (LSD), produced when ergot ferments. This com- pound causes hallucinations, agitation and the other symptoms associated with ¡®St Anthony¡¯s Fire¡¯. Ergot tolerances in grain have been established in many countries. Wheat and rye are graded ¡®ergoty¡¯ if they contain 0.3% of ergot in the U.S.A. (cf. p. 86), 0.33% ergot in Canada. The EC Intervention quality standard 1989 sets a maximum of 0.05% of ergot in wheat and rye. In non-EC countries with a high rye bread consumption the maximum limit for ergot in rye is generally 0.2%. OF CEREALS The former Soviet Union in 1926 fixed 0.15% as the maximum harmless quantity of ergot in flour. Flour produced in Germany and in the U.S.A. sometimes contains 0.1% of ergot, and an objection has not been made to this concentration. There was a mild epidemic of ergotism in Manchester, England, in 1927 among Jewish immigrants from central Europe who lived on rye bread. This bread was made from flour reported to contain 0.1-0.3% of ergot. The safe limits of ergot in flour would appear to be about 0.05% (Amos, 1973). With a daily consumption of 400g of bread made from flour containing this concentration of ergot, the intake of ergot would be 0.14 g per day, well below that usually prescribed medicinally (to assist childbirth, by its effect on unstriped muscle of the pregnant uterus), but, of course, continued over a long period of time. Area, production, yield The world area under rye has fallen steadily from 42.5 million ha per annum during the period 1937-1940 to 16 million ha in 1989. The decline in area has been greatest in the former Soviet Union, where the place of rye and oats has been taken by wheat and barley. Over this period, the former Soviet Union has accounted for 43-67% of the total world rye area, the only other major producing country being Poland (10-22% of the world area). Decline of 62% of the world rye area between 1937-1940 and 1989 is matched by world produc- tion decline of 17.5% (from 40 to 33 million t). During the period 1981 to 1986 the former Soviet Union¡¯s share of the world production averaged 44.5%, that of Poland 24.5%, and that of Germany (FR and DR) 12.4%, but in the period 1987-1989 the Soviet Union¡¯s share increased to an average of 54.6% of the total, while that of Poland decreased to 18.4% and that of Germany (FR and DR) to 11.1%. In the U.K., rye is grown mostly in East Anglia and Yorkshire as a winter crop. The total area in the U.K. was about 7280 ha in 1989, and the national production about 0.2% of that of wheat. CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 17 In the U.S.A., rye is grown chiefly in the upper decreased, so that by 1988, 54% of the total was North Central States, principally in North Dakota, used for human consumption and only 41% for where emigrants from rye-growing countries of animal feed. In Eastern Germany, production of eastern Europe have settled. In 1989 the area of rye exceeded that of wheat until 1965/66, but the U.S. rye crop (0.19 million ha) was 0.75% of since 1966 production of wheat has greatly the wheat area. The U.S. rye crop was 1.0% of exceeded that of rye. In 1989, Germany DR the world rye crop in 1989. produced 4.2 million t of wheat but only 2.0 Yields reached 54.8 q/ha in Switzerland in million t of rye. Outside Europe, rye is used 1984, and 50-52 q/ha in 1988/89, and yields mainly for animal feed (cf Ch 15). A small amount ranged 36-50 q/ha in other western European is used for distilling (cf. p. 230). The domestic countries practising intensive cultivation: Austria, utilization of rye in various countries is shown in BelgiudLuxembourg, Denmark, Germany FR, Table 1.8. Netherlands, Sweden and the U.K. In the two principal producing countries, however, yields Human consumption were only 26.1 q/ha in Poland and 17/6 qlha in the former Soviet Union in 1989. In some countries, notably those of eastern Europe and Scandinavia, rye forms a significant part of the diet. Data for human consumption of milled rye products, average 1984-1986, in Crop movement Some 24% of the world¡¯s total rye crop moves those countries in which average consumption in international commerce. The former Soviet exceeded 2 kg/head/year are given in Table 1.9. Union was formerly the biggest exporter, her Triticale share of the total exports steadily increasing to 62% in 1962. By 1970, however, her share of exports had fallen below 30%, and by 1977 she Area, production, vie,d had become an importer of rye. In 1988,2j% of the total exports were supplied by Denmark, 22% Triticale (Triticosecale) was first grown com- by Germany FR, and 17% by Canada. In 1988, mercially in the U.S.A. in 1970. Rosner, one of the major importer was Japan, with 33% of the the best know varieties, is a cross between durum total, followed by Germany FR with 15%. Korea wheat and rye. The planted area of triticale in Republic took 7%, and European countries - the U.S.A. in 1971 was about 80,000 ha. An Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Netherlands, octaploid triticale (a bread wheatlrye hybrid) was Norway, the U.K. -each took 3-6yo of the total. reportedly grown on 26,000 ha in China in 1977. By 1989, the world area under triticale had increased to 1.6 million ha, of which China and Poland contributed 37.5% each, France 8.8% and Utilization Rye is used both for making bread and as Australia 6.8%. animal feed. Rye bread, although nutritious and, World production of triticale steadily increased to some people, palatable, is not comparable with from 1.2 million t in 1982 to 3.1 million t in 1987, wheaten bread as regards crumb quality and bold and to 4.2 million tin 1989. Poland¡¯s contribution appearance of the loaf; as living standard rise, the to the total world production has dramatically consumption of rye bread falls while that of increased from 3% in 1985 to 47% in 1988 and wheaten bread rises. The production of rye in 1989. In 1989, China contributed 23.6% of the exceeded that of wheat in Germany FR from 1939 total world production, France 13.9%, Spain and until 1957; thereafter, production declined, and Australia 4% each. Average world yield of triticale between 1958 and 1978 a larger amount of rye matched that of rye (20 q/ha) in 1984, but has has been used for animal feed than for human subsequently exceeded it: triticale 25 q/ha, rye food. Since 1979, however, usage for feed has 21 qlha in 1987: triticale 26.5 q/ha, rye 20.6 18 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS TABLE 1.8 Domestic Utilization of Rye Total Percentage of total consumption usage Human Industrial Source Country Year (thousand t) food usage* Feed Seed of data World 1984/86 33,072 33.4 14.3 43.9 0.4 2 EC 1989/90 2603 45.4 3.4 45.2 6.0 1 Bel./Lux. 33 39.4 - 54.5 6.1 1 Denmark 260 38.5 - 53.8 7.7 1 France 212 13.7 - 84.9 1.4 1 Germany, FR 1479 58.2 5.7 32.3 3.8 1 Greece 18 27.8 - 55.5 16.7 1 1 Ireland Italy 27 7.4 - 85.2 7.4 1 Netherlands 69 79.7 - 17.4 2.9 1 Portugal 95 - 57.9 42.1 1 Spain 36 1 23.5 0.8 67.9 7.8 1 U.K. 50 62.0 - 36.0 2.0 1 Austria 1984/86 299 54.5 3.0 38.1 4.3 2 Canada 280 4.6 17.9 67.5 10.0 2 Sweden 185 68.4 4.8 22.0 4.8 2 U.S.A. 556 15.5 9.3 54.9 20.3 2 China 1100 87.3 4.9 2.0 5.7 2 Germany DR 2575 52.1 5.5 38.9 3.6 2 2 Japan Turkey 350 66.0 10.3 12.8 10.9 2 Czechoslovakia 647 61.7 3.6 32.4 2.3 2 Poland 8111 29.8 7.6 54.8 7.8 2 Soviet Union 14,898 28.3 23.7 38.0 10.0 2 domestic - - - - - - 292 - - 100.0 - * Includes waste. Sources: (1) EC Commission Documents, via H.G.C.A. Cereal Statistics (1991a); (2) F.A.O. Food Balance Sheets (1990). TABLE 1.9 Human Consumption of Rye Products in Certain Countries, 1984-86 Average (kglheadlyear) Korea, DPR 3.4 Finland 21.2 Portugal 4.1 Turkey 4.7 Germany FR 14.4 Sweden 15.3 Albania 2.5 Hungary 3.4 Switzerland 2.6 Austria 21.6 Iceland 5.6 Yugoslavia 2.8 Czechoslovakia 25.7 Norway 8.7 Former Soviet Union 15.2 Denmark 20.2 Poland 64.9 Korea, Rep. 2.6 Germany DR 47.5 Spain 2.0 Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation. F.A.O. Food Balance Sheets 1984-86, Rome, 1990. q/ha in 1989. Average yields of triticale (q/ha) in 1989 were: 52 in Germany FR, 42 in France and Switzerland, 33 in Poland, 24-25 in Italy, Portugal and Spain, 15-17 in Australia, China and Hungary. Crop movement Utilization Exports of triticale in 1988 amounted to only 1715 tonnes (0.05% of the world crop), the a feed crop. principal exporters being Belgium/Luxembourg (49.8% of the total), France (29.4%), Germany FR (7.7%) and Spain (9.7%). The main use for triticale will probably be as CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 19 trast, the rice grown in the major producing countries, amounting to 90% of the world crop, is managed entirely without mechanization. Cultivation The rice crop (Oyza sativa) is grown in the Area, production, yield tropics where rain and sunshine are abundant, and in temperate regions. 0. sativa indica is The world production of rice is commensurate confined to the tropics, while 0. sativa japonica with that of wheat. In 1958159 both crops yielded is grown mainly in temperate regions. Although about 250 million tonnes worldwide; since 1961 typically a cereal of the swamp, rice can be grown the world production of paddy rice has been either on dry land or under water. The common 82-108% of that of wheat. This production is practice of flooding the paddy fields has been achieved on an area equivalent to 60-65% of that adopted as a means of irrigation and also as a of wheat, because the yield of rice is so much the means of controlling weeds. greater (paddy rice 34.7 qlha, wheat 23.6 qlha, The Malayan word ¡®padi¡¯ means ¡®rice on the 1989 world averages). World production of rice straw¡¯, but the anglicized form of the word, has shown a steady increase from 1960 to 1989: ¡®paddy¡¯, refers both to the water-covered fields 30% increase in the 1960s, 30% in the 1970s, 27% in which rice is grown and also to the grain as in the 1980s. Rice is the basic food for more than harvested, viz. with attached husk or hull. half of the world¡¯s population, and provides up In much of Asia and Africa, rice is grown on to 80% of the food intake in some countries. hilly land without irrigation. In some Asian In 1989 the area under rice was 54 million ha countries where irrigation is practised, two crops in IndiaIPakistadBangladesh and 32 million ha of rice are grown per year. The main crop is in China. Other major producers contributing to grown in the wet season, the subsidiary crop with the total world area of 146 million ha in 1989 irrigation in the dry season. Yields are lower in were Indonesia (10.2 Mha), Thailand (10.2 Mha), the main crop than in the subsidiary crop because Vietnam (5.8 Mha), Brazil (5.3 Mha), Burma of the lack of sunshine. (4.7Mha), Philippines (3.4 Mha) and Japan (2.1 There are varieties of rice adapted to a wide Mha). range of environmental conditions: it can be China is by far the biggest producer of rice. grown in hot, wet climates, but equally in the The estimated production in 1990/91 (including foothills of the Alps, up to 1220 m in the Andes that of Taiwan Province) was 182 million tonnes of Peru, 1830 m in the Philippines, and 3050 m of rough (paddy) rice, out of an estimated world in India. This wide adaptability of the rice plant total production of 5 11 million tonnes. Other is the explanation of its importance as a food crop. major producers of rice in 1989 (with estimated The U.S.A. produces three types of rice: long- production in million tonnes of paddy) were India grain, medium-grain, and short-grain. The long- 109, Indonesia 44, Bangladesh 26, Thailand 20, grain rice, comprising about 60% of the total rice Vietnam 17, Burma (Myanmar) 14, Korea (DPR crop, is grown in Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Republic) 14, Japan 13 and Brazil 10. Mississippi and Missouri, while the medium- The yield of rice varies widely according to the grain (about 30% of the total crop) and short- method of cultivation. In general it is high in grain (about 10%) are grown in California (Webb, subtropical regions where the variety japonica is 1985). In these States the requirements of the rice grown; contributory factors are the intensive crop are - level land with an impervious soil and cultivation practised in some areas in these abundant water for irrigation. Rice is a highly regions, and the fact that japonica rice gives mechanized crop in the U.S.A., where planting, increased yield when heavily fertilized. The fertilizer treatment and weeding are all carried highest yields have been obtained in Australia, out on a large scale by means of aircraft. The where the estimated yield in 1989 was 79 qlha, crop is harvested by combine-harvesters. In con- most of the crop being grown in New South Rice 20 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS TABLE 1.10 Domestic Utilization of Rice* Total Percentage of total consumption usage Human Industrial domestic Country Year (thousand t) food usaget Feed Seed World 1984186 365,112 88.0 7.0 1.8 3.2 EC Bel ./Lux. 103 63.1 24.3 12.6 - Denmark 16 93.3 - 6.7 - France 330 73.3 0.6 25.5 0.6 Germany, FR 165 89.7 7.9 2.4 - Greece 67 89.5 7.5 - 3.0 Ireland 5 100.0 - - - Italy 35 1 82.3 4.0 4.6 9.1 Netherlands 63 100.0 - - - - 1.5 Portugal 197 98.5 - Spain 268 96.6 0.4 - 3.0 U.K. 238 72.7 18.5 8.8 - Australia 99 72.8 13.1 - 14.1 Bangladesh 18,505 88.5 8.0 - 3.5 Brazil 7768 84.3 11.5 - 4.2 Canada 132 96.2 3.8 China (and Taiwan) 135,289 89.1 6.0 2.3 2.6 EWPt 1769 88.2 5.9 - 5.9 India 70,187 88.2 5.4 0.4 6.0 Indonesia 29,019 88.8 8.0 2.1 1.1 Japan 10,678 90.9 7.6 0.6 0.9 Former Soviet Union 2558 93.1 2.5 - 4.4 Thailand 11,372 77.1 12.1 6.7 4.1 U.S.A. 2087 52.0 43.6 - 4.4 Vietnam 12,290 86.5 8.9 2.1 2.5 - - * Dehulled, milled and broken rice as milled rice equivalent. t Including waste. Source: F.A.O. Food Balance Sheets, 1984-86, Rome, 1990. Wales. Paddy yields of over 70 qlha were obtained in Korea DPR in 1989; of over 60 q/ha in Japan, Korea Rep., U.S.A., Italy, Egypt and Puerto Rico; of 55.5 qlha in China, and of over 50 qlha in Spain, France, Greece, Peru and Uruguay. In 1989 the average yield was only 25-27 qlha in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Crop movements The total world exports of paddy rice in 1989 were only 11.5 million tonnes, or 2.3% of the total world production of 506.9 million tonnes. Thailand was the principal supplier (52% of the total exports in 1988), followed by the United States (26%), Vietnam (12%) and Pakistan (7%). Italy and Spain were large importers of paddy rice in 1988, taking 45% of the total imports. Other major importers were China, India, Iraq, Iran and Malaysia. Utilization Rice is used mainly for human food. In Japan rice is used to brew a type of beer called sake (cf. p. 228). Data for the domestic utilization of rice according to purpose are shown in Table 1.10. Human consumption Figures for the consumption of rice in certain countries are shown in Table 1.11. Consumption of rice exceeds 100 kgheadyear in most Asian countries and also in some African countries CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 21 TABLE 1.11 Human Consumption of Brown or Milled Rice in Certain Countries (kglheadlyear, 1984-86 Average) Bangladesh 162 Indonesia 155 Mauritius 84 Brunei 95 Japan 80 Nepal 109 Burma 238 Kampuchea 204 Philippines 115 China 116 Korea DPR 164 Sierra Leone 114 Gambia 84 Korea Rep. 148 Sri Lanka 126 Guinea-Bissau 116 Laos 216 Suriname 112 Guyana 181 Liberia 130 Thailand 171 Hong Kong 71 Madagascar 150 Vietnam 178 India 81 Malaysia 118 Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation, Food Balance Sheets 1984-86, Rome, 1990. - Liberia, Madagascar, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra China for 16%, Brazil for looh, Mexico for 5%, Leone - and some South American countries - and India for 4.5%. Nevertheless, the U.S.A. Guyana, Suriname. Consumption of milled rice produced 40% of the world's total maize tonnage does not exceed 7 kglheadlyear in European in 1989 (and 43% in 1990191) because of the use countries (except Portugal: 19 kg/head/year, of high-yielding strains of hybrid maize (cf. 1984-1986 average); it was 4.5 kg/head/year in p. 99). the U.S.A. in 1984-1986. Total world production of maize in 1990/91 Rice provided approximately 8000 kJ of energy was 471 million tonnes, the principal producing per day per cap. in Burma in 1984-1986, more countries (with their share of the total) being the than 6000 kJ/daylcap. in Kampuchea, Korea U.S.A. (43.2%), China (17.8%), Brazil (5.2%), DPR, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam, and more eastern Europe (5.2%), EC countries (4.9%), the than 4000 kJ/day/cap. in Liberia, Madagascar, former Soviet Union (3 .O%), Mexico (2.3%) and Bangladesh, Indonesia, Korea Rep., Malaysia, South Africa (1.8%). China, Guyana, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Yields in the U.S.A. increased from 14 q/ha in Guinea-Bissau. 1934-1938 to 69 q/ha in 1981 and to 75.6 q/ha in 1987, but even higher yields have been recorded elsewhere: 100 qlha in New Zealand in 1989; 96 qlha in Austria, 1989; 93 qlha in Greece in 1984 (87 q/ha in 1990); 92 q/ha in Switzerland in 1988 (76 q/ha in 1989); 75 q/ha in Germany FR and 80 qlha in Italy in 1989. Other countries with yields in excess of 50 q/ha in 1989 were Belgium, Canada, France, Korea DPR and Egypt. Elsewhere, yields may be much lower: 10 q/ha in India in 1987 (13 qlha in 1989); 12 q/ha in the Philippines (1989); 17 q/ha in Mexico (1989); 21 q/ha in Brazil (1989). crop movements The proportion of the total world crop of maize that entered into world trade was 16.8% in 1988. In 1937-1940 the U.S.A. exported about 1.5 million tonnes of maize per annum, but by 1980 the figure had increased gradually to 63 Mtlan, Maize Cultivation Maize (corn, in the U.S.A.; Zea mays L.) is cultivated in regions that experience periods of at least 90 days of frost-free conditions; the highest yields are obtained when the crop matures in 130- 140 days. The crop needs temperatures of lO"45"C and rainfall of 25-500 cdan.; it can be grown in the tropics and the temperate regions (although mostly between the latitudes of 30" and 47"), and at altitudes from sea level to 12,000 ft, suitable types being available for these varying conditions. Area, production, yield In 1989, out of a total world area of 129 million ha sown to maize, the U.S.A. accounted for 20%, 22 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS falling back to 27 Mt in 1986, and rising again problems with the Fusarium mycotoxins mostly to 60 Mt in 1989/90. concern animals and animal feed (Romer, 1984). The other principal exporting countries in 1989/90 were China (3.2 Mt), Argentina (3.0 Utilization Mt) and South Africa (2.9 Mt), contributing to the world total of 70 Mt of exports. Maize is used for animal feeding, for human In 1989190 the former Soviet Union was the consumption, and for the manufacture of starch, biggest importer of maize (16.9 Mt), followed syrup and sugar, industrial spirit and whisky (cf. by Japan (16.1 Mt), Korea Rep. (6.2 Mt) and pp. 314 and 230). The products of milling (cf. Taiwan (5.3 Mt). Imports of maize to Western p. 136) include maize grits, meal, flour (and Europe from the U.S.A. were 15.3 Mt in derived products), protein (gluten feed) and corn 1981/82, but declined to 6.6 Mt in 1984/85, partly steep liquor. The ready-to-eat breakfast cereal on account of the imposition of an import levy by ¡®corn flakes¡¯ is made from maize grits (cf. p. 248). the European Community, and the EC¡¯s policy Data for the total domestic utilization of maize of encouraging the production of barley and feed in certain countries and for its use for human wheat in substitution for imported grain. Imports food, industrial processing (¡®wet milling¡¯) and of maize by the U.K. (from all sources) had been other uses, and for seed are shown in Table 1.12. about 3 Mt in 1980, but fell gradually to 1.3 Mt The U.S.A. is by far the largest domestic user in 1988. Between 1980/81 and 1984/85 imports ofmaize. In 1984/86,138.2 Mt wereuseddomestic- of maize from the U.S.A. to Eastern Europe fell ally, of which 79% was for animal feed and 0.3% from 6.7 to 0.7 Mt, whereas those to the former for seed. In 1984,26.9 Mt of maize were processed Soviet Union increased from 4.9 to 14.9 Mt in the U.S.A., of which 60.8% was used for wet (Leath and Hill, 1987). processed products, 22.6% for alcohol and distilled spirits, 13.4% for dry milled products (corn meal, flour, hominy grits, brewers¡¯ grits, flakes) and 3.2% for making breakfast cereals (USDA, via Field damage to maize Abnormally dry conditions, such as the 1983 Leath and Hill, 1987). Products of wet milling drought in the U.S.A., are conducive to the include starch, sugars and corn oil. growth of the fungus Aspergillus flavus and the production of the mycotoxin aflatoxin. In the Human consumption U.S.A. maize grain containing more than 20 pg/ kg of aflatoxin may not be shipped across State Maize formed the staple diet of the early native boundaries. American civilizations - Aztecs, Mayas, Incas The distribution of ailatoxin within the grain - and it often forms the staple diet in present- is such that, on dry milling, the aflatoxin is day Latin American countries and in parts of concentrated 2-3- fold in the milling by-products Africa. Paraguay, Romania and Albania also have - screenings, germ, hominy feed - whilst the high human consumption of maize. Data for the main products contain aflatoxin at only 12-30% human consumption of maize in countries in of the level in the original grain. Thus, for which consumption exceeds 40 kg/head/year example, maize grain containing 51 pg/kg of are shown in Table 1.13. In Western European aflatoxin could yield grits with 6 pg/kg and flour countries, Australia, New Zealand and Canada with 15 pg/kg (Romer, 1984). consumption does not exceed 10 kg/head/year. In On the other hand, abnormally wet condi- the U.S.A. it was 8.4 kg/head/year in 1984/86. tions during growth promote the development Miscellaneous cereals of Fusarium, which produces the mycotoxins zearalenone, trichothecene and deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin), which may continue to be pro- A group of small-seeded cereals and forage duced during storage of contaminated grain. The grasses used for food or feed includes the sorghums CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 23 TABLE 1.12 Domestic Utilization of Maize in Certain Countries Total Percentage of total consumption usage Human Industrial Source Country Year (thousand t) food usage* Feed Seed of data domestic World 1984186 440,960 20.7 13.9 63.9 1.5 2 EC 1989190 27,639 9.6 12.7 77.0 0.7 1 BelJLux. 746 3.4 60.3 36.3 - Denmark 88 22.7 9.1 68.2 - France 5909 6.0 5.0 87.4 1.6 1 Germany FR 2682 25.0 13.8 59.5 1.7 1 Greece 1925 0.5 3.1 96.1 0.3 1 1 Ireland 60 - - 100.0 - Italy 7182 2.4 8.6 88.7 0.3 1 Netherlands 1600 3.1 40.0 56.3 0.6 1 Portugal 1150 17.4 4.3 77.5 0.8 1 Spain 4578 0.8 15.5 83.3 0.4 1 1 U.K. 1719 64.5 17.3 18.2 - Australia 1984/86 20 1 29.8 2.0 67.7 0.5 2 Austria 1565 1.1 4.6 93.6 0.7 2 Canada 7033 1.3 18.9 79.4 0.4 2 China 65,306 38.7 6.8 53.1 1.4 2 2 Japan 13,660 18.5 1.5 80.0 - Former Soviet Union 25,422 0.4 17.6 73.4 8.6 2 U.S.A. 138,184 1.5 19.2 79.0 0.3 2 Yugoslavia 11,294 5.1 10.7 83.2 1.0 2 1 1 * Including waste. Sources: (1) EC Commission Documents, via H.G.C.A. Cereal Statistics (1991a); (2) F.A.O. Food Balance Sheets, 1984-86, F.A.O., Rome, 1990. TABLE 1.13 Human Consumption of Maize in Certain Countries (kglheadlyear, 1984-86 averages) Benin 60 South Africa 110 El Salvador 83 Botswana 80 Swaziland 112 Guatemala 106 Africa America, Central Cape Verde 80 Tanzania 73 Honduras 94 EWPt 57 Zambia 168 Mexico 120 Kenya 124 Zimbabwe 118 Nicaragua 58 Lesotho 124 America, South Europe Malawi 170 Paraguay 51 Albania 71 Namibia 72 Venezuela 41 Romania 46 Asia Philippines 49 Source: FAO, Food Balance Sheets 1984-86, Rome 1990. and millets, and is sometimes known as 'mis- cellaneous cereals' or 'coarse grains'. Crop improvement and increased usage, however, justify the separate consideration of sorghum and the millets, although statistical data, e.g. crop movements, are generally available only for the group as a whole. Sorghum Cultivation The crop is grown in latitudes below 45" in all continents; in the U.S.A. it is grown in the Great Plains area, chiefly in Texas, where it is the most important crop, and in Kansas. The most 24 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS favourable mean temperature for the crop is 27°C (80°F) and, although it does well in semi-arid conditions, it repays irrigation. The crop is not troubled by serious pests or diseases, and has the advantage that it can be sown late, in case other crops fail (Matz, 1969). Area, production, yield The world area uder Sorghum in 1989 was 44.4 million ha, and the world production was 59.2 million tonne% giving a world average Yield of 13.3 q/ha- In 1989, the largest area under sorghum was in India, with 36% of the total area, but Producing only 20.4% of the total world crop. The U.S.A., with 10% of the world area, produced 26.5% of the World Crop, and China Produced 10% of the world crop. Since 1980, yields of over 60 qlha have been obtained in Italy (62.8 q/ha in 1986) and Hungary (61.2 q/ha in 1986), and yields of over 50 q/ha in France (58.5 dha in 1987)~ China, Taiwan Province (54.3 qlha in 1989) and Spain (52.5 q/ha in 1989). Yields were lower in the Principal Producing countries: 34.8 q/ha in the U.S.A., 31.9 qlha in China (excluding Taiwan Province), and 7.6 qlha in India, all in 1989. Production of sorghum in the U.S.A. has increased considerably since 1940, reaching 28.5 million tonnes in 1985, when the average yield was 41'9 qlha' The increase has been due to a maize) because of U. S. government agricultural programmes, and to the availability of sorghum higher yields than types previously available. Other factors contributing to increased produc- tivity are multiple-row planting equipment, and The types now grown are suitable for combine the U.S.A. had fallen back to 14.3 million tonnes by 1990/91. Crop movements Of the total world production of 59 million tonnes of sorghum in 1989/90, 9.0 Mt, or 15%, entered world trade. The principal exporters were the U.S.A. with 7.3 Mt (81.1% of all exports) and Argentina, with 1.2 Mt (13.3%). Imports were taken mainly by Japan (3.9 Mt; 44% of total world imports) and Mexico (3.0 Mt; 33.3%). Utilization Sorghum is the staple food in many parts of Africa, Asia, Central America and the Arab countries of the Middle East, and also serves as the main Source of beverages in Some countries. About 300 million people rely on sorghum for their sustenance. Of the total world sorghum production of 66 million tonnes per annum in 1984-1986, about 35% was used for human food, 56.6% for animal feed, 1.3% for seed and 6.9% for processing and other uses. In Australia, Japan, the U.S.A., Mexico, Argentina and Europe, 98-99.5% of the sorghum consumed was used for animal feed, 9&95% in the former Soviet Union and Venezuela, in 1984-1986. By contrast, 80-94.5% of the sorghum consumed in Ethiopia, the Sudan and India, and 78% in Nigeria, was used for human food in 1984-1986. Waxy sorghum Waxy sorghum varieties (cf. p. 100) served as sources of starch in 1942 and subsequently to latter from the Netherlands Indies were cut off during World War 11. These varieties have of cassava, from which tapioca is prepared. Data for the total domestic utilization of sorghum in certain countries, and its use for human food, average for 1984-1986, are shown in Table 1.14. in 1984/86 for purposes other than human food, animal feed or seed. These include: 1. Wet milling, to make starch and its derivatives, with edible oil and gluten feed as by-products (cf. p. 267). 2. Dry milling, to make a low protein flour which change Over from Other croPs (cottonY wheatY replace imported tapioca when supplies of the hybrids (cf' P* 49 (Ch'4)) which give 20-40% starc., with physical properties similar to those improved ti11age and cu1tivation machinery* animal feed, seed, and processing and other uses, harvesting. HoweverY production Of sorghum in In the U.S.A., 92 thousand tonneS were used CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 25 TABLE 1.14 Domestic Utilization of Sorghum in Certain Countries (Average, 1984-86 ) Total Percentage of total consumption usage Human Processing Animal domestic Country (thousand t) food and other uses feed Seed World 65,957 35.1 6.9 56.6 1.3 Argentina 2659 - <l 99.5 <1 Australia 405 - - 98.3 1.7 China 6141 66.2 11.5 21.2 1.1 Ethiopia 1097 94.5 5.0 - <1 Europe 1099 - <1 98.6 1.2 India 10,156 88.4 6.9 1.2 3.5 4383 1 .o - 99.0 - Mexico 7789 - 2.0 97.7 <1 Japan Nigeria 4918 78.1 17.6 2.5 1.8 Soviet Union 1326 - 10.0 89.7 <1 Sudan 1849 80.7 12.5 4.4 2.3 U.S.A 14,938 - <1 99.1 <1 Venezuela 1254 - 5.0 94.3 <1 Source of data: Food and Agriculture Organisation, Food Balance Sheets 1984-86, Rome, 1990. is used for adhesives and in oil-well drilling muds (cf. p. 313). 3. The fermentation industry, for brewing, dis- tilling and the manufacture of industrial Country Sorghum Millet alcohol (Martin and MacMasters, 1951; cf. Botswana 36.5 0.9 Cameroon 0.5 36.0 p. 226). Chad - 64.6 - 61.2 Gambia The level of human consumption of sorghum Mali - 121.5 Mauretania 6.7 28.1 45.7 162.5 tion of these two cereals together exceeds 30 Nigeria 40.3 28.8 9.8 83.5 1.15. Consumption is between 20 and 30 kg/head/ k:i:L Faso 73.1 56.1 14.2 23.0 69.2 11.9 Republic). Togo 36.7 16.5 China 3.9 4.7 TABLE 1.15 Human Consumption of Sorghum and Millet in Certain Countries, 1984186 Average (kglheadlyear) Africa Ethiopia 23.8 3.5 Human consumption and millet in those countries in which consump- kg/head/year (82 g/head/day) is shown in Table Niger Senegal - 31.5 year in numerous other African countries and Burundi 31.0 2.0 Y:a"nd" in the Yemen (Arab Republic and Democratic Asia The Millets India 11.8 10.2 Yemen, Arab Republic 54.9 - Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation, Food Balance The name 'millet' is applied to numerous small- Yemen, Democratic Republic - 36.1 seeded grasses which originated in Asia or Africa and are widely grown in these continents. Sheets 198486, Rome, 1990. principally India (43.5%) and China (7.2%), and 35% in African countries, principally Nigeria (9.3%), Niger (8.7%), Sudan (3.5%), Burkino Faso (3.0%), Senegal (2.7%) and Mali (2.7%). Area, production, yield The world area occupied by millet in 1989 was 36.7 million ha, of which 53% was in Asia, 26 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS The former Soviet Union accounted for 7.6% of cribed as millets (the specific names are listed in the total area. Ch. 2, Table 2.3, p. 47), but of these only six Production in 1989 was 29.5 million tonnes for species comprise the bulk of the world production the whole world, with Asia contributing 54.6% of millets. Of the total world production of about and Africa 31.6%. The biggest producers (with 30 million tonnes of millets per annum, the percentages of the world total) were: India contribution of these six in 1981-1985 (in percent (32.2%), China (19.3%), Nigeria (11.9%). The of the total) was pearl millet 45%, foxtail 19%, former Soviet Union produced 10.2% of the proso 17%, finger millet 13%, teff 4%, and world total, the millets, particularly proso and fonio 1%, leaving about 1% for all other types, foxtail, being much more important crops than including barnyard, little and kodo millets. sorghum in that country. Pearl millet is a hardy plant capable of yielding World average yield of millet in 1989 was 8 a crop where most other grain cereals would fail. qlha with much higher yields in some countries. It is grown extensively as a food crop in sub- The yield averaged 37.5 qlha in Egypt, 21.5 tropical regions of Asia and Africa, and is well qlha in China, 20.8 qlha in Saudi Arabia, and suited to conditions of limited moisture and low 17.6 qlha in Japan. Yields of 48.3 qlha were fertility. In west Africa, pearl millet is grown in recorded in France in 1985 and 36.4 qlha in Spain the north, where rainfall is less than 76 cm per an., in 1987. In many African countries, however, the while sorghum replaces millet in the wetter south. average yield is low, e.g. 2.3 qlha in the Sudan Proso is grown chiefly in the former Soviet in 1989, because the crop is often grown in Union, Manchuria and China. Throughout the marginal areas under adverse conditions of un- former Soviet Union proso is a staple food, eaten fertile soil, heat, and limited rainfall. In such as a thick porridge called kasha. conditions millets nevertheless often do better Foxtail millet is an important food in China and than other cereals. Higher yields would be other Asiatic countries. It is grown for fodder in obtained in good conditions. the U.S.A. Finger millet (ragi) is an important food grain in southern Asia and parts of Africa where it is able to withstand high temperatures. In northern Types of millet There are at least twelve distinct botanical India finger millet replaces rice as the principal species (representing ten different genera) des- food crop. TABLE 1.16 Estimated World Distribution of Types of Millett, 1981-85, Average* (% of World Total Productionf) Developed countries Africa Type of * South millet U.S.S.R. Otherst. W N and Cent E and S Asia America World Pearl - - 21.3 2.4 1.0 20.2 - 44.9 Finger - - - - 2.9 9.8 - 12.7 Proso 7.8 0.5 - - - 8.1 0.6 17.0 Foxtail - 0.1 - - - 19.4 - 19.5 - 3.6 Teff - - - - 3.6 - - 1.0 Fonio - - 1.3 - 1.3 Others§ - - - - All 7.8 0.6 22.3 2.4 7.5 58.8 0.6 100.0 - - - - 1 .o * Source: Official and FA0 estimates, based on country information. t World production was 29.7 million tonnes, 1981-85, annual average. * Australia, U.S.A., Europe. 5 Barnyard, Little and Kodo millets. CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 27 Teff is confined largely to the highlands of COMMONWEALTH SECRETARIAT, Grain Bull., a monthly publication, London (ceased publication after December, 1976). COMMONWEALTH SECRETARIAT, Grain Crops, an annual publication, London (ceased publication after No. 15, 1973). FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (1990) Production YearBook. F.A.0. Rome. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGAMATION (1988) Trade Year Book. F.A.O. Rome. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (1990) Food Balance Sheets, 1984-1 986. F.A.O. Rome. HARRISON, K. R., DOARKS, P. F. and GREER, E. N. (1969) Detection of heat damage in dried wheat. Milling 151 (7): H~~E-GROWN CEREALS AUTHORITY (1991a) Cereal Statistics H.M.s.o., London. HOME-GROWN CEREALS AUTHORITY (1991b) Weekly Digest 18 (14th Oct). 152 (1): 22. Ethiopia, where it grows up to 2700 m. It is a very small seeded grass. Fonio is grown only in west Africa. The distribution Of these six types Of mi''et among the various regions of the world in 1981-1985 (the latest period for which data are available) is shown in Table 1.16. Crop movements Most Of the mi11et crop is Used in the country of production: in 1988, out of a world production of 29.6 million tonnes, only 0.21 million tonnes principal exporters were Argentina (31.9% of total exports), Australia (21.9%) and the U.S.A. (21 .4y0), with smaller contributions from the Netherlands, China and Hungary- Imports were received mainly by Japan (15.7% of the total imports), G~~~~~~ FR (14.3y0), the Netherlands (13.8%), Niger (9.0%) and the U.K. (8.1%). (0'7y0) is recorded as entering wor1d trade' The KENT, N. L. (1969) Thrips in home-grown wheat. Milling LEATH, M. N. and HILL, L. D. (1987) Economics, produc- tion, marketing and utilization of corn. In: Corn: Chemistry and Technology, WATSON S. A. and RAMSTAD, P. E. (Eds) Amer. Ass. Cereal Chemists Inc. St Paul, MN. U.S.A. MARTIN, D. J. and STEWART, €3. G. (1991) Contrasting dough surface properties of selected wheats. Cereal Foods World 36 (6): 502-504. MARTIN, J. H. and MACMASTERS, M. M. (1951) Industrial uses for grain sorghum. U.S. Department of Agriciculture, Yearbook on Agnciculture (1951) p. 349. MATZ, S. A. (1969) Cereal Science Avi Publ. Co. Inc., Westport, Conn., U.S.A. Domestic Food Consumption and Expenditure 1989, Annual Report of National Food Survey Committee, H.M.S.O., London. PERCIVAL, J. (1921) The Wheat Plant. Duckworth, London (Reprinted 1975). ROMER, T. (1984) Mycotoxins in corn and corn milling products. Cereal Foods World 29: 459-462. STARZYCKI, S. (1976) Diseases, pests and physioloy of rye. In: Rye, Production, Chemistry and Technology, BUSHUK, W. (Ed.) Ch. 3, 27-61. American Association of Cereal Chemists. Inc., St. Paul MN. U.S.A. WEBB, B. D. (1985) Criteria of rice quality in the United States. In: Rice: Chemistry and Technology, pp. 403-442, JULIANO, B. 0. (Ed.) Amer. Ass. Cereal Chemists Inc., St. Paul, MN. U.S.A. Utilization About 400 million people rely on millet for their sustenance. It has been estimated that out of a total world production of 29 million tonnes of millet in 1984-1986, some 74.7% was used for human food, 10.8% for animal feed, 2.7% for seed, and 11.8% for processing and other uses. The percentage of domestic utilization used for human food, in 1984-1986, was 75% in Africa, 83% in Asia. MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD (1990) Human consumption The level of human consumption of millet in certain countries in 1984-1986 is shown in Table 1.15 (p. 25). The highest consumption level recorded was 162.5 kglheadlyear in Niger. Further Reading ADRIAN, J. and JACQOT, R. (1964) Sorghum and the Millets in Human and Animal Feeding. Centre recherches sur la References Nutrition du C.N.R.S, Bellevue (Seine et Oise), Vigot Freres (Eds) Paris. AMOS, A. J. (1973) Ergot - recent work reduces risks. ANDRES, C. (1980) Corn - a most versatile grain. Food Processing, May 1978. ANONYMOUS (1991) World grain and feed trade review. BARGER, G. (1931) Ergot and Ergotism. Gurney and Jackson, London. BRITISH PATENT SPECIFICATION Number 523,116 (1940) BOVE, F. J. (1970) The Story of Ergot. S. Karger, Base1 and New York. Milling 155: 26. World Grain 1991, NovlDec, pp. 7-14 Heat (or steam) treatment of buggy wheat. 28 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS BROWN, L. R. (1972) The Green Revolution and world HULSE, J. H., LAING, E. M. and PEARSON, 0. E. (1980) protein supplies. PAG Bull. 2 (2): 25. Sorghum and the Millets. Academic Press, London. BUSHUK, W. (Ed) (1976) Rye, Production, Chemistry and JULANO, B. 0. (Ed) (1985) Rice: Chemistry and Technology. Technology. Amer. Assoc. of Cereal Chemsts. St. Paul, Amer. Assoc. of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul MN. U.S.A. MN. U.S.A. LORENZ, K. and HOSENEY, R. C. (1979) Ergot on cereal FULLER, J. G. (1969) The Day ofSt Anthony¡¯s Fire. Hutchinson, grain. CRC Crit. Rev. Fd Sci. Nutr. 11 (4): 311. London. MORTON, I. D. (Ed.) (1987) Cereals in a European Context. GRIST, D. H. (1959) Rice. 3rd edn Longmans, London. Ellis Horwood, London. HOME-GROWN CEREALS AUTHORITY (1989) Oats market ROONEY, L. W. and CLARK, L. E. (1968) Biochemistry and processing of sorghum grain. Cereal Sci. Today 13: 258. HOUSE, L. R. and RACHIE, K. 0. (1969) Millets, their SIMMONS, I. G. (1989) Changing the Face of the Earth - Culture, Environment, History. Basil Blackwell, NY. developments. H-GCA Weekly Digest, 18th Sept. production and utilization. Cereal Sci. Today 14: 92.