13
Domestic and Small Scale
Products
Introduction
Cereals are prepared for consumption by
domestic processing on a small scale in many
parts of the world, but particularly in the less
industrialized countries. The types of cereal grains
so used are principally wheat, maize, sorghum
and the millets, each of which finds greatest use in
those countries in which it grows indigenously.
Thus, wheat and sorghum are widely used for
Chapattis
domestic processing in the Indian subcontinent;
maize is similarly used in Mexico and many
African countries; sorghum and the millets are In West Pakistan wheat comprises about 60%
also used in many African countries. of the total cereal crop. None is exported, and
The types of product made domestically are about 90% of it is ground to make wholemeal
many and varied, and go by many names in the called ‘whole atta’, a meal of near 100% extraction
various countries. The categories of product rate, from which chapattis - essentially whole-
include pancake-like flat breads, which may be meal pancakes or flat bread - are made. Chapattis
unfermented (e.g. chapatti, roti, tortilla) or fer- are also commonly eaten in India, Tibet, China
mented (e.g. kisra, dosa, injera); porridges, which and the Near East.
may be stiff porridges (e.g. ugali, tuwo, asida) or To provide for the increasing demand for white
thin porridges (e.g. ogi, ugi, nasha, madida); flour, and with rollermills replacing stone mills,
steam-cooked dumpling-like foods (e.g. couscous, the milling of wheat in IndiaPakistan has been
burabusko, kenkey); boiled products (e.g. acha, modified so as to produce white flour (‘maida’)
kali); snack foods, which may be popped, parched, and semolina (60-65%), bran (10-15%) and a
puffed or fried (e.g. tortilla chips, corn chips, taco residue called ‘resultant atta’ (25-35%) from
shells) and beverages, either alcoholic (e.g. buru- which chapattis are made.
kutu, bantu beer, kaffir beer) or non-alcoholic For making chapatti flour the wheat should
(e.g. mahewu). have a high 1000 kernel weight, plump grains,
As countries become more industrialized, so light-coloured bran, and a protein content of
commercial processes are introduced to make 10.5-11.0%. A strong gluten is not required, but
products that resemble or imitate those made by water absorption of the flour should be high. The
traditional domestic methods. Such products, alpha-amylase activity need not be very low: a
now made commercially, include dry masa flour Falling Number (cf. p. 184) of 65 is satisfactory.
(from maize), kisra, wheat flour tortillas, while a
process for making tortillas by extrusion cooking
has been described. Thus, while traditional
foods continue to be available, the local people
are relieved of the daily tedium of domestic
preparation.
Products made from wheat
269
270 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
Flour of fine granularity yields chapattis of Tortilas
superior quality.
of Asian immigrants is a granular fine wheatmeal
of about 85% extraction rate, made by blending
white flour with fine offal or bran so that the
background colour is white and the large brown
specks of bran are conspicuous.
Chapattis are made by mixing whole atta or
resultant atta with water to form a dough, which
is rested for 1 h. The dough is then divided into
portions of 50-200 g, which are flattened by hand.
The dough discs are baked on an iron plate over
an open fire.
Types of chapatti include Tanoori Roti (baked
inside a mud oven), Khameri Roti (containing
yoghurt or buttermilk, sugar and salt, and the
dough allowed to ferment), and Nan (made from
white flour of 75% extraction rate by a yeasted
addition of sugar, salt, skimmed milk, ghee and
gram flour or eggs (Chaudhri and Muller, 1970)).
The hardening or firming of chapattis may be
delayed by the inclusion of shortening (3%) or
0.5% of either glyceryl monostearate or sodium
stearoyl-2-lactylate, thereby increasing the shelf-
life to 72 h. The best results were obtained by a
combination of shortening and glyceryl mono-
stearate (Sidhu et al., 1989).
Germination of wheat leads to an increase in
reducing sugar content, diastatic activity and
production of damaged starch, while decreasing
water absorption. The chapattis made from
sprouted wheat had a better (sweetish) flavour
but slightly harder texture. However, after storage
for four days, the chapattis made from sprouted
wheat had improved texture and overall quality
(Leelavathi et al., 1988).
The inclusion of 10% of full fat soya flour made
from steamed soya beans with 90% of wheat flour
for making chapattis almost completely elimin-
ated the activity of trypsin inhibitor (Verma et
al., 1987).
The use of triticale flour in partial replacement
of wheat flour for making chapattis has been
suggested, the quality of the chapattis was not
impaired (Khan and Rashid, 1987).
A flour tortilla is a flat, circular, light-coloured
6-13 in. in diameter, made from wheat flour.
Wheat flour tortillas are widely consumed in
Mexico and the United States.
Traditionally, tortillas were made domestically
by mixing wheat flour with water, lard and salt
to make dough. The dough was divided and rolled
or hand-shaped to make tortilla discs which were
baked on a hot griddle (Serna-Saldivar et al.,
1988a). More recently, tortillas have been pro-
duced commercially, using hot-press, die-cut or
hand-stretch procedures. Hot-press tortillas are
baked for a relatively longer time at lower temper-
ature and puff while baking; they resist tearing
and have a smooth surface. Die-cut tortillas use
stronger doughs with greater water absorption,
resulting in a product of lower moisture content
Hand-stretch tortillas are irregular in shape and
intermediate in quality (Serna-Saldivar et al. ,
1988a).
The loss of flexibility of tortillas during storage
may be due to retrogradation of starch, and may
be prevented by the use of plasticizers, which
increase flexibility and extensibility. Water is the
most important plasticizer for starch and poly-
saccharides and should contribute 3445% of the
dough by weight. The plasticizer components
should also include glycerol or sorbitol, 5-7% by
wt, also oil and fat, 7-9% by wt. Addition of
of flavour (U.S. Pat. No. 4,735,811).
Chapatti flour mi11ed in the U*K* for the use
bread, about one sixleenth of an inch thick and
sponge-and-dough process (cf. Po 202)Y with the
and less resistance to cracking and breaking.
the Fa1'ing NumberY gluten 'Ontent and chapatti
yeast, 1-3% on dough Wt, helps the development
Pretze,s
Pretzels, crisp knot-shaped biscuits, flavoured
with salt, are made from wheat flour plus shorten-
ing (1.25% on flour wt), malt (1 Z%), yeast
(0.25%), ammonium bicarbonate (0.04%) and
water (about 42%). A dough made from these
ingredients is rolled into a rope, then twisted and
allowed to relax for 10 min. The rope is passed
through rollers, to set the knots, and allowed to
ferment for 30 min. The starch on the surface is
then gelatinized by passing the rope through a
DOMESTIC AND SMALL SCALE PRODUCTS 271
water, and is most successful when the particle
size of the material is fine, and the amount of
water contained is just enough to fill the spaces
between the particles. The masa is sheeted, cut
into triangular shapes, and baked on a griddle
for 39 sec at 280°C to make tortillas.
The temperature used for baking the tortillas
is as high as possible, short of causing puffing.
(Gomez et al., 1987, 1989; Hoseney, 1986; Rooney
and Serna-Saldivar, 1987; Serna-Saldivar et al.,
1988b).
Nixtamalization and pellagra
The disease pellagra has been associated with
a deficiency of the vitamin niacin (nicotinic acid)
or niacinamide, and is prevalent among peoples
who rely upon maize for a large proportion of
their daily food. Some 5040% of the niacin in
maize occurs in a bound form as niacytin or
niacinogen, which is biologically unavailable, and
renders the maize deficient in niacin (Mason et
al., 1971). Pellagra is not suffered by Mexicans
who consume maize meal in the form of tortillas.
The alkaline conditions obtaining during the lime
cooking (nixtamalization) release the bound niacin
and make it biologically available.
However, there is some evidence that the onset
of black tongue in dogs (a disease similar to pellagra
in humans) may be due to excessive intake of the
amino acid leucine, in which maize is rich. In trials
with dogs on maize diets, black tongue developed
only in dogs on high leucine diets. Alkaline
treatment of maize to prepare masa or hominy
has been shown to result in some loss of the amino
acids arginine and cystine; commercially-made
masa and tortillas contained lysinoalanine and
lanthionine , which are breakdown products of
cystine and arginine (Sanderson et al., 1978).
Snack products
Tortilla chips (tostados) were traditionally pro-
duced by frying stale, left-over tortillas, and are
still prepared in this way in Mexican restaurants.
Alternatively, freshly-made masa, after sheeting
and cutting, can be fried for 1 min at 190°C to
produce tortilla chips.
bath of caustic soda (1%) for 25 sec at about 93°C.
The dough pieces are then salted with 2% sodium
chloride and baked in three stages: at 315°C for
10 min, then at 218°C to reduce the moisture
content to 15%, and finally at 121°C for 90 min
(Hoseney, 1986).
Products made from maize
Tortillas
In Central America, tortillas are made from
masa, which is obtained by the stone-grinding of
nixtamal, or lime-cooked maize. Traditionally,
nixtamal, or hominy, was made by cooking maize
in the leachate from wood ashes, the principal
objective being to loosen and then remove the
pericarp. In the modern process, whole maize is
cooked in excess water containing 0.5-2.0% of
hydrated lime (on maize basis) at 83"-100°C
for 50-60 min, then cooled to about 68°C and
allowed to steep for 8-24 h. This process is called
nixtamalization, and the resulting product is
called nixtamal. During this process the endosperm
and germ are hydrated and softened, with partial
gelatinization of the starch, and the alkali solubil-
izes cell walls leading to weakening of the pericarp,
and facilitating its removal. The nixtamal made
by the traditional process is washed to remove
loose pericarp and excess lime and is then stone-
ground to produce masa.
A modern commercial process for making
hominy (nixtamal) uses lye (caustic soda) solution,
in which the maize grains remain for 25-40 min
until the pericarp is free. It is then boiled and
washed to remove the pericarp and the lye. The
hominy is then salted and canned.
An attrition milling process for grinding the
nixtamal is essential, using synthetic, lava, or
alumina stones that cut, knead and mash the
nixtamal to form masa. The wet-ground product
is obtained as a dough containing about 55% m.c. :
it consists of pieces of endosperm, aleurone,
germ, pericarp, free starch granules, free lipids
and dissolved solids which form a 'glue-like'
material that holds together the masa structure.
There is no gluten in the masa dough: cohesion
of the mass is due to the surface tension of the
I for
12-18sec)
Bake (at 40O"-45O0C
1
I
Cool (to 60°C)
t
Fry (at 210°C for I 5min)
1
Form and fry
for 2 min)
Fry (at 180°C
1
DOMESTIC AND SMALL SCALE PRODUCTS 273
859'0, comprising 39% of coarse semolina, 16% of
fine semolina, and 30% of flour.
Porridges made from cereal flours, such as
sorghum flour, are the most important dishes con-
sumed by the people living in Africa south of the
Sahara. Both thick porridges and thin porridges
are made, differing in the flour/water ratio required.
Thick porridges use about 1 flour: 2 water, whereas
thin porridges use 1 flour: 3-4 water. To make
the porridge, the flour of sorghum, millet or
maize, or a blend of these, is just boiled with
water. Nasha is a thin porridge made from a
fermented batter. Sorghum flour is mixed with a
starter and water, and left to ferment for 12-16 h.
The fermented batter is then diluted with water,
cooked, and flavoured with spices or fruit juices.
Wholemeal flour from sorghum may be cooked
with water to make semi-solid dumplings.
From the flour or meal, unleavened bread or
chapattis are made, or the ground product may
be used to make a beverage.
Millet may be consumed in the form of porridge
(called kasha in the former Soviet Union) made
from dry parched grain, or it may be cooked with
sugar, peanuts or other foods to make desserts.
Massa is made from millet flour by cooking a por-
tion of the flour to make a thin porridge, while
making a batter from the remainder of the flour,
mixing it in, and leaving the mixture to ferment
Products made from sorghum and the overnight. The mixture is flavoured with salt,
millets
pepper and onions, and fried. The product is
Most of the products made from maize, men- spongy in texture, and eaten with sorghum, maize
tioned above, can also be made from sorghum, or millet porridge (Economic Commission for
or from a blend of sorghum and maize, and some Africa, 1985).
also from pearl millet. However, the traditional In Nigeria, sorghum and pearl millet are used
methods of preparation vary from country to in four ways:
country, as the following brief survey indicates.
The traditional method of preparation in African 1. The dry grain is ground to make either (a) a
countries and India where sorghum and the meal or flour, from which porridge (tuwo) is
millets form the staple food is simple pounding prepared, or (b) grits, from which burabusko,
in a mortar to loosen the husk and to reduce the a food resembling couscous, is prepared. The
grain to wholemeal or semolina, followed by grits are agglomerated by blending with water,
winnowing. The grain is stored as such, and from and then steamed for three successive periods
it the day's requirements of meal or flour are of 15 min each (Galiba et al., 1987). Pancakes
prepared. Preparation of larger quantities of meal may be made by frying a pasta.
is not practised because of the rapidity, in hot 2. The dry grain is roasted and then ground to
climates, with which the unde-germed meal make roasted meal or flour, from which snacks
becomes rancid. The yield of edible products is
for particular uses, and packed (Gomez et al.,
1987).
Tortillas are eaten alone, like bread, or fried
(taco shells), or with fillings or toppings (nachos,
tostadas, enchiladas, taquitos, burritos, tamales).
In Colombia, maize grain is pounded with potash
and a little water in the domestic preparation of
maize meal. The alkaline effect of the potash is
to loosen the bran and also to unbind the bound
niacin.
Kenkey
In Ghana, traditional foods prepared from
maize are known as kenkey. Cleaned maize grain
is steeped in water for 3 days, the grain ground
to flour, dough prepared from flour and water,
spontaneous fermentation of the dough allowed
for 3 days, part of the fermented dough partly
cooked and then mixed with the uncooked part,
the dough mass moulded into balls, the balls
wrapped in maize cob sheaths and boiled to
produce kenkey. Levels of niacin and lysine
increase during the period of dough fermentation,
but fall to the original levels during the partial
cooking. There is further loss of niacin during
preparation of the kenkey (Ofosu, 1971).
(guguru, adun) are prepared.
274 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
3. The grain is steeped in water and a lactic If chapattis are made with cold water, the
fermentation allowed to proceed for 1-4 days. dough lacks cohesiveness because the protein in
The moist grain is then pounded and used to sorghum and millet is not gluten-like. The use
prepare a fermented porridge product (ogi, of boiling water to make the dough results in
akamu) . partial gelatinization of the starch and imparts
4. The grain is soaked and allowed to sprout. sufficient adhesiveness to permit the rolling out of
The sprouted grains are dried and ground to thin chapattis. The water absorption of sorghum
make a malt from which beverages (pito, flour is higher than that of wheat flour; thus, the
burukutu) are prepared. baking time for sorghum chapattis is longer than
that for wheat chapattis. A blend of about 30%
In the Sudan and Ethiopia the flour or meal is sorghum flour with 70% of wheat flour produces
used for making flat cakes (kisra, injera) or it may chapattis of improved eating quality.
be mixed with cassava flour. Kisra, a staple food In India and Africa, whole sorghum grain, or
in the Sudan, is made by mixing sorghum flour, dehulled and polished sorghum grain (pearl dura)
of 80-85% extraction rate, with water and a may be boiled to make balila, which is used in a
starter, and leaving it to ferment overnight, and similar way to rice. Sorghum may also be eaten
then baking at 160-180°C for 30 sec. Kisra is now as a stiff porridge.
also made commercially, and has a shelf-life of In India, grain sorghum and pearl millet may
48 h at room temperature (Economic Commission be popped, but whereas maize is popped in hot
for Africa, 1985). oil, the sorghum and millet grains are popped
The grain may be parched, popped or boiled in hot sand (Hoseney, 1986). A more detailed
whole. account of traditional foods made from sorghum in
In Ethiopia, injera are made from the flour of various countries, including methods of prepara-
teff (Eragrostis tef), an indigenous type of millet. tion, is given by Rooney et al. (1986).
In the traditional domestic process, teff flour is Sorghum and maize react in the same way when
mixed with water and allowed to ferment over- subjected to the alkaline cooking process of
night by action of endogenous microflora to nixtamalization. This process causes the hull
produce a sour dough, and then baked in the or pericarp to peel away from the kernels, facili-
metad, or injera oven, to make injera, a pancake- tating its subsequent removal. The starch
like unleavened bread. The fermentation may be granules throughout the kernel swell, but some
promoted by using a starter culture, called irsho, of the granules in the peripheral endosperm are
a thin paste saved from a previous fermentation. destroyed. Tortillas made from a blend of 80%
Fermented teff flour is also used for making pearled or unpearled sorghum plus 20% yellow
porridge, beer (tella) and spirits (katikalla) (Umeta maize by the alkaline cooking process had an
and Faulks, 1989). acceptable flavour and a soft texture. The reduced
In Uganda, sorghum grain is malted and cooking and steeping times required by sorghum
sprouted, the radicle removed, and the remainder as compared with maize are advantageous, and
of the grain dried. Some of the pigment and the the cooking time is further reduced by using
bitter tannins are thereby removed. The sugars pearled, rather than unpearled, sorghum (Bressani
produced by the malting make a sweet-tasting et al., 1977; Bedolla et al., 1983; Gomez et al.,
porridge. The grain is also used for brewing. 1989).
In India and other Asian countries wholemeal Tortilla chips could be made from white sor-
flour from sorghum or millet may be used to make ghum by lime-cooking at boiling temperature for
dry unleavened pancakes (roti, chapatti, tortilla). 20 min, using 0.5% lime, quenching to 68°C and
It has been estimated that 70% of the sorghum then steeping the grains for 4-6 h to produce
grown in India is used for making roti, a propor- nixtamal, which was then stone-ground to masa
tion that increases to 95% in Maharashtra state (a coarse dough). The masa was sheeted, cut into
(Murty and Subramanian, 1982). pieces, baked at 280°C for 39 sec and then fried
DOMESTIC AND SMALL SCALE PRODUCTS 275
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in oil at 190°C for 1 min. The tortilla chips thus made
from sorghum had a bland flavour; a more accept-
able product, with the traditional flavour, could be
made similarly from a blend of equal parts of make
and sorghum (Serna-Saldivar et al., 1988b).
U.S. PAT. SPEC. No. 4,735,811 (Plasticizers for tortillas).
CHAUDRI, A. B. and MULLER, H. G. (1970) Chapattis and VERMA, N. S., MISHRA, H. N. and CHAUHAN, G. S. (1987)
Preparation of full fat soy flour and its use in fortification
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA (1985) Technical com- ofwheat fl0ur.J. FdSci. Technol., 24 (SeptJOct.): 25s260.
Ababa. Further Reading