8
Bread- ba ki ng Tech nology
Principles of baking
Primitive man, a nomadic hunter and gatherer
of fruits and nuts, started to settle down and
abandon his nomadic life when, in Neolithic
times, he discovered how to sow the seeds of
grasses and, in due time, reap a crop of ‘cereal
grains’. With this change in his way of life came
the beginnings of civilization which, in western
Europe, is based on a diet relying on wheat,
wheaten flour, and the baked products made from
flour, the principal product being bread.
The function of baking is to present cereal
flours in an attractive, palatable and digestible
form.
While wheat is the principal cereal used for
breadmaking, other cereals, particularly rye, are
also used to some extent. The first part of this
chapter will consider breadmaking processes and
bread in which wheat flour or meal is the sole
cereal. The use of other cereals will be discussed
later (p. 211).
Use of milled wheat products for bread
Bread is made by baking a dough which has
for its main ingredients wheaten flour, water,
of discrete and separate particles, but the
gluten is cohesive, forming a continuous three-
dimensional structure which binds the flour
particles together in a ‘dough’. The gluten
has peculiar extensible properties: it can be
stretched like elastic, and possesses a degree
of recoil or spring;
- air bubbles are folded into the dough. During
the subsequent handling of the dough these
bubbles divide or coalesce. Eventually the
dough comes to resemble a foam, with the
bubbles trapped in the gluten network;
- enzymes in the yeast start to ferment the
sugars present in the flour and, later, the
sugars released by diastatic action of the
amylases on damaged starch in the flour,
breaking them down to alcohol and carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide gas mixes with
the air in the bubbles and brings about expan-
sion of the dough. “Bread is fundamentally
foamed gluten” (Atkins, 1971).
Three requirements in making bread from
wheat flour are formation of a gluten network
and the creation of air bubbles within it; the
incorporation of carbon dioxide to turn the gluten
network into a foam; and the development of the
yeast and sa1t* Other ingredients which may be
added inc1ude flours Of Other cerea1sY fat, ma1t
rheological properties of the gluten so that it
retains the carbon dioxide while allowing expan-
flour, soya flour, yeast foods, emulsifiers, milk
and milk products, fruit, gluten.
When these ingredients are mixed in correct
proportions, three processes commence:
- the protein in the flour begins to hydrate, i.e.
to combine with some of the water, to form
gluten (cf. pp. 70 and 174). Flour consists
sion of the dough; and, finally, the coagulation
of the material by heating it in the oven so that
the structure of the material is stabilized. The
advantage of having an aerated, finely vesiculated
crumb in the baked product is that it is easily
masticated.
Corresponding with these requirements, there
191
192 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
are three stages in the manufacture of bread:
mixing and dough development, dough aeration,
and oven baking. The method of dough develop-
ment and aeration that has been customary since
the time of the Pharaohs is panary fermentation
by means of yeast.
Ingredients
Flour
Good breadmaking flour is characterized as
having:
- protein which is adequate in quantity and
which, when hydrated, yields gluten which is
satisfactory in respect of elasticity, strength
and stability;
- satisfactory gassing properties: the levels of
amylase activity and of damaged starch (cf.
pp. 183, 185) should be adequate to yield
sufficient sugars, through diastatic action, to
support the activity of the yeast enzymes
during fermentation and proof;
- satisfactory moisture content - not higher
than about 14% to permit safe storage, and
satisfactory colour, and should meet specifica-
tions regarding bleach and treatment (cf.
pp. 171-172).
These requirements are met by the type of
wheat called ‘strong’ (cf. pp. 81, 92, 174), viz.
wheat having a reasonably high protein content.
Wherever possible, home-grown wheat is used
for breadmaking, and this is the situation, for
example, in Canada and in the U.S.A., where
such strong wheats, e.g. CWRS, HRS, are readily
available.
In the U.K., however, the home-grown wheat
is, or until recently was, characteristically weak,
viz. of low protein content, and would not, by
itself, yield flour from which bread, of the kind
to which U.K. consumers are accustomed, could
be made. It was therefore customary for flour
millers in the U.K. to mill breadmaking flour
from a mixed grist of strong and weak wheats,
the strong wheat component being imported,
generally from Canada, and the weak component
being home-grown U.K. wheat. Until the early
1960s, the average breadmaking grist in the U.K.
Composition of bread wheat grist in U K
80
-
70
-
YO 40-
10
-
I
A
I I I I I I I 1w-i-r I I I I I I
AAAAAAJ@@@@@@@@@%
~~~~~~~:L+-~ 9_gt+ E-
PJ\@-\@&lG&’+V\Pdd-\@&l9,
‘\
O
Year
FIG 8.1 Average composition of the bread wheat grist in the U.K. since 1973, in terms of U.K. wheat,
other EC wheat, and non-EC wheat (data from MAFF, H-GCA, and NABIM).
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 193
would consist of 60-70% of imported strong wheat in the U.K. bread-wheat grist has fallen from
plus 20-30% of weak home-grown wheat (with a about 70% in 1960 to about 15% in 1990 (with a
small proportion of ‘filler’ wheat of medium corresponding increase in the home-grown wheat
strength, cf. p. 87) - see Fig. 8.1, yielding a white proportion), with a considerable saving in the cost
flour of about 12% protein content. of the raw material. By 1992, some millers were
The imported Canadian wheat is more expen- supplying breadmaking flour milled entirely from
sive than the home-grown U.K. wheat and, in home-grown U.K. and EC wheats, with no non-
consequence, there was a strong urge to decrease EC component, but with the addition of 2% or
the ratio of strong to weak wheat. This change perhaps 2.5% of vital gluten.
was made possible in a number of ways, one of A similar reduction in the imported non-EC
which was the advent of the CBP (cf. p. 203) (strong) wheat content of the breadmaking grist
because, among other advantages, the CBP per- has also occurred in other countries.
mitted the use of a flour of about 1% lower protein One possible complication associated with the
content to produce bread of quality equivalent to lowering of the strong/weak wheat ratio in the
that produced by the BFP (cf. p. 201). bread grist is the reduced proportion of damaged
Additional impetus to reduce still further the starch in the flour because of the frequent associa-
proportion of imported strong wheat in the bread tion of strength with hardness (as in the imported
grist followed the entry of the U.K. into the EC, Canadian wheat) and, conversely, of weakness
and the imposition of a heavy import levy, which with softness (as in the EC-grown wheats). It is
has run as high as &120-130 per tonne, on the desirable that the content of damaged starch
cost of wheat imported from third (Le. non-EC) should be maintained at a reasonably high level,
countries. Various measures have been adopted and this requirement can be met by adjustments
whereby the proportion of home-grown (or EC- to the milling process (cf. p. 149). However, it is
grown) wheat in the breadmaking grist could be a fortunate coincidence that the two varieties of
further increased, while maintaining loaf quality. wheat classified by breadmaking quality and
They include: widely grown in the U.K. at the present time,
Avalon and Mercia, both have a hard textured
- breeding stronger wheats with higher yielding
endosperm, and thus go some way towards
potential for growing in the U.K. and other
avoiding this complication.
EC countries. Examples of such promising
new varieties are Avalon and Mercia. More-
over, the considerable increase in the size of
Leavening
the U.R. wheat harvest in recent years has
provided the flourmiller with the possibility Leavened baked goods are preferred in all
of obtaining adequate supplies of these newer countries where wheat is available as a staple food.
varieties of good breadmaking quality; Leavening can be achieved in several ways,
- awarding of remunerative premiums to growers including the following:
for higher protein home-grown wheats which
are poorer yielders than low protein wheats;
- use of vital gluten as a bread ingredient (cf.
p. 195);
- supplementation of flours from lower-protein
home-grown wheats with air-classified high
protein fractions of flour (cf. p. 132);
- use of high levels of fungal alpha-amylase (cf.
p. 196).
Figure 8.1 shows that the proportion of imported
non-EC wheat (mostly Canadian CWRS wheat)
1. Whisking egg into a foam with flour and other
ingredients. This method is used in produc-
tion of sponge and other cakes.
2. Water vapour production as in Scandinavian
flat breads and puff pastry.
3. Yeast.
4. Baking Powder.
Yeast and baking powder are the most import-
ant. Each is appropriate for its own range of
products, and in some cases, such as doughnuts,
194 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
coffee cake, and pizza-dough, either may be used of one strain to the genome of another. Strains
alone or in combination. that have an excellent performance in sugar-rich
doughs normally show a poor performance in
lean doughs, but the subject of a European Patent
(El' 0 306 107 A2) is a yeast that performs well
Baking powders
Baking powders depend upon sodium bicarbon- both in high sucrose conditions and also in 'lean'
ate as a source of C02 gas, which may be liberated conditions, where maltose is the available sub-
by the action of sodium acid phosphate, mono- strate. The technique involved was the introduc-
calcium phosphate, sodium aluminium phos- tion of genes coding for increased activity of the
phate or glucono-&lactone. One hundred grams two enzymes maltose permease and maltase (alpha-
of baking powder generates 15 mg (or 340 mM, glucosidase), allowing best use to be made of the
or 8.2 1) of C02. Some is released at dough limited quantities of maltose available in a lean
temperature and the remainder during baking. dough.
Ability to ferment sugars anaerobically remains
the major criterion of selection, but meeting this
under different conditions has led to the introduc-
Yeast
The quantity of yeast used is related inversely tion of specialized strains. The conditions that
to the duration of fermentation, longer fermenta- provide the challenge include the requirements:
tion systems generally employing somewhat lower (a) to be supplied and stored in a dry form with
levels of yeast and also lower dough temperatures. a longer life than the traditional compressed form;
Thus, 1% of yeast on flour wt would be used for (b) to retain high activity in high sugar formula-
a 3 h straight dough system with the dough at tions and (c) to retain activity in yeast-leavened
27"C, whereas 2-3% of yeast on flour wt would be frozen doughs.
required for a no-time dough at 27"-3OoC. Yeast
Dried yeasts
activity increases rapidly with temperature, and
its level of use is therefore reduced if the temper-
ature is increased within a fixed time process. Until the early 1970s, two strains of Saccharo-
In addition to providing C02 as a leavening myces cerivisiae were used widely. The yeast was
agent, yeast also affects rheological properties of grown to a nitrogen level of 8.2-8.8% (on a dry
dough through the lowering of pH by C02 basis), and an A.D.Y. (active dry yeast), which
production, evolution of alcohol, and the mechan- was grown to a nitrogen content of 7.0%. Thus,
ical effects of bubble expansion. Further, yeast in the pelleted product, it had only 75-80% of
contributes significantly to the flavour and aroma the gassing activity of the compressed yeasts
of baked products. (when compared on the same m.c. basis). New
Yeast is used in several different forms: com- products available since that time have allowed
pressed, cream (liquid), dried into pellets, and the gap to be narrowed, although it does still exist.
instant active powders. Three forms of dried yeast are now available:
In recent years, attitudes to yeast production A.D.Y., and the powdered products Instant
have become more enterprizing. Specialized strains A.D.Y. (I.A.D.Y.) and protected A.D.Y.
have been selected and bred to meet newly identi- (P.A.D.Y.).
fied criteria. This has resulted partly from changing A.D.Y. must be rehydrated in warm water
technologies within the baking industries and (35"40"C) before it is added to dough, while
partly from new means of genetic manipulation. I.A.D.Y. and P.A.D.Y. can be added to dry
Examples of these innovations are the replace- ingredients before mixing. In fact, this results in
ment of conventional spore fusion by protoplast more productive gassing. During storage, dried
fusion, and genetic engineering through the use yeasts are subject to loss of activity in oxygen.
of recombinant DNA (rDNA) for introduction The improved strains are supplied in vacuum
of an advantageous segment of the genetic materials packs or in packs with inert gas in the headspace
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 195
(I.A.D.Y.), or in the presence of an antioxidant the bread soft and palatable for a longer period,
(P.A.D.Y.). P.A.D.Y. features in complete mixes which is equivalent to an anti-staling effect
containing flour and other ingredients but the (Hoseney, 1986).
flour present must be at a very low m.c. to avoid During storage of flour, free fatty acids accumu-
moisture transfer and reduction in the level of late owing to the breakdown of the natural fats,
production against oxidation. and the gluten formed from the protein becomes
less soluble and shorter in character. When flour
that has been stored for a long time, e.g. a year,
High sugar yeast
at ambient temperature is used for the CBP, the
Products such as Danish pastries, doughnuts fat level should be increased to about 1.5% on
and sweet buns have a high sugar content. The flour wt.
high osmotic pressures involved are not tolerated
by standard yeast strains, but good strains are
Sugar
available as I.A.D.Y. products. Japanese com-
pressed yeasts can also withstand high osmotic Sugar is generally added to bread made in the
conditions. U.S.A., giving an acceptable sweet flavour, but
it is not usually added to bread in the U.K.
However, sugar may be included in prover mixes.
Frozen dough yeasts
The production of breads from frozen doughs,
vital gluten
at the point of sale, has increased dramatically
and has created a requirement for cryoresistant Vital wheat gluten, viz. gluten prepared in such
yeasts. Most yeasts withstand freezing, but a way that it retains its ability to absorb water
deteriorate rapidly during frozen storage. The and form a cohesive mass (cf. pp. 70,174), is now
best cryoresistant strains perform well in sweet widely used in the U.K. and in other EC countries
goods but less well in lean doughs. The require- as an ingredient of bread:
- at levels of 0.5-3.0% on flour wt to improve
ment has not been fully satisfied (Reed and
the texture and raise the protein content of
Nagodawithana, 199 1).
bread, crispbread, and speciality breads such
Salt as Vienna bread and hamburger rolls;
- to fortify weak flours, and to permit the use
by millers of a wheat grist of lower strong/
Salt is added to develop flavour. It also toughens
the gluten and gives a less sticky dough. Salt slows
weak wheat ratio (particularly in the EC
down the rate of fermentation, and its addition is
countries) by raising the protein content of
the flour (cf. p. 193);
sometimes delayed until the dough has been
partly fermented. The quantity used is usually
- in starch-reduced high protein breads (cf. p.
209), in which the gluten acts both as a source
1.8-2.1% on flour wt, giving a concentration of
of protein and as a texturing agent;
1.1-1.4% of salt in the bread. Salt is added either
- in high-fibre breads (cf. p. 209) now being
as an aqueous solution (brine) or as the dry solid.
made in the U.S.A., to maintain the texture
Fat and volume.
Fat is an essential ingredient for no-time In the U.S.A., about 70% of all vital gluten is
doughs, such as the CBP. Added at the rate of used for bread, rolls, buns and yeast-raised goods
about 1% on flour wt, fat improves loaf volume, (Magnuson, 1985). Vital gluten is also used as a
reduces crust toughness and gives thinner crumb binder to raise the protein level in meat products,
cell walls, resulting in a softer-textured loaf with e.g. sausages, and in breakfast cereals (e.g.
improved slicing characteristics. Fat also keeps Kelloggs Special K), breadings, batter mixes,
196 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
pasta foods, pet foods, dietary foods and textured permit the use of flour of up to 2% lower protein
vegetables products (t .v. p. ) . content with no loss in loaf quality.
The origin of the gluten is of little importance A similar increase in loaf volume could be
when used to raise the flour protein content by produced by addition of a variety of commercial
only 1-2%: thus, U.K.-grown wheat can be used carbohydrase enzyme preparations (Cauvain and
to provide vital gluten, thereby further reducing Chamberlain, 1988).
the dependence on imported strong wheat. The
Soya flour
vital gluten is generally added to the flour at
the mill, particularly in the case of wholemeal.
(McDermott, 1985). Enzyme-active soya flour is widely used as
a bread additive, at a level of about 0.7% on
flour wt. Advantages claimed for its use include:
beneficial oxidizing effect on the flour, bleaching
Gluten flour
This is a blend of vital wheat gluten with wheat effect on flour pigments @-carotene) due to the
flour, standardized to 40% protein content in the presence of lipoxygenase, increase in loaf volume,
U.S.A. improvement in crumb firmness and crust appear-
ance, and extension of shelf life (Anon., 1988a)
(cf. p. 215)
The improving action and bleaching properties
Fungal amylase
Besides the use of low levels (e.g. 7-10 Farrand of enzyme-active soya flour are due to peroxy
Units) of fungal amylase to correct a deficiency radicals that are released by a type-2 lipoxygenase,
in natural cereal alpha-amylase and improve gas- which has an optimum activity at pH 6.5. Enzyme-
sing (cf. p. 198), fungal amylase, sold under such active soya flour has two effects in a flour dough:
trade names as MYL-X and Amylozyme, has a it increases mixing tolerance, and it improves
marked effect in increasing loaf volume when used dough rheology, viz. by decreasing extensibility
at much higher levels as a bread ingredient in rapid and increasing resistance to extension. The action
breadmaking systems. Use of high levels is possible of the lipoxygenase is to oxidize the linoleic acid
because the fungal amylase has a relatively low in the lipid fraction of the wheat flour, but the
thermal inactivation temperature. The fungal action only occurs in the presence of oxygen
amylase starts to act during the mixing stage, (Grosch, 1986).
when it causes a softening of the dough, which
must be corrected by reducing the amount of
Improving agents
doughing water, so as to maintain the correct
dough consistency. Use of high levels of fungal The use and effects of improving agents -
amylase in the BFP would not be desirable, as potassium bromate, ascorbic acid, azodicarbon-
the dough softening effect would be too severe. amide, L-cysteine - have been discussed in
Hence, addition of fungal amylase at these high Ch. 7.
levels is made by the baker, and not at the mill.
Physical treatments
The fungal amylase continues to act during
the early part of the baking process, attacking
gelatinized starch granules, improving gas reten- The breadmaking quality of flour can be
tion, and helping the dough to maintain a fluid improved also by physical means, e.g. by controlled
condition, thus prolonging the dough expansion heat treatment (cf. p. 113) or by an aeration
time and increasing loaf volume. The increase in process, in which flour is whipped with water at
loaf volume is directly related to the level of fungal high speed for a few minutes and the batter then
amylase addition up to about 200 Farrand Units. mixed with dry flour. Improvement is brought
The effect of the addition of about 120 Farrand about by oxidation with oxygen in the air, prob-
Units of fungal amylase is so powerful that it may ably assisted by the lipoxidase enzymes (cf.
BREAD-BAKING TECH NO LOGY 197
p. 68) present in the flour. A similar improving protein) in the grist - which is uneconomic, the
effect can be obtained by overmixing normal most convenient way of increasing water absorp-
dough (without the batter stage): cf. the Chorley- tion is to increase the degree of starch damage.
wood Bread Process (p. 203). The miller can bring this about by modifying the
milling conditions (cf. p. 149).
Doughmaking
Fermentation
The enzymes principally concerned in panary
Water absorption
The amount of water to be mixed with flour fermentation are those that act upon carbohydrates:
to make a dough of standard consistency is usually alpha-amylase and beta-amylase in flour, and
55-61 pt per 100 pt of flour, increasing in maltase, invertase and the zymase complex in yeast.
proportion to the contents of protein and damaged Zymase is the name that was formerly used for
starch (cf. pp. 62, 174) in the flour. about fourteen enzymes.
Flour contains protein, undamaged starch The starch of the flour is broken down to the
granules and damaged starch granules, all of disaccharide maltose by the amylase enzymes; the
which absorb water, but to differing degrees. maltose is split to glucose (dextrose) by maltase;
Farrand (1964) showed that the uptake of water, glucose and fructose are fermented to carbon
per gram of component, was 2.0 g for protein, dioxide and alcohol by the zymase complex.
0-0.3 g for undamaged starch, and 1.0 g for Some of the starch granules in flour become
damaged starch. Thus, flours from strong wheat mechanically damaged during milling (cf. pp. 62,
(with higher protein content) and from hard 149, 185), and only these damaged granules can
wheat (with a higher damaged starch content) be attacked by the flour amylases. It is therefore
require more water than is needed by flours from essential that the flour should contain adequate
weak (lower protein) or soft (less damaged starch) damaged starch to supply sugar during fermenta-
wheats to make a dough of standard consistency. tion and proof. When the amylase enzymes break
Besides the protein and starch, the soluble part down the damaged starch, water bound by the
of the hemicellulose (pentosan) forming the walls starch is released and causes softening of the
of the endosperm cells also absorbs water. dough. This situation must be borne in mind
The water used in dough-making should have when calculating the amount of doughing water
the correct temperature so that, taking account required, the amount of water released being
of the flour temperature and allowing for any dependent not only on the level of damaged
temperature rise during mixing, the dough is starch, but also on the alpha-amylase activity,
made to the correct final temperature. When length of fermentation time, and dough tempera-
using a process such as the CBP (cf. p. 203) in ture. Excessive levels of starch damage, however,
which the temperature rise during mixing may have an adverse effect on the quality of the bread
be as much as 14"C, it may be necessary to cool (cf. p. 150): loaf volume is decreased, and the
the doughing water. bread is less attractive in appearance.
It is important, particularly in plant bakeries, There are small quantities of sugar naturally
to maintain constant dough consistency. This present in flour (cf. p. 55) but these are soon used
may be done by adjusting the level of water up by the yeast, which then depends on the sugar
addition automatically or semi-automatically. produced by diastatic action from the starch.
Determination of water absorption of the flour by During fermentation about 0.8 kg of alcohol is
means of the Brabender Farinograph is described produced per 100 kg of flour, but much of it is
on p. 186. driven off during the baking process. New bread
A flour with high water absorption capacity is is said to contain about 0.3% of alcohol. Secondary
generally preferred for breadmaking. Apart from products, e.g. acids, carbonyls and esters, may
increasing the proportion of strong wheat (high affect the gluten or impart flavour to the bread.
198 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
Amylase from Aspergillus oryzae or A. awamori, to the flour
(cf. p. 196). Fungal amylase is preferred to malt
flour because the thermal inactivation temperature
cereal alpha-amylase (87"C), and its use avoids the
the consequent difficulties in slicing bread with
a sticky crumb.
Gas retention is a property of the flour protein:
the gluten, while being sufficiently extensible to
to prevent gas escaping too readily, as this would
lead to collapse of the loaf. The interaction of
added fat with flour components also has a
powerful effect on gas retention.
Dough development
Protein
The process of dough development, which
occurs during dough ripening, cOncernS the
hydrated protein component of the flour. It
involves an uncoiling of the protein molecules
and their joining together, by cross-linking, to
form a vast network of protein which is collec-
tively called gluten. The coils of the protein
molecules are held together by various types of
it is the severing of these bonds - allowing the
molecule to uncoil - and their rejoining in
different positions - linking separate protein
molecules together - that constitutes a major
part of dough development.
Sulphydryl (-SH) groups (cf. pp. 66, 174) are
also present in the protein molecules as side groups
of the amino acid cysteine. Reaction between the
-SH groups and the -SS- bonds permits new inter-
and intra-proteidpolypeptide relationships to be
formed via -SS- bonding, one effect of this inter-
change being the relaxation of dough by the relief
of stress induced by the mixing process.
While gluten is important in creating an extens-
ible framework, soluble proteins in the dough
liquor may also contribute to gas retention by
forming an impervious lining layer within cells,
effectively blocking pin-holes in cell walls (Gan
et al., 1990).
Both alpha- and beta-amylases catalyze the
hydro1ysis Of starch, but in different ways (cf' P'
of fungal amylase is lower (75°C) than that of
67).
beta-amylase but generally only a small amount of
alpha-amylase. The amount of alpha-amylase,
however, increases considerably when wheat
germinates. Indeed, flour from wheat containing
amylase activity, with the result that, during bak-
ing, some of the starch is changed into dextrin-like
substances. Water-holding capacity is reduced,
the crumb is weakened, and the dextrins make the
crumb sticky (cf. p. 67). However, flour with too
high a natural alpha-amylase activity could be
used for making satisfactory bread by microwave
or radio-frequency baking methods (cf. p. 206).
Another possibility would be to make use of an
alpha-amylase inhibitor, e.g. one prepared from
barley, as described in Canadian Patent No.
1206157 of 1987 (Zawistowska et al., 1988).
The functions of starch in the baking of bread
are to dilute the gluten to a desirable consistency,
to provide sugar through diastasis, to provide a
strong union with gluten, and by gelatinization
to become flexib1e and to take water from the
set and become rigid.
Norma1 flour from sound wheat contains amp1e
formation of gummy dextrins during baking and
many 'prouted grains may have too high an alpha-
allow the loaf to rise, must yet be strong enough
gluten, a process which he1ps the gluten fi1m to
bonds, including disulphide (-SS-) bonds, and
Gas production and gas retention
The creation of bubble structure in the dough
is a fundamental requirement in breadmaking.
The carbon dioxide generated by yeast activity
does not create bubbles: it can only inflate gas
cells already formed by the incorporation of air
during mixing.
Adequate gas must be produced during fermen-
tation, otherwise the loaf will not be inflated suf-
ficiently. Gas production depends on the quantity
of soluble sugars in the flour, and on its diastatic
power. Inadequate gassing (maltose value less
than 1.5) may be due to an insufficiency of
damaged starch or to a lack of alpha-amylase; the
latter can be corrected by adding sprouted wheat
to the grist, or malt flour, or fungal amylase, e.g.
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 199
of which those that affect proteins, the proteolytic
enzymes, may be of importance in baking. Yeast
contains such enzymes, but they remain within
the yeast cells and hence do not influence the
gluten.
The proteolytic enzymes of flour are proteases.
They have both disaggregating and protein
solubilizing effects, although the two phenomena
may be due to distinct enzymes.
The undesirable effect on bread quality of flour
milled from wheat attacked by bug (cf. p. 9)
is generally considered to be due to excessive
proteolytic activity. Inactivation temperature is
lower for proteolytic enzymes than for diastatic
enzymes, and heat treatment has been recom-
mended as a remedy for excessive proteolytic
activity in buggy wheat flour. However, it is
difficult to inactivate enzymes by heat treat-
ment without damaging the gluten proteins
simultaneously.
Surfactants
Dough ripening
A dough undergoing fermentation, with inter-
mittent mechanical manipulation, is said to be
ripening. The dough when mixed is sticky, but
as ripening proceeds, it becomes less sticky and
more rubbery when moulded, and is more easily
hand1ed On the plant’ The bread baked from it
becomes progressively better, until an optimum
condition of ripeness has been reached. If ripening
is allowed to proceed beyond this point a deteriora-
tion sets in, the moulded dough gets shorter and
possibly sticky again, and bread quality becomes
poorer. A ripe dough has maximum elasticity
after moulding and gives maximum spring in the
oven; a green or underripe dough can be stretched
but has insufficient elasticity and spring; an
overripe dough tends to break when stretched.
If the optimum condition of ripeness persists
over a reasonable period of time the flour is said
to have good fermentation tolerance. Weak flours
quickly reach a relatively poor optimum, and
have poor tolerance, whereas strong flours give
a higher optimum, take longer to reach it, and
oxidizing agents to the flour can speed up the rate
at which dough ripens and hence shorten the time
taken to achieve optimum development.
Do ugh stickiness
Certain agronomic advantages and improved
disease resistance in wheat have been achieved
by incorporating genes from rye. The short arm
of the rye chromosome 1R has been substituted
for the short arm of the homologous group 1
chromosome of wheat. However, the doughs
made from the flour of many of the substitution
lines have a major defect in that they are intensely
sticky. This stickiness is not due to overmixing,
excess water or excess amylolytic activity: the
factor responsible for the stickiness, introduced
with the rye c~romosome, has not yet been
identified (Martin and Stewart, 1991).
Proteolytic enzymes
Besides the enzymes that act on carbohydrates,
there are many other enzymes in flour and yeast,
These substances act as dough strengtheners, to
sing, and they also reduce the degree of retro-
gradation of starch (cf. pp. 62 and 209). They
include calcium and sodium stearoyl lactylates
(CSL, SSL) and mono- and di-acetyl tartaric
esters of mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids
(DATEM), and are used at levels of about 0.5%
On flour Wt (HoseneY, 1986). The Bread and
Flour Regulations 1984 Permit the use of SSL,
UP to a maximum of 5 g/kg of bread, in all bread,
and of DATEM esters, with no limit specified,
in a11 bread-
Stearoy/-Z-/acty/ates
Calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate (CSL) and sodium
stearoY1-2-1actY1ate (SSL) are the salts of the
reaction product between lactic and stearic acids.
CSL (‘Verv’) and SSL (‘Emplex’) are dough
improving and anti-staling agents; they increase
gas retention, shorten proving time and increase
loaf volume. They increase the tolerance of dough
to mixing, and widen the range over which good-
quality bread can be produced. The use of CSL
have good to1erance* Addition Of improvers Or
help withstand mechanical abuse during proces-
200 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
or SSL permits the use of a considerable propor-
tion of non-wheat flours in ‘composite flours’ to
Commercial processes for making white
bread
make bread Of good quality bY Ordinary procedures
(cf* P* 214). A typica1 cornPosite breadmaking
A white pan loaf of good quality is character-
ized by having sufficient volume, an attractive
‘Our wou1d contain (in parts) wheat flour 70’
maize Or caSSava starch 25’ soya flour 5’ csL
0.5-1.0, plus yeast, sugar, salt and water. The
nutritive value of such bread has been shown
to be superior to that Of bread containing Only
wheat flour’ sa1t’ yeast and water’ Use Of csL
and SSL has been permitted in the U.S.A. since
1961.
appearance as regards shape and colour, and a
crumb that is finely and evenly vesiculated and
soft enough for easy mastication, yet firm enough
to pemit thin slicing. A mOre open crumb
structure is characteristic of other varieties, e.g.
Vienna bread and French bread. The attainment
of good quality in bread depends panly on the
inherent characteristics of the ingredients -
particularly the flour - and partly on the baking
process.
In the U.K., white bread comprised about
The brown colour of the crust of bread 52% of the total bread eaten in the home in
1989. Methods used for commercial production
of white bread differ principally according to the
way in which the dough is developed. This may
be:
- biologically, by yeast fermentation. Examples:
bulk (long) fermentation processes (Straight
dough system; Sponge and dough system);
- mechanically, by intense mixing and use of
oxidizing agents. Examples: J. C. Baker’s
‘Do-Maker’ process and AMFLOW processes
(continuous); Chorleywood Bread Process;
Spiral Mixing Method;
- chemically, by use of reducing and oxidizing
agents. Example: Activated Dough Develop-
ment (ADD) process.
Colour of bread crust and crumb
is probably due to melanoidins formed by a
non-enzymic ‘browning reaction’ (Maillard type)
between amino acids, dextrins and reducing
carbohydrates. Addition of amino acids to flours
giving pale crust colour results in improvement
of colour. The glaze on the crust of bread is due,
in part, to starch gelatinization which occurs
when the oven humidity is high. An under-ripe
dough which still contains a fairly high sugar
content will give a loaf of high crust colour:
conversely, an over-ripe dough gives a loaf of pale
crust colour.
The perceived colour of bread crumb is influ-
enced by the colour, degree of bleach, and
extraction rate of the flour; the use of fat,
milk powder, soya flour or malt flour in the
recipe; the degree of fermentation; the extent
within the dough and the method Of panning -
cross-panning and twisting to increase light-
reflectance.
to which the mixing process disperses bubb1es
In the bulk fermentation process, some of the
starch, after breakdown to sugars, is converted
to alcohol and carbon dioxide, both of which are
volatile and are lost from the dough (cf. p. 197).
The bulk fermentation process is thus a wasteful
method, and processes which utilize mechanical
or chemical development of the dough offer
Bread aroma and flavour
The aroma of bread results from the interaction considerable economic advantages, as there is less
of reducing sugars and amino compounds, accom- breakdown of the starch, as well as being much
panied by the formation of aldehydes. Aroma is more rapid.
also affected by the products of alcoholic and, in Other rapid methods include the Continental
some cases, lactic acid fermentation - organic No-time process (or Spiral Mixing Method), the
acids, alcohols, esters. The flavour of bread Emergency No-time process and the Aeration or
resides chiefly in the crust. Gas-injection process.
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 201
added to flour at the recommended levels, will
add not more than 150 mg/kg of ascorbic acid
and/or 35 mg/kg of azodicarbonamide.
After about 2 h in a 3 h fermentation process,
the dough is 'knocked back', i.e. manipulated to
push out the gas that has been evolved in order
to even out the temperature and give more
thorough mixing.
After another hour's rising, the dough is divided
into loaf-sized portions and these are roughly
Straight dough system
In a representative procedure, the ingredients shaped. The dough pieces rest at about 27°C for
for a 100-kg 3-h dough would be 100 kg of flour, 10-15 min. ('1st proof') and are then moulded
with probably 1 kg of yeast, 2 kg of salt, 1 kg of into the final shape, during which the dough is
fat and 55-57 kg of water at a temperature that mechanically worked to tighten it so that the gas
will bring the mixture to about 27°C after mixing. is better distributed and retained, and placed in
Until the prohibition of its use in the U.K. in tins. The final mould is very important in giving
April, 1990 (MAFF, 1990), potassium bromate good texture in bulk-fermented bread. It is dur-
would generally have been added to the flour by ing the rounding and moulding processes that
the miller at a rate of 15 mg/kg. The yeast is the bubble structure, resulting in a satisfactory
dispersed in some of the water, the salt dissolved crumb structure, is developed: bubbles that have
in another portion. All these ingredients, together been inflated during the fermentation are sub-
with the rest of the water, are then blended and divided to produce a greater number of smaller
mixed in a low speed mixer during 10-20 min, bubbles.
during which there may be a temperature rise of The dough rests again in the tins for the final
2°C. The resulting dough is set aside while proof of 45-60 min at 43°C and 8045% r.h.,
fermentation proceeds. and it is the carbon dioxide evolved during the
As an alternative to treatment of the flour with final proof that inflates the dough irreversibly.
potassium bromate, the miller can use ascorbic The dough is then baked in the oven at a
acid at a rate of 15 mg/kg, or azodicarbonamide temperature of 235°C for 20-40 min, depending
at a level of 5 mg/kg. If the bulk fermentation on loaf size, with steam injected into the oven to
time is 1 h or longer, no further treatment of produce a glaze on the crust.
the flour with oxidizing agents by the baker is A number of changes take place as the temper-
required. For use in a bulk fermentation process ature of the dough rises at the beginning of
of 30 min or less, the baker would probably add baking:
a further 50-100 mg/kg of ascorbic acid or 20-
30 mg/kg of azodicarbonamide, as one of the - the rate of gas production increases;
functions of oxidizing agents is to shorten the - at about 45°C the undamaged starch granules
fermentation time. begin to gelatinize and are attacked by
The Bread and Flour Regulations 1984 permit
the use, in the U.K., of up to 200 mg/kg of
ascorbic acid in all bread, and of up to 45 mg/kg
of azodicarbonamide in all bread except whole-
meal. To avoid the accidental breaching of these
Regulations, a Code of Practice has been agreed,
by which millers will add not more than 50 mg/kg
of ascorbic acid and/or 10 mg/kg of azodicarbon-
amide to flour at the mill, while improver manu-
facturers will ensure that their products, when
Bulk (long) fermentation process
The bread is made by mixing a dough from
flour, water, yeast, fat and salt, allowing the
dough to rest at a temperature of 26"-27°C while
fermentation and gluten ripening take place, and
then baking in the oven.
alpha-amylase, yielding fermentable sugars;
- between 50" and 60°C the yeast is killed;
- at about 65°C the beta-amylase is thermally
- at about 75°C the fungal amylase is inactivated;
- at about 87°C the cereal alpha-amylase is
inactivated;
- finally, the gluten is denatured and coagu-
lates, stabilizing the shape and size of the
loaf.
inactivated;
202 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
Sponge and dough system
When the bulk fermentation process is used in
England, the straight dough system is generally
employed. But in the U.S.A., to some extent in
Scotland, and occasionally in England, a sponge
and dough system is used.
straight dough system in that only part of the
flour is mixed at first with some or all of the yeast,
some or all of the salt, and sufficient water to
make a dough, which is allowed to ferment for
some hours at 21°C. The sponge (as this first
dough is called) is then broken down by remixing,
and the remainder of the flour, water and salt,
and all the fat added to make a dough of the
required consistency. Addition of oxidizing agents
- ascorbic acid alone or ascorbic acid plus
azodicarbonamide - would usually be made at
the dough stage’ The dough is given a short
fermentation at 27°C before proving and baking.
Further details of the procedure are to be found
bakeries, peel, reel or rack ovens have now largely
replaced drawplate ovens. In larger bakeries, so-
called ‘travelling’ ovens are used. In these, the
doughs are placed on endless bands which travel
through the oven. The oven is tunnel-shaped and
possibly 18.3 m (60 ft) long.
The Bulk Fermentation Process is now used
mercially-made bread in the U.K. : the principal
users would be plant bakeries in Scotland and
small bakeries, some of which prefer the sponge
and dough system.
Mechanical development processes
Continuous doughmaking
A further stage in the mechanization of bread-
making is represented by the continuous bread-
making process, exemplified by the Wallace and
Tiernan Do-Maker Process, based on the work
of J. C. Baker, which was formerly used in the
The sponge and dough system differs from the
to make probably not more than 10% of all corn-
in The Master Bakers’ Book Of Breadmaking
(Brown, 1982)* The sponge and dough system is
U.K. and the U.S.A. About 35% of U.S. bread
was made by the Baker process in 1969. In the
said to produce bread that has a fuller flavour
than that made by the straight dough system. A
Bakers’ Grade flour of, say, 12% protein content
stage requires a stronger flour of, say, 13% protein
content. About 65% of all bread in the U.S.A. is
made by the sponge and dough system.
process, first used in the U.K. in 1956 (see Anon.,
1957), the flour, spouted from a hopper, is
continuously mixed with a liquid pre-ferment or
pre-ferment is a mixture consisting of a sugar
solution with yeast, salt, melted fat and oxidizing
agents which is fermented for 2-4 h. The dough
is allowed no fermentation time, but instead is
subjected to intense mechanical mixing whereby
the correct degree of ripeness for proving and
baking is obtained. In the absence of fermenta-
tion, it is essential to incorporate an appropriate
quantity of oxidizing agent into the dough. The
dough is extruded through a pipe, cut off into
loaf-sized portions, proved and baked. The Do-
Maker Process gives bread with a characteristic
and very even crumb texture. Considerable time
is saved, in comparison with bulk fermentation
processes.
The AMFLOW process has an overall similarity
to the Do-Maker process, but features a multistage
pre-ferment containing flour, and a horizontal,
In the U.S.A., the Do-Maker and AMFLOW
is suitab1e for the dough stage, but the sponge
‘brew) in electronically regulated quantities. The
Plant baking
In the small bakeries, most of the processes
of dividing, moulding, placing in the proving
cabinets and the oven and withdrawing therefrom
are carried out by hand. However, disadvantages
of hand-processing are lack of uniformity in the
products and the excessive amount of labour
involved. In large bakeries, machines carry out
all these processes. Mixers are of the closed bowl
high-speed type, consuming a total quantity of
energy (including no-load power) of 7.2-14.4 kJ1
kg (1-4 Wh/kg) and taking 15-20 min. Dough
dividers divide the dough by volume: automatic
provers have built-in controls giving correct instead of a vertical, development chamber.
temperature and relative humidity. In the smaller
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 203
processes are being replaced by the sponge and the bread grist, it will be desirable for the miller
dough processes or by the CBP. The Do-Maker to formulate the grist in such a way that the work
and AMFLOW processes are no longer used in input requirement is maintained at, or near,
the U.K. 11 Wh/kg. For an average grist, the quality of the
bread, in respect of loaf volume and fineness of
crumb structure, improves at work input levels
from 7 to 11 Wh/kg, but at 13 Wh/kg or more
Chorle ywood Bread Process (CBP)
This is a batch or continuous process in which the structure of crumb deteriorates. Work input
dough development is achieved during mixing by level is monitored by a watt-hour meter and a
intense mechanical working of the dough in a counter unit attached to the mixer motor. The
short time, and bulk fermentation is eliminated. total work input required - dough wt in kg x
The process was devized in 1961 by cereal scientists 11 - is set on the counter unit, and the mixer
and bakers at the British Baking Industries motor is automatically switched off when the
Research Association, Chorleywood, Herts, determined amount of work has been performed.
England (Chamberlain et al., 1962; Axford et al., One reason for the intense and rapid mixing is
1963). It is necessary to use a special high-speed that it brings the molecules rapidly into contact
mixer for mixing the dough. The process is with the oxidizing agents. During the intense
characterized by: mechanical development, a gas bubble structure
is created in the dough which, provided the dough
- the expenditure of a considerable, but care-
is properly handled, is expanded in proof and
fully controlled, amount of work (1 1 Wh/kg;
becomes the loaf crumb structure.
40 J/g) On the dough during a period Of 24
Final dough temperature after mixing should
min;
be 28"-30"C, but as the mixing process causes a
- chemical oxidation with ascorbic acid (vitamin
temperature rise of 14"-15"C, the doughing water
C) alone or with potassium bromate (if allowed)
may have to be cooled, and a water-cooling unit
at a relatively high total level, viz. 100 mg/
is generally a part of the plant.
kg, or with azodicarbonamide at a level of 20-
The use of potassium bromate is no longer
azodicarbonamide;
not used as an oxidizing agent, the use of ascorbic
- addition of fat (about 0.7% on flour wt) -
acid instead, at a level of 100 mg/kg, may not be
this is essential - of which 5% (0.035% on
adequate to maintain loaf volume if the dough
flour wt) should be high melting point fat
is mixed under partial vacuum. Under these
conditions, the use of azodicarbonamide at a level
which will still be solid at 38°C;
- use of extra water (3.5% more than normal,
of 20-30 mg/kg, in addition to the ascorbic acid,
would be beneficial (cf. p. 176).
based on flour wt);
- absence of any pre-ferment or liquid ferment;
To achieve the full oxidation potential of the
- a higher level of yeast, 2% on flour wt, than
ascorbic acid, an adequate concentration of oxygen
in the mixing machine bowl is essential: this
is used in the BFP;
- a first proof of 2-10 min, after dividing and
requirement may be partially met by eliminating
rounding, followed by conventional moulding
the vacuum, so that the dough is mixed in air,
and final proof.
or, more effectively, by filling the head space of
The level of work input is critical, but is the mixer with an oxygen-enriched atmosphere,
dependent on the genetic make-up or strength of e.g. 60% oxygen/40% nitrogen, equivalent to a
the wheat. Thus, while a figure of 11 Wh/kg is 50/50 mixture of oxygen and air.
applicable to dough made from an average grist, Further improvement in loaf volume, if potas-
there are certain U.K. wheat varieties, e.g. Fresco, sium bromate is not being used, could be achieved
the flour from which, if used alone, would require by changing to a flour of slightly higher protein
17-20 Wh/kg. If such varieties are included in content or by adding vital gluten, by increasing
30 mg/kg Or with both ascorbic acid and
perfitted in the U.K.; if potassium bromate is
25-40 min
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 205
L-cysteine hydrochloride (corresponding to about
27 mg/kg of L-cysteine) with 25 mg/kg of potas-
sium bromate plus 50 mg/kg of ascorbic acid.
These levels are based on the use of flour of 12%
protein content that has already been treated at
the mill with up to 20 mg/kg of potassium
bromate.
The ADD process was introduced to the baking
industry by the British Baking Industries Research
Association in 1966, but the process could not be
used commercially in the U.K. until 1972, when
the use of L-cysteine hydrochloride was permitted
by the Bread and Flour (Amendment) Regulations
1972 (MAFF, 1972). Potassium bromate and
ascorbic acid were listed in the Bread and Flour
Regulations 1984 (MAFF, 1984) as permitted
improvers, but potassium bromate was removed
from the list of improvers permitted in the U.K.
the reformulation of additives used in the ADD.
Replacement of potassium bromate by additional
ascorbic acid or azodicarbonamide (within the
maximum permitted limits) is not an ideal solu-
tion, as the balance between the oxidizing and
reducing agents is upset, and hence, ADD is no
longer a viable method in the U.K.
Chemical development process
The optimum work input for mechanical dough
development is lowered if a proportion of the
disulphide bonds are broken chemically by the
introduction of a reducing agent.
The Activated Dough Development process
(ADD) achieves dough development without
either bulk fermentation or mechanical develop-
ment. A relatively rapid-acting reducing agent,
L-cysteine, and a relatively slow-acting oxidizing
agent, potassium bromate, or a mixture of potas-
sium bromate and ascorbic acid, are added at the
dough mixing stage, using conventional, low-
speed, mixing equipment. All the ingredients,
which include 2% of yeast, 0.7-1.0% of fat, and
extra water, as for the CBP, are mixed together
for 10-20 min, and the dough temperature after
accelerates the uncoiling and reorientation of the
protein molecules and the oxidizing agent follows
up by stimulating the formation of cross links to
stabilize the desired elastic three-dimensional
gluten network.
During mixing, air is entrained in the dough,
starting the process of cell formation which is
continued throughout the subsequent stages of
dough dividing, rounding, first proof of 6-10
min, and final moulding. During the final proof
of 45-55 min (as for the BFP and the CBP)
sufficient gas to inflate the dough is produced by
activity of the yeast.
The ADD requires the use of a Bakers’ Grade
flour of about 12% protein content as used in the
BFP; the lower protein content flours used in the
CBP are not suitable for the ADD. Apart from
this restriction on flour quality, the ADD offers
most of the advantages over the BFP that are
claimed by the CBP and, in addition, the ADD
does not require the use of a special high-speed
mixer.
The ADD was used by hot-bread shops, in-
store bakeries and family bakers, and accounted
for 5-10% of all bread made commercially in the
U.K.
The usual levels of addition of reducing and
oxidizing agents are 35 mg/kg on flour wt of
mixing shou1d be 280-300c’ The reducing agent
in April, 1990 (MAFF, 1990), thereby necessitahg
EC policy regarding additives
Additives will only be included in a permitted
list if a reasonable technological need is demon-
strated, and if this need cannot be achieved by
other means that are economically and techno-
logically practicable. Furthermore, the additives
must present no hazard to health at the levels
of use proposed, and they must not mislead
the customer. ‘Need’ is understood to mean
preservation of nutritional quality; the meeting
of special dietary requirements; enhancement
of keeping quality, stability and organoleptic
properties; or providing aid in manufacture,
processing, preparation, treatment, packaging,
transport or storage. Specified additives are to be
allowed only in specified foods, and at levels not
exceeding those required to achieve the desired
effect (Spencer, 1989).
206 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
Other rapid methods
No-time continental process
This process, also known as the Spiral Mixing
Method, avoids a long bulk-fermentation, the use
of a high-speed mixer, and the addition of L-
cysteine and potassium bromate. In this process,
all the ingredients are mixed together for 8-11
min in a special open-bowl mixer equipped with
a spiral-shaped beater; the action of the mixer is
faster and more vigorous than that of the low-
speed mixers used in the BFP, but not so intense
as that which is necessary for the CBP. The
mixing action incorporates more air, and hence
oxygen, in the dough, thereby improving cell
creation and increasing the effectiveness of ascorbic
acid.
The ingredients used would include a higher
processes, 2% of salt, about 60 pt of water per
100 pt of flour, fat, ascorbic acid, emulsifier,
fungal amylase and sugar. The dough temperature
fermentation (15-30 min) follows mixing. This
process is widely used on the Continent of Europe
and is being used increasingly in the U.K.,
particularly in small bakeries.
mixing soda water (water charged with carbon
dioxide gas) and flour under pressure. When the
pressure was released the dough expanded and
was immediately divided and baked. The whole
process, including baking, took 90 min. A modern
equivalent is the Oakes Special Bread Process, a
continuous system in which carbon dioxide gas
is injected into the developing dough. Neither
process is in commercial use for making standard
bread.
Microwave and radio frequency baking
The use of microwave (MW) energy for
baking bread was investigated at the Flour Milling
and Baking Research Association (FMBRA),
Chorleywood, England, (Chamberlain, 1973).
Microwave energy, generated by a magnetron,
and transmitted by radiation of frequency from
very rapidly and cooks the loaf uniformly
throughout.
Another source of energy that has been investi-
27 MHz, which similarly heats the loaf rapidly
throughout.
Commercial application of MW baking has not
so far (1992) been possible because of the unavail-
ability of a thermostable material for the pans
which has the mechanical properties of metal but
is freely permeable to microwave radiation. It is
reported that the RF method can be operated
with Conveyors, baking pans and foil containers
made of metal, and RF Ovens are now commer-
cially available for making bread, biscuits and
other cereal-based products.
In both MW and RF baking, the dough is held
for only a short period within the temperature
range at which the activity ofalpha-amylase is un-
welcome, thereby permitting the use of a wheat
grist of figher alpha-mylase activity than would be
acceptable for conventional baking. Moreover, in
conventional baking, the gases evolved are rapidly
lost unless the protein content of the flour is high
enough - say 10.5'/0 or more - to confer
adequate strength to the walls of the crumb cells.
In both MW and RF baking, however, the rate
of gas production exceeds the rate of gas loss
level Of yeast (3% On flour wt> than used in Other
about 900 MHz upwards, penetrates the dough
aimed at is 26"-28"c. A short period Of bu1k
gated is radio frequency (RF) energy, of about
Emergency no-time dough
This is a Short System, Somewhat resembling
the No-time Continental process, that is used
occasionally in the U.S.A. and the U.K., particu-
larlY for emergency Production- The dough is
made, using a larger amount of yeast, e.g. 2.5%
on flour wt, and a higher temperature, e.g.
30"-32"C, than are Usual for normal fermentation
systems, and is immediately scaled off. Final
moulding follows after about 15 mi% and the
dough Pieces are Proved for 1 h at 43°C before
baking. The bread has a coarse, thick-walled
crumb structure, and it stales rapidly.
Aeration (gas-injection) process
In 1860 Dauglish described a rapid bread-
making method in which a dough was made by
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 207
attractive crispness of freshly baked bread is lost.
Extensive drying during cooling results in weight
loss (and possible contravention of the Weights
and Measures Act in the U.K.), and in poor
crumb characteristics. The aim in cooling is
therefore to lower the temperature without much
change in moisture content. This may be achieved
by subjecting the loaves to a counter-current of
air conditioned to about 21°C and 80% r.h. The
time taken for cooling 800 g loaves by this method
(because the dough is heated rapidly throughout):
hence, high protein content in the flour is not
obligatory. In fact, flour of 7.5% protein content
was used experimentally at the FMBRA to produce
bread by MW baking that compared favourably
with bread conventionally baked from flour of
normal protein content. Thus, a further impetus
towards the commercial application of RF heating
would be a substantial price differential in favour
of west-European wheat (of lower protein content,
and often of high alpha-amylase activity) as is 2-3 h.
against imported, non-EC, strong wheat.
Baking by MW or RF alone produces crustless
Automation
bread. A crust can be developed by applying
thermal radiation, in the form of hot air, simul- Recent developments that increase the efficiency
taneously during a total baking time of less of the plant baking process include the use of load
than 10 min for a standard 800 g loaf. The Air cells for weighing the ingredients and controlling
Radio Frequency Assisted (ARFA) oven there- ingredient proportions in the mixer, and the use
fore combines air radio frequency and convected of the microelectronics for temperature corrective
hot air in a technique developed by the Electricity feedback and consistency corrective feedback
Council Research Centre, Capenhurst, England (Baker, 1988). Another development is the intro-
(Anon., 1987, 1988b). However, there is to date duction of computer-programmed mixers and
(1992) no known commercial application of ARFA plants.
for breadmaking.
Bread moisture content
There is no legal standard for the moisture
Frozen dough
The use of frozen dough, which can conveniently content of bread in the U. K. The moisture
be stored, has recently increased in popularity, content of American and of Dutch bread must
e.g. for in-store bakeries. The best results are not exceed 38%. In Australia the maximum
obtained if ascorbic acid is used as the oxidant, permitted moisture content in any portion weighing
and if the doughs are frozen before fermentation 5 g or more is 45% for white bread, 48% for brown
and then stored at a constant temperature to and wholemeal. In New Zealand, 45% is the
avoid problems associated with the melting of ice maximum moisture content similarly permitted
crystals. in any bread.
Bread cooling Bread weights
The cooling of bread is a problem in mechanical
production, particularly when the bread is to be
wrapped and/or sliced before sale. Bread leaves
the oven with the centre of the crumb at a
temperature of about 96°C and cools rapidly.
During cooling, moisture moves from the interior
outwards towards the crust and thence to the
atmosphere. If the moisture content of the crust
rises considerably during cooling, the texture of
the crust becomes leathery and tough, and the
In the U.K., standard bread weights were 1 lb
and 2 lb until 6 May 1946, when weights were
reduced to 14 oz and 28 oz. From 1 May 1978
loaves sold in the U.K. weighing more than 300 g
(10.6 oz) were required to weigh 400 g or a
multiple of 400 g.
In Belgium, loaves weighing more than 300 g
must weigh 400 g or multiples of 400 g. In
Germany, prescribed weights for unsliced bread
were 500 g and then multiples of 250 g up to
208 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
2000 g, and above 2000 g by multiples of 500 g. averages 40%, thus giving a practical requirement
Prescribed weights for sliced bread were 125 g, of 1 MJ (948 Btu) per nominal 800 g loaf plus pan:
250 g, and then by multiples of 250 g to 1500 g, 750 kJ (71 1 Btu) for the 800 g loaf alone, equivalent
and then by multiples of 500 g to 3000 g. to 937 kJ (889 Btu) per kg of bread (without pan).
From 1980, enforcement of bread weight Additional energy is used in conveyors, final
regulation in the U.K. has taken place at the point proof, cooling, slicing, wrapping of bread, but
of manufacture rather than, as formerly, at the these amounts are small in relation to the
point of sale, and is based on the average weight energy used for baking (Cornford, S. J., private
of a batch rather than on the weight of an communication, 1979).
individual loaf. A breakdown of the total energy requirements
for making a white loaf, including energy used in
growing the wheat, milling the wheat, baking the
bread, and selling the bread, is shown in Table 8.1.
Yield of bread
Using the CBP, 100 kg of white flour at 14%
m.c. produce an average 180 loaves of nominal TABLE 8.1
weight 800 g (average 807 g) containing an Energy Requirements for Making a
White Loaf
average of 39% of moisture (total bread yield from
100 kg of flour: 145 kg of bread). Thus, a nominal
Percentage of total
energy required
800 g loaf is made from an average of 556 g of
flour at natural m.c. (478 g on dry basis) and
Tractors 5.3
Fertilizers 11.1
3.0 19.4
14 g of dry matter are contributed by non-flour Drying, sprays
constituents). Milling the wheat
Direct fuel and power 7.4
Other 2.1
Energy consumption in making bread Packaging 1.3
Transporting 2.0 12.8
30.2
800 g loaf, for the mixing process. The bulk ~~~t~~~dpower
17.3
fermentation process uses about one-fifth of this Packaging 9.0
amount for mixing, but some additional energy Transporting 7.8 64.3
99.9
Growing wheat
contains on average 492 g of dry matter (i.e.
The CBP uses 40 J/g of dough, or 35.7 kJ per
Baking
Shops 3.4 3.4
is used in heating the water for doughmaking.
In the baking process, the heat required com-
prises the heat needed to raise the temperature
of the dough piece from that of the prover (about
40°C) to that at the oven exit (about 96°C); the
latent heat of evaporation of the water changed
to steam, and the heat required to raise the
temperature of that steam to that of the oven;
and the heat required to raise the temperature of
the pan to the oven exit temperature.
Thus, for baking a nominal 800 g loaf (with
flour at 14% m.c., water absorption 60.7% on
flour wt, and oven loss 65 g), about 400 kJ (379 Btu)
theoretical are required. This figure is made up
of about 300 kJ (284 Btu) for the loaf itself plus
about 100 kJ (95 Btu) for the pan. Oven efficiency
depends on oven type and quantity of steam
used for conditioning the oven atmosphere, and
Data from Leach (1975).
Other kinds of bread
Brown and wholemeal breads
When using the bulk fermentation process, the
level of fat used in brown and wholemeal breads
is generally raised to about 1.5% on flour wt (as
compared with 1% for white bread) because the
fat requirement for brown flour and wholemeal
is more variable than that for white flour. With
the CBP, it is essential to raise the fat level in
this way for brown and wholemeal breads.
A short fermentation system is generally used
for wholemeal bread. For example, the dough
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 209
to sprout, kiln dried and rolled. To this is added might be allowed to ferment for 1 h before
knocking back, plus 30 min to scaling and barley malt.
moulding, at an appropriate yeast level and
temperature.
Wheat germ bread
This is made from white flour with the addition
of not less than 10% of processed germ (cf.
p. 153) which has been heat-treated to stabilize
the lipid content and to destroy glutathione, a
Bread staling
component which has an adverse effect on bread
quality. A fermentation process to inactivate
glutathione, as an alternative to heat treatment, Staling of bread crumb is not a drying-out
was described in Australia in 1940. process: loss of moisture is not involved in true
crumb staling. The basic cause of staling is a slow
change in the starch, called retrogradation, at
temperatures below 55°C from an amorphous to
Gluten bread: High-protein bread
These breads are made by supplementing flour a crystalline form, the latter binding considerably
with a protein source, such as wheat vital gluten, less water than the former. This change leads to
whey extract, casein, yeast, soya flour. Procea a rapid hardening, a toughening of the crust and
and Slimcea are proprietary breads in which the firming of the crumb, loss of flavour, increase in
additional protein is provided by wheat gluten. opaqueness of the crumb, migration of water
However, most bread now made in the U.K. from crumb to crust, and to shrinkage of the
and in numerous other countries contains a starch granules away from the gluten skeleton
small amount of added vital wheat gluten (cf. p. with which they are associated, with consequent
195) depending on the protein content of the development of crumbliness (Hoseney, 1986).
flour. The rate at which staling proceeds is dependent
on the temperature of storage: the rate is at a
maximum at 4"C, close to the temperature inside
a domestic refrigerator, decreasing at temper-
High-fibre bread
This bread has both higher fibre content and atures below and above 4°C. Staling can be
fewer calories per unit than normal bread. The prevented if bread is stored at temperatures above
high fibre content is achieved by addition of 55°C (although this leads to loss of crispness
various supplements, such as cracked or kibbled and the probability of rope development) or at
wheat, wheat bran, or powdered cellulose. A type -2O"C, e.g. in a deep freezer.
of cellulose used in the U.S.A. , called Solka-Floc, As the amylose (straight-chain) portion of the
is delignified alpha-cellulose obtained from wood; starch is insolubilized during baking or during
usage levels are 5-10%. The use in the U.K. of the first day of storage, it is considered that
alpha-cellulose or the sodium salt of carboxymethyl staling is due to heat-reversible aggregation of
cellulose in bread, for which a slimming claim is the amylopectin (branched-chain) portion of the
made, is permitted by the Bread and Flour starch.
Regulations 1984 (MAFF, 1984). However, starch crystallization cannot account
for all the crumb firming that occurs at temper-
atures above 21"C, and it has been suggested by
Willhoft (1973) that moisture migration from
Granary bread
This is a proprietary bread made from a protein to starch occurs, leading to rigidification
mixture of wheat and rye which has been allowed of the gluten network, and contributing to crumb
Speciality breads
Other 'special' breads include pain d'ipice,
fruit breads, malt loaves, mixed grain bread, bran
bread, etc.
Bread staling and preservation
210 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
firming. See reviews of the subject by Radley
(1968) and Elton (1969); see also Pomeranz (1971,
1980), and Pomeranz and Shellenberger (1971).
Emulsifiers like monoglycerides retard the rate
of starch retrogradation. Monoglycerides, when
added at the mixing stage, first react with free,
soluble amylose to form an amylose-lipid complex.
When the rate of addition exceeds 1%, all the free
amylose is complexed and the monoglycerides
begin to interact with the amylopectin, thereby
retarding retrogradation (Krog et al., 1989).
bread is also permitted legally in Denmark,
Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain.
Other means of preservation include the use of
sorbic acid-impregnated wrappers, y-irradiation
with 5 x lo5 rad, or infra-red irradiation.
Gas-packaging, with an atmosphere of carbon
dioxide, nitrogen or sulphur dioxide replacing
air, has been used in an attempt to extend the
mould-free shelf life of baked goods. However,
even in an 'anaerobic environment' of 60% COZ
plus 40% N2 the fungi Aspergillus niger and
Penicillium spp. may appear after 16 days unless
the concentration of oxygen can be kept at 0.05%
or lower. The use of impermeable packaging to
prevent entry of oxygen is very expensive; a less
expensive alternative is to include an oxygen
absorbent, such as active iron oxide, in the
packaging. By this means, the mould-free shelf
(Smith et al., 1987).
A so-called '90-day loaf' is packaged in nyloll-
polypropylene laminate and the interior air partly
replaced by carbon dioxide. The packaged loaf
is then sterilized by infra-red radiation. None of
these methods prevents the onset of true staling.
Freezing
Freezing of bread at -20°C is the most
favourable method of preserving the freshness of
bread. Suitably packed, the bread remains usable
almost indefinitely.
Part-baking of soft rolls and French bread is a
technique now widely used in hot bread shops,
Bread preservation
The expected shelf-life of bread made in the in-store bakeries, bake-off units in non-bakery
U.K. is about 5 days for white, 3-4 days for shops, catering establishments, and domestically.
wholemeal and brown, and 2-3 days for crusty. In this process, doughs for soft rolls would be
Thereafter, bread becomes unacceptable because proved at about 43°C and 80% r.h., those for
of staling, drying out, loss of crispness of crust, French bread at about 32°C and 70% r.h. The
or mould development. proved doughs are then baked just sufficiently to
Mould development can be delayed or prevented kill the yeast, inactivate the enzymes and set the
by addition of propionic acid or its sodium, structure, but producing little crust colour or
calcium or potassium salts, all of which are moisture loss. Temperature for part-baking would
permitted by the Bread and Flour Regulations be about 180°C. The part-baked product can then
1984 at levels not exceeding 3 g/kg flour (calculated be deep-frozen at, say, - lS"C, or stored at
as propionic acid), or by addition of sorbic acid ambient temperature until required. The final
(not permitted in the U.K. or the U.S.A.). Use bake-off at the point of use, at a temperature
of propionic acid to delay mould development in of about 280"C, defrosts the frozen product,
Rope
Freshly-milled flour contains bacteria and mould
spores, but these normally cause no trouble in
bread under ordinary conditions of baking and
of bacteria are killed at oven temperature, but
spores of some of the bacteria survive, and may
proliferate in the loaf if conditions are favourable,
causing a disease of the bread known as 'rope'.
Ropy bread is characterized by the presence in
the crumb of yellow-brown spots and an objection-
able odour. The organisms responsible are
members of the B. subtilis var. mesentericus group
and B. lichenzformis. Proliferation of the bacteria
is discouraged by acidic conditions in the dough,
e*g. by addition Of 5*4-7'1 g Of ACP Or 9 m1 Of
12% acetic acid per kg of flour.
storage* Mou1d 'pores and the vegetative forms
life of crusty rolls has been increased to 60 days
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 21 1
increases the crust colour to normal, and reverses breadmaking purposes. Rye flour with high
all the staling that may have taken place. maltose figure (e.g. 3.5) and low amylograph
value (350 or less) is of poor baking quality. Rye
flours with Falling number (cf. p. 183) below 80
use Of cerea’s Other than wheat in bread
produce loaves with sticky crumb, but rye flour
The statement of Atkins (1971) that “bread is with FN 90-110 can be processed into acceptable
fundamentally foamed gluten” can be correctly bread with the aid of additives, acidifiers and
applied only to bread in which wheat flour or emulsifiers to compensate for the effects of sprout
meal is the sole or dominant cereal, because the damage. Such additives would include an acidifier
protein in other cereals, on hydration, does not to adjust the pH to 4.0-4.2, 2% of salt (on flour
form gluten which is comparable in rheological wt), 0.2-0.5% of emulsifier, 1-3% of gelatinized
properties with wheat gluten. flour (Gebhardt and Lehrack, 1988).
The flour of cereals other than wheat is used Deterioration of baking quality of rye during
for breadmaking in two ways: either blended with storage is better indicated by glutamic acid
wheat flour, in a form sometimes known as decarboxylase activity than by Falling Number
‘composite flour’ (cf. p. 214), or as the sole cereal (Kookman and Linko, 1966).
component. Bread made from composite flour The possibility that rye may be infected, in the
employs conventional baking processes, but when field, with ergot (Claviceps purpurea) has been
a non-wheat flour is used alone it is usual to make discussed elsewhere (cf. p. 15).
use of a gluten substitute (cf. p. 215). Rye flour, The protein in rye flour is less important than
however, is exceptional in that bread made from the protein in wheat flour. The rye protein, when
it as the sole cereal component does not require hydrated, does not form gluten because the
the addition of a gluten substitute. proportion of the protein that is soluble is much
larger in rye than in wheat (up to 80% soluble in
rye sour dough as compared with 10% soluble
Rye
protein in wheat dough), and because the high
Rye flour and meal are used for the production content of pentosans inhibits the formation of
of numerous types of bread, both soft bread gluten (Drews and Seibel, 1976). Conversely, the
and crispbread, and rye is regarded as a bread pentosans and starch in rye are much more
grain in Germany and in most Eastern European important than in wheat (Telloke, 1980). The
countries (Drews and Seibel, 1976). pentosans, which comprise 47% of rye flour, and
In Europe, ‘rye bread’ is made from all rye the starch have an important water-binding func-
flour; ‘rye/wheat bread’ contains not less than tion in forming the crumb structure of rye bread.
50% of rye flour, with wheat flour making up the The pentosans, in particular, play a role in raising
remainder; ‘wheadrye bread’ implies a blend of the viscosity of rye dough. Rye flour can be fraction-
not less than 50% of wheat flour plus not less ated according to particle size to yield fractions
than 10% of rye flour. which vary in starch and pentosan contents. These
Factors that influence the baking potential fractions can then be blended to give an optimal
of rye flour include variety, environmental condi- ratio of pentosan to starch. A pentosan:starch
tions of growth and fertilizer use, activity of ratio of 1:16 to 1:18 is considered ideal.
amylase, protease and pentosanase enzymes, and The starch of rye gelatinizes at a relatively low
functions of carbohydrates and proteins. temperature, 55”-70°C, at which the activity of
alpha-amylase is at a maximum. In order to avoid
excessive amylolytic breakdown of the starch, a
normal salt level is used for making rye soft bread,
Soft bread
Under certain conditions rye grains germinate and the pH of the dough is lowered by acid modifica-
in the harvest field and then exhibit increased tion in a ‘sour dough’ process, preferably by lactic
enzymic activity which may be undesirable for acid fermentation with species of Lactobacillus.
212 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
Straight dough process
Yeast is Used for leavening' and the dough is
acidified by adding lactic acid or acidic citrates.
The dough is mixed slowly to prevent too much
viscosity of the pentosans.
All doughs containing rye flour have to be
acidified because sour conditions improve the
swelling power of the pentosans and also partly
inactivate the amylase, which would otherwise
have a detrimental effect on the baking process
Briimmer, 1991).
Conventional dough improvers are not widely
used in making rye or rye/wheat bread. Instead,
pregelatinized potato flour or maize starch or rice
starch may be added at a level of 3% (on flour
wt). These materials have high water-binding
capacity and increase the water absorption of the
dough. Other substances used with similar effect
include hydrocolloids and polysaccharide gums
such as locust bean and guar gums.
Staling of rye bread is less serious than that of
wheat bread, and shelf-life may be extended in
various ways: by the addition of malt flour or
pregelatinized potato flour or starch; by the use
of sour dough; or by wrapping while still warm.
Pumpernicke,
Pumpernickel is a type of soft rye bread made
from very coarse rye meal by a sour dough
process. A very long baking time (18-36 h)
is used, with a starting temperature of about
150°C being gradually lowered to about 110°C.
Pumpernickel has a long shelf-life.
Crispbread (Knackerbrot)
Rye crispbread is generally made from rye
wholemeal or flaked rye, using water or milk to
mix the dough, and may be fermented with yeast
(brown crispbread) or unfermented (white crisp-
bread). The traditional method used in Sweden
is to mix rye meal with snow or powdered ice;
expansion of the small air bubbles in the ice-cold
foam raises the dough when it is placed in the
oven. It is desirable to use rye flour or meal of
low alpha-amylase activity.
In one process, a dough made from rye whole-
meal, yeast, salt and water is fermented for 2-3 h
at 24"-27°C. After fermentation, the dough is
mixed for 5-6 min, proved for 30-60 min,
sheeted, dusted with rye flour, and cut to make
toughening that codd be caused by the high
and impair normal crumb formation (Seibel and
Sour-dough process
Sour doughs, containing lactic acid bacteria,
were probably in use for making bread as long
ago as 1800 B.C. in Eastern Mediterranean regions,
the process spreading to Germany between the 1st
and 6th centuries A.D., where it was used mainly
by monks and guilds (Seibel and Briimmer,
1991).
The sour dough is a sponge-and-dough process.
A starter dough is prepared by allowing a rye
dough to stand at 24"-27"C for several hours to
induce a natural lactic acid fermentation caused
by grain micro-organisms. Alternatively, rye dough
is inoculated with sour milk and rested for a few
hours, after which a pure culture of organic acids
(acetic, lactic, tartaric, citric, fumaric) is added
to simulate the flavour of a normally soured
dough. Part of the mature sour dough is retained
as a subsequent starter, while the remainder is
mixed with yeast and rye flour or rye wholemeal,
or a blend of rye and wheat flours, and acts as a
leavening agent in the making of rye sour bread
(Drews and Seibel, 1976).
The flavour of San Francisco sour dough bread
is due largely to lactic and acetic acids which are
produced from D-glucose by Lactobacillus, a
bacterium active in sour dough starter. The
starter is fermented for 2 h at 24"-26"C and then
held in a retarder for 10 h at 3"-6"C. The dough,
which incorporates 2-10% of starter (on flour wt
basis) besides vital gluten (1-2%), shortening,
yeast (2.5-4.0%), salt, sugar, yeast food and
water, is fermented for 30-60 min, scaled, rested
for 12-15 min, proved for 5-8 h, and baked
(1 lb loaves) for 30-35 min at 204"-218"C.
However, this long drawn-out process can be
avoided by using commercially available free-
flowing sour dough bases (Ziemke and Sanders,
1988; Seibel and Briimmer, 1991).
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 213
fermented for 3 hat 32°C. The rest ofthe triticale
flour was then added, with salt, 1.5% on flour
wt, and water, to give a dough yield of 160-165%,
and then fermented for 30 min at 32°C. The
loaves were baked at 235"-245"C (Haber and
Lewczuk, 1988). Bread made from all-triticale
flour stales more rapidly than all-wheat bread.
Bread made from 5O:SO or 75:25 blends of
triticale flour and wheat flour had higher specific
volumes (4.8; 4.9 ml/g) than the bread baked
from all wheat flour (4.4 ml/g); no deleterious
effect on crumb characteristics, viz. grain and
texture, resulted from the admixture of triticale
flour (Bakhshi et al., 1989).
Barley and oats
During World War 11, when supplies of impor-
ted wheat were restricted in Britain, the Govern-
ment authorized the addition of variable quantities
(up to 10% of the total grist in 1943) of barley, or
of barley and oats, to the grist for making bread
flour (cf. p. 93). For this purpose, the barley
was generally blocked (cf. p. 162) to remove the
husk, and the oats were used as dehusked groats
(cf. p. 166).
Good quality bread has been made in Norway
from a blend of 50% of wheat flour of 78%
extraction rate, 20% of barley flour of 60%
extraction rate, and 30% of wheat wholemeal,
using additional shortening (Magnus et al., 1987).
For use in bakery foods in the U.S.A., cleaned
oat grain is steam-heated to about 100°C and
then held in silos to be 'ovenized' by its own heat
for about 12 h. This process preserves the mineral
and vitamin contents, and conditions the oats.
The grain is then impact dehulled (cf. p. 167)
without previous kilning (McKechnie, 1983).
Rice
Bread of acceptable quality has been made from
a blend of 75 parts of wheat flour (12.1% protein
content, 14% m.c. basis) with 25 parts of rice
flour which had been partly gelatinized by extru-
sion. The rice flour was milled from rice grits
(7.32% protein content, 14% m.c. basis) which
were pregelatinized to 76.8% by extrusion, using
pieces about 7.6 X 7.6 cm (3 X 3 in) in size,
which are baked for 10-12 min at 216"-249°C.
The baked pieces are stacked on edge and dried
in a drying tunnel for 2-3 hat 93"-104°C to reduce
the moisture content to below 1%.
Ryvita is a crisp bread made from lightly salted
rye wholemeal.
Flat breads
A new type of crispbread product appeared in
the 1990s under the trade name 'Cracotte', manu-
factured from wheatflour by a continuous extru-
sion cooking process. In this process the flour of
about 16% m.c. is heated and sheared to form a
fluid melt at 13O"-16O0C in which starch forms
the continuous phase. After extrusion, it forms
a continuous strip of expanded foam (specific
volume 7-10 ml/g). Individual biscuits are cut
from the strip and packed like crispbreads. This
type of product, which has gained popularity in
many countries, may be manufactured from any
cereal type, and variations have appeared which
included rye, rice and maize, either as the minor
or major component in blends with wheat.
Triticale
The breadmaking characteristics of flour made
from early strains of triticale were discouraging,
although bread quality could be improved by
addition of dough conditioners. However, bread
of good quality has been made from recent
triticale selections. Bread baked commercially
with 65% of wheat flour blended with 35% of
triticale stoneground wholemeal was first marketed
(as 'tritibread') in the U.S.A. in 1974.
Triticale flour has been tested extensively in
Poland for breadmaking. The best results, using
a blend of 90% triticale flour plus 10% of rye
four, were obtained with a multi-phase (pre-
ferment, sour-dough) process in which the pre-
ferment was made with the rye flour (10% of the
total flour) with water to a pre-ferment yield of
400%, and a fermentation time of 24 h at 28"-29"C.
The sour used triticale flour (50% of the total
flour) with 1-2% of yeast (on total flour basis)
and water to give a sour yield of 200%. This was
214 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
a Creusot Loire BC-45 twin screw extruder. The
beneficial effects of extrusion treatment appeared
to be due to thermal modification of the starch
in the rice flour (Sharma et al., 1988). The volume
of loaves baked from this blend was below that
of all-wheat flour loaves, but in other respects the
bread was judged acceptable.
The low contents of sodium, protein, fat and
fibre and the high content of easily digested
carbohydrate favour the use of rice bread as an
alternative to wheat bread for persons suffering
from inflamed kidneys, hypertension and coeliac
disease (cf. p. 297).
The volume of loaves of yeast-leavened bread
made from 100% of rice flour is improved by the
addition of hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, a modifying the bread-making process.
gum which creates a film with the flour and
water that retains the leavening gases and allows
expansion (Bean, 1986).
Stabilized and extracted rice bran can provide
nutritional fortification, when used at levels up
to 15%, for bakery products such as yeast-raised
goods, muffins, pancake mixes and biscuits. The
rice bran contributes flavour, increases water
absorption without loss of volume, adds sigmficant
amounts of essential amino acids, vitamins and
minerals, but does not affect mixing tolerance
or fermentation. The blood cholesterol-lowering
capabilities of rice bran are a further inducement
for its use (Hargrove, 1990).
Maize
Maize flour is used to make bread of a sort in
Latin America, and also for pancake mixes, infant
foods, biscuits and wafers. Pregelatinized maize
starch may be used as an ingredient in rye bread
(cf. p. 212).
Bread made with composite flour
Flour milled from local crops can be added to
wheat flour to extend the use of an imported
wheat supply and thereby save the cost of foreign
currency. This arrangement is particularly appro-
priate for developing countries which do not grow
wheat.
Satisfactory bread can be made from such
composite flour, viz. a blend of wheat flour with
flour of other cereals such as maize, sorghum,
millet or rice, or with flour from root crops such
as cassava.
The flour of the non-wheat component acts as
a diluent, impairing the quality of the bread to
an extent depending on the degree of substitution
of the wheat flour. A higher level of substitution
is possible with a strong wheat flour than with a
weak one.
Possible levels of substitution, as percentage
by weight of the composite flour, are 15-20% for
sorghum flour and millet flour, 20-25% for maize
flour. Somewhat higher levels of substitution may
be possible by the use of bread improvers or by
A blend of 70% of wheat flour, 27% of rice
flour and 3% of soya flour made acceptable bread,
provided surfactant-type dough improvers were
used. A more economical blend, producing accept-
able bread, is 50% of wheat flour, 10% of rice
flour and 40% of cassava flour. Rice starch can
also be used, e.g. a blend of 25% of rice starch
with 75% of wheat flour yielded acceptable bread
(Bean and Nishita, 1985).
Bread of acceptable quality is being made in
Senegal and Sudan from a blend of 70% of
imported wheat flour of 72% extraction rate and
30% of flour milled locally from white sorghum
to an extraction rate of 72-75%.
The water absorption of a blend of 15% of
millet flour with 85% of wheat flour is about 3%
higher than that of the wheat flour alone, and
extra water must therefore be added. Acceptable
bread can be made at an even higher rate of
substitution, viz. 30%, by modifying the bread-
making process in various ways, e.g. by delaying
the addition of the millet flour until near the end
of the mixing process; by the use of improvers,
such as calcium stearoyl lactylates or tartaric
esters of acetylated mono- and di-glycerides of
stearic acid; or by increasing the addition of sugar
and fat to 4% (each) on composite flour wt.
When using a blend of maize flour and wheat
flour to make bread it is desirable to increase the
addition of water by about 2% for each 10%
substitution of the wheat flour by maize flour,
and to increase the amount of yeast to about 1.5
BREAD-BAKING TECHNOLOGY 21 5
cellulose, viz. a 1,Clinked beta-D-glucose polymer.
1% solutions are thixotropic, appearing gel-like
at rest, but mixing, pouring, pumping easily
(Anderson and Audon, 1988). Xanthan gum is
already finding a use as a thickening agent in fast
foods. To achieve the best results with sorghum
flour, the xanthan gum should be soaked in water
before incorporation in the dough to give the
bread a more open structure, and salt should be
added to improve the flavour of the bread.
Sorghudxanthan bread retains its freshness for
1988).
Yeasted rice flour breads, using 100% rice flour
or 80% of rice flour plus 20% of potato starch,
but withom any wheat flour, could be made if
times that suitable for wheat flour alone. The use
of hardened fat or margarine (2% on flour wt) is
recommended to achieve good bread quality.
Addition of emulsifiers, such as lecithin, stearates
or stearoyl lactylates, is also recommended.
Dried Distillers' Grains (DDG)
This is a by-product in the production of
distilled alcohol. During the fermentation of
grains such as maize, rye, barley, the starch is
products, while the nutrients, e.g. protein, fibre,
fat, vitamins, minerals, remain in the residue and
are concentrated three-fold in the DDG. DDG
has potential for use in bread (at levels up to 15%)
converted to alcohol, carbon dioxide and other
at least Six daYs-longer than wheat bread (Satin,
and other baked products. Addition of 10% of
DDG to wheat flour raised the protein content
from 15 to 17y0, and made a valuable contribu-
the binding function of the wheat gluten was
replaced by a gum - carboxy methyl cellulose
(CMC) at a level of 1.6% on flour + starch basis,
tion of amino acids such as threonine, serine,
glutamic acid, alanine, methionine, leucine,
histidine and lysine (Reddy et al., 1986).
or hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) at a
level of about 3% (on flour + starch basis). Bread
made in this way met reference standards for
wheat (white) bread for sp. vol., crumb and crust
colour, Instron firmness and moisture content.
The CMC or HPMC has the viscosity and film-
forming characteristics to retain gas during proofing
that are usually provided by gluten (Bean and
Nishita, 1985; ylima& et al. , 1988).
A mixture of galactomannans (hydrocolloids)
a gluten substitute. A blend of three parts of
and one part of tara seed flour, 75-100 pm particle
size, was favoured, giving good volume yield,
crumb structure and flavour (Jud and Brummer,
1990). The use of tara gum would not be permitted
in the U.K., while carob and guar gums would be
permitted only for coeliac sufferers.
Another kind of gluten substitute, particularly
for use in developing countries, can be made by
boiling a 10% suspension of flour milled from
tropical plants, e.g. cereal or root, in water until
the starch gels, and then cooling. This material
is then added to a blend of non-wheat flour, sugar,
salt, yeast, vegetable oil, then mixed for 5 min,
allowed to rise, and baked. The starch gel func-
tions like gluten, trapping the gas evolved by
yeast action (Anon., 1989).
Soya bread
A bread with good flavow, good storage proper-
ties (up to two weeks) and a fine to medium crumb
structure has been made from a b1end Of wheat
'Ontent Of 19" and a reduced carbohydrate
diabetics (Anon., 1988a).
flour with 3040% of soya flour. With a Protein
from carob, guar and tars seed has been used as
content, such bread is Particularly Suitable for
carob seed flour (locust bean: Ceratonia siliqua)
Bread made with gluten substitutes
It is no longer true that wheat gluten is
necessary to make white bread of good quality.
Acceptable bread has been made from sorghum
flour - without any wheat flour and therefore
without gluten - by the use of a gluten substitute,
xanthan gum, a water-soluble polymer of high
viscosity, which functions in the same way as
gluten. Xanthan gum is made by fermenting
carbohydrates with a bacterium, Xanthomonas
campestris. The resulting viscous broth is Pasteur-
ized, precipitated with isopropyl alcohol, dried
and ground. Xanthan gum is a form of bacterial
216 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
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