15
Feed and Industrial Uses for
Cereals
Introduction two categories: wheat, oats, rice and sorghum, of
which about 7% of the entire crop in each case
is used for industrial purposes, and barley, rye,
(12-15%) is used industrially.
The wor1dwide usage Of all the cereds’ gathered
Sheets, is about 4% for seed, and the remainder
almost equally shared between human food use
(49%) and animal feed plus ‘processing and other’
(principally industrial) use (47%). The last cate-
gory divides into about 37% for animal feed plus
siderable variation among the eight principal
cereals, as shown in Table 15.1.
together, as revea1ed in the FAo Food Ba1ance
maize and millet, of which nearly twice as much
Raw materials used for feed and
industrially
10% for industrial use. There is, however, con-
The raw materials used for these purposes fall
into three categories:
1. The whole grain as harvested, or perhaps with
a minimum of processing.
2. Certain components of the grain which pro-
vide the starting material for chemical process-
ing. These would include starch, for production
Cereal Food Feed and other Seed of ethanol, and pentosans, for manufacture of
(Yo) (%) furfural.
Wheat 66.5 20.2 6.7 6.6 3. By-products of the milling process, which are
Barley 5.4 73.1 14.9 6.6 not usually suitable for human food, but which
can be used for animal feed and for a wide
Oats 5.3 78.3 7.3 9.1
33.4 43.9 14.3 8.4
range of industrial uses, including fillers, adhe-
Rye
Rice 88.0 1.8 7.0 3.2
Maize 20.7 63.9 13.9 1.5 sives, abrasives, etc., besides the manufacture
of furfural.
Sorghum 35.2 56.6 6.9 1.3
Millet 74.7 10.8 11.8 2.7
Total 49.0 36.9 9.8 4.3
Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990.
TABLE 15.1
World Usage of the Principal
Cereals, 1984-86 average*
Processing
(Yo) (Oh)
Animal feed
Apart from usage for human food, animal feed
is by far the largest use for cereals - both whole
grains and milling by-products.
Thus, in 1986/87, out of a total world produc-
tion of all cereals of 1,830 million tonnes, 892
million tonnes (48.7%) were used for animal feed
(USDA, 1987b).
* Source: FA0 Food Balance Sheets 1984-86. Food and
Thus, very little rice or millet is used for feed,
while over 70% of the entire crops of barley and
oats are so used, with the use of maize and
sorghum for animal feed not far behind.
For industrial use, the cereals seem to fall into
302
FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 303
Maize is easily the most widely used cereal, kind of cereal involved and the proportion of that
with about 282 million tonnes being used for cereal in the feed; also on the species of animal
animal feed (annually) worldwide in 1984-1986, for which the feed is intended, particularly whether
followed by barley (about 127 million tonnes) and for ruminants or for monogastric animals and
wheat (about 103 million tonnes) (FAO, 1990). probably also on the stage in the animal’s life
A large proportion of the cereal grains fed to cycle, e.g. thinking of poultry, whether for young
animals passes through the hands of ‘animal feed chicks, for broilers, or for laying hens.
processors’. By way of example, of the 5.2 million Some of the treatments applied by animal feed
tonnes of wheat used for animal feed in the UK processors to cereal grain, and the resulting
in 1988/89, 2.87 million tonnes (55%) were used benefits are described below.
by animal feed processors (a figure based on
returns from compounders only, in Great Britain) Grinding
(H-GCA, 1990). The remainder, still a consider-
able quantity, would presumably have been fed This is the commonest treatment, and relatively
directly from the farm to the animals, not via inexpensive. Roller mills or hammer mills may
processors. be used, but hammer mills are favoured because,
In the same year, 1988/89, 5.1 million tonnes by choice of a screen of suitable size, the hammer
of wheat were used by flour millers in the UK mill can yield ground material of any particular
which, besides yielding 3.954 million tonnes of size from cracked grain to a fine powder. The
flour, also produced 1.132 million tonnes of objective of grinding is to improve the digestibility.
milling by-products - bran and middlings (fine Coarsely-ground grain is preferred for ruminants;
offal), most of which would have been used for more finely-ground grain for swine and poultry.
animal feed. Thus, the total quantity of wheat
plus wheat milling by-products used for feeding
Soaking
animals in the UK in 1988/89 must have been
about 6.3 million tonnes (NABIM, 1991). Grain may be soaked in water for 12-24 h,
A similar state of affairs probably exists for followed by rolling, for livestock feeding. The
wheat in other countries, and also, to varying soaking softens the grain and causes it to swell,
extents, for other cereal grains worldwide. thereby improving palatability.
Processing cereals for animal feed Reconstitution
The treatments applied to cereals by animal A process in which grain is moistened to 25-
feed processors are both expensive and time- 30% m.c. and then stored in an oxygen-limiting
consuming, and obviously would not be under- silo for 14-21 days. This process is successful
taken unless such treatments offered considerable with maize and sorghum, and improves the feed/
advantages over the feeding of untreated whole growth ratio for beef cattle.
grain, and were cost-effective. Both cold and hot,
dry and wet, mechanical and chemical methods
Steam-rolling and steam-f,aking
of treatment may be used, with the objectives of
improving palatability, avoiding wastage, and Grain is treated with steam for 3-5 min (for
encouraging consumption, thus leading to a greater steam-rolled) or for 15-30 min (for steam-flaked)
efficiency of food usage and perhaps faster growth. and then rolled between a pair of smooth rollers.
Other objectives would be to improve digestibility These processes improve the physical texture and
and/or nutritive value, to prevent spoilage, soften the grain. Steam-flaking makes thinner
and to detoxify poisons and to inactivate anti- flakes than steam-rolling. The heat treatment may
nutritional factors. improve protein utilization by ruminants. In the
The actual treatment used will depend on the steam-flaking process there will be some rupturing
304 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
of the starch granules, and partial gelatinization
of the starch, resulting in more efficient use of
the feed by ruminants.
Pelleting
Steamed grain is ground and the mass is forced
through a die to make pellets - a form which
all domestic animals seem to prefer to meal.
However, pelleted cereals are not recommended
for ruminants because a decrease in food intake
may ensue. On the other hand, pelleting leads to
increased consumption by swine and poultry,
possibly because pelleting masks the flavour of
unpalatable ingredients in the diet. Pelleting also
improves the utilization of amino acids by swine.
The heat used in pelleting may be effective in
inactivating heat-labile toxins.
Popping and micronizing
rupture of the endosperm improves utilization of
the starch in the digestive tract. Micronizing is a
similar process to popping, but uses infrared
radiation for heating the grain.
Treatment of high-moisture grain
Grain harvested at a relatively high moisture
content, e.g. 20-35% m.c., can be chemically
treated to prevent the development of moulds
during storage, to produce excellent feed.
Recommended treatment of high-moisture grain
is with acids, used at a rate of 1.0-1.5%. Such
acids could be propionic alone, or with acetic or
formic acids. Maize and barley, thus treated, can
be fed to swine, maize and sorghum to beef cattle
(Church, 1991). (Cromwell, 1991).
Feeding maize to animals
Maize (corn) provided 85% of the cereals fed
to broilers in the U.S.A. in 1984, with sorghum
providing 11% and wheat 4% (USDA, 1987a). In
1986, the cereals contributing to the feed for
livestock in the U.S.A. were: maize 75%, sorghum
9%, oats 6%, barley 4%, wheat plus rye 6%. For
beef cattle, maize is generally fed with another
cereal: the greatest benefit comes from combining
slowly digested grains (maize, sorghum) with
rapidly digested grains (wheat, barley, high-
moisture maize). A combination of 67% of wheat
plus 33% of dry-rolled maize gave a 6% comple-
mentary effect as compared with feeding 100°/~
dry-rolled maize (Kreikmeier, 1987). Cattle fed
75% of high-moisture maize plus 25% of dry-
rolled grain sorghum or dry maize gained more
rapidly and used the feed more efficiently than
those fed either grain alone (Sindt et al., 1987).
For cows, a typical diet would contain 41% of
high-moisture maize (along with alfalfa and soya-
bean meal, etc.) (Schingoethe, 1991). Grinding,
cracking or rolling the grains, or steam-flaking,
may improve the digestibility. A calf-grower feed
might contain 65% of maize, sorghum or barley,
plus 10% of rolled oats and 20% of soyabean meal
(Morrill, 1991).
Typical feeds for early-weaned lambs would
In grain that has been popped and then rolled, include 67% of ground shelled maize plus
10% of cottonseed hulls, or 74% of ground ear
maize plus soyabean meal and supplements (Ely,
1991).
For pigs of all ages, maize might provide 85%
of the grain in the rations. Use of high-lysine
maize would allow a reduction in the amount of
soyabean meal needed. The feed grains must be
ground, e.g. through a hammer mill with %ti%
in. screen. Finely-ground maize is used more
efficiently than coarsely-ground, but very fine
grinding, making a dusty meal, is to be avoided.
The proportion of ground maize in the feed for
swine at various stages of growth could be 80%
for pregnant sows and gilts, 76% for lactation
diets for sows and gilts, 63-71% for young pigs,
78% for growing pigs, and 84% for finishing pigs
For feeding poultry, maize, sorghum, wheat
and barley are the most important cereals
and should be ground and perhaps pelleted.
Pelleting prevents the sorting out of constituents
of the diet, and is recommended for chicks
and broilers. Pelleting minimizes wastage and
improves palatability. Maize could provide 57%
of the feed for broiler starters, 62% for broiler
finishers, 45% for chicks, 57% for growers (7-12
FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 305
weeks) and developers (13-18 weeks), 48% for preferred to one in which ground maize is the
laying hens (Nakaue and Arscott, 1991). sole cereal because it results in better plumage,
For horses, 25-39% of the feed could be less feather-picking, and less cannibalism. On the
cracked maize, along with 45-30% of rolled and other hand, the corncob plus maize feed gives a
7-10% of wheat bran (Ott, 1991). reduced egg production and less body-weight
By-products of the milling of maize are also gain (Clark and Lathrop, 1953).
used for animal feeding. A product known as
hominy feed comprises the entire by-product
Barley for animal feed
streams from the dry milling of maize. It is a
relatively inexpensive high-fibre, high-calorie Apart from its use in malting, brewing and
material which is high in carotenoids (yellow distilling (c.f. Ch. 9), the next most important
pigments desirable for chicken feed) and vitamins use for barley is as food for animals, particularly
A and D. Hominy feed is an excellent source pigs, in the form of barley meal.
of energy for both ruminants and monogastric As whole barley contains about 34% of crude
animals, in this respect being equal or superior fibre, and is relatively indigestible, the preferred
to whole maize. Hominy feed competes with type of barley for animal feeding is one with a
other maize by-products - corn gluten feed and low husk content. Low protein barleys are favoured
spent brewers’ grains - as an animal feed. for malting and brewing, but barley of high
Hominy feed may partially replace grain in diets protein content is more desirable for animal feed.
for horses, provided the feed is pelleted (Ott, The total digestible nutrients in barley are
1991). Gluten feed is recovered from the steeping given as 79%. Digestible coefficients for consti-
water in which maize is steeped as a stage in wet- tuents of ground barley are 76% for protein, 80%
milling (q.v.). After the separation of the germ, for fat, 92% for carbohydrate and 56% for fibre
in the wet-milling of maize, and extraction of the (Morrison, 1947).
oil, the residue - germ cake - is used for cattle The feeding value of barley is said to be equal
feed. to that of maize for ruminants (Hockett, 1991)
and 85-90% of that of maize for swine (Cromwell,
1991). For swine, barley can replace all the maize
in the feed; indeed, barley is preferred to maize
Maize cobs
The maize cob (corn cob in the U.S.A.) is the for certain animals, e.g. pigs. The feeding value
central rachis of the female inflorescence of the of barley for pigs is improved by grinding,
plant to which the grains are attached, and which pelleting, cubing, rolling or micronizing (Hockett,
remains as agricultural waste after threshing. As 1991). It is also used extensively in compound
about 180 kg of cobs (d.b.) are obtained from feeds.
each tonne of maize shelled, the annual produc- For poultry, a feed containing barley and maize
tion of cobs in the U.S.A. alone is of the order improved egg production and feed efficiency as
of 30 million tomes. compared with either cereal fed alone (Lorenz
Cobs consist principally of cellulose 35%, pen- and Kulp, 1991).
tosans 40% and lignin 15%. Agricultural uses for Swine fed barley grew faster and had a more
maize cobs, listed by Clark and Lathrop (1953), efficient feed/gain ratio if the barley was pelleted
include litter for poultry and other animals; than if fed as meal. Feed for pregnant sows and
mulch and soil conditioner; animal and poultry gilts can contain up to 85% of ground barley, up
feeds. The feeding value of corncobs is about 62% to 65% for lactating sows, 80% for growing pigs
of that of grains. Up to 67% of ground corncobs, and 86% for finishing pigs (Cromwell, 1991).
with 14% of ground shelled maize and some The barley is normally fed either crushed or
soyabean meal and molasses-urea provided a as a coarse meal, thereby avoiding wastage that
suitable feed for cattle. For poultry, a feed could result from the passage of undigested grains
containing corncob meal plus ground maize is through the alimentary tract. The widespread use
306 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
of barley by pig feeders is related to its effect on
the body fat, which becomes firm and white if
the ration contains a large amount of barley meal
(Watson, 1953).
‘Hiproly’ (i.e. hi-pro-ly) barley is a mutant two-
row barley from Ethiopia containing the ‘Zys’
gene, which confers high lysine content (cf. p.
71). Hiproly barley contains 2630% more lysine
than is found in normal barley. High-lysine barley
has been shown to improve the growth rate of
pigs (Hockett, 1991). A recent high-lysine barley
mutant originating in Denmark is Riso 1508, with
50% more lysine than in Hiproly barley. Riso
1508 is intended to provide a feedstuff with an
improved amino acid balance for the pig and dairy
industries, one objective being to avoid the neces-
sity of feeding fishmeal, which gives a taint to
the product.
By-products from the dry milling of barley to
make pearl barley are used for animal feed,
particularly for ruminants and horses, as con-
stituents of compound feeds. Brewers’ grains and
distillers’ dried grains are by-products from the
brewing and distilling industries that can be
incorporated in feeds for ruminants; they are too
fibrous for pigs and poultry.
Wheat for animal feeding
world-wide, averaged 19.8 million tonnes per
annum. In the U.S.A. alone, in 1988/89, 270
million bu (about 7.35 million tonnes) were used
for livestock feed. The use of wheat for animal
feed is influenced by price, location and nutrient
value (Mattern, 1991).
The importance of wheat as an animal feedstuff
is further illustrated by the establishment, by the
Home-Grown Cereals Authority, in the U.K., of
quality specifications for ‘standard feed wheat’,
in association with the National Farmers’ Union
and the U.K. Agricultural Supply Trade Associa-
tion, in 1978, and subsequently updated. These
quality specifications, which apply to pain destined
for the feed compounder, mention moisture con-
tent (max. 16%) and content of impurities -
ergot, max. 0.05%; other cereals 5%; non-grain
impurities 3% (H-GCA, 1990). Wheat fed directly
to animals, viz. not via a feed processor, could
include parcels that did not meet these standards
and also wheat that was unfit for milling.
When wheat was fed to cattle, the efficiency of
feed usage was greater for dry-rolled wheat than
for wholewheat. Dry milling increased grain
digestibility from 63 to 88%. Further processing,
e.g. steam-flaking or extruding, gave no further
improvement (Church, 1991). For beef cattle,
wheat is best used in combination with other feed
grains, e.g. maize or grain sorghum. A blend of
67% wheat plus 33% dry-milled maize improved
feed efficiency as compared with either wheat or
maize alone (Ward and Klopfenstein, 1991).
When fed to finishing lambs for market, wheat
had 105% of the feeding value of shelled maize
when the wheat comprised up to 50% of the total
grain (Ely, 1991). For pigs, wheat is an excellent
food, but is often too expensive. Wheat is similar
to maize on an energy basis, but has a higher con-
tent of protein, lysine, and available phosphorus,
and wheat can replace all or part of the maize in
the diet for pigs. Non-millable wheat, damaged
moderately by insects, disease, or containing
garlic, can be fed to swine (Cromwell, 1991).
For feeding poultry, wheat should be ground,
and preferably pelleted, to avoid sorting out of
feed constituents by the birds. For poultry, the
feed efficiency of wheat is 93-95% of that of maize
Wheat milling by-products - bran and midd-
lings - provide palatable food for animals.
Wheat middlings can replace grain in the feed,
provided the diets are pelleted - otherwise they
are too dusty. The energy of wheat middlings is
utilized better by ruminants than by monogastric
animals. Cows fed rations containing 60% of
concentrate did well if 40% of the concentrate
was wheat middlings; swine did well when wheat
middlings replaced up to 30% of the maize in the
rations. Middlings are also fed to poultry. Wheat
bran is the favoured feedstuff for horses and for
all ruminants (Church, 1991).
Oats for feeding animals
The usage of oats for livestock feeding in the
U.S.A. in 1986 was 9.6 million tonnes, exceeding
The animal-feed use of wheat 1980-1984, (Nakaue and Arscott, 1991).
FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 307
advantage for weanlings and yearlings (Ott, 1973).
Oats that are musty should not be used (Ott,
1991).
The by-products of the dry milling of oats -
oat dust, meal seeds, oat feed meal - are of
reasonably good feeding value. Oat feed meal (=
oat mill feed in the U.S.A.) is a feed of low
nutritive value suitable for ruminants, used to
dilute the energy content of maize and other
grains.
Feed oats - the lights, doubles and thin oats
removed during the cleaning of oats - are almost
equally nutritious to normal oats, and are used
for livestock feeding (Webster, 1986).
Sorghum for animal feed
Sorghum is a major ingredient in the feed for
swine, poultry and cattle, particularly in the
Western hemisphere. From the worldwide pro-
duction of sorghum of 66 million tonnes in 1984-
1986, 56.6% (37.3 million tonnes) were used for
animal feed. In the same period, the U.S.A. alone
produced 14.9 million tonnes, of which 14.8
million tonnes went for animal feed (FAO, 1990).
For feeding to animals, the sorghum is hammer-
mill ground and then generally steam-flaked,
using high moisture steam for 5-15 min to raise
the moisture content to 18-20%, followed by
rolling to make thin flakes (Rooney and Serna-
Saldivar, 1991). Steam-flaking improves the feed
efficiency of sorghum.
For swine, low-tannin types of sorghum have
a nutritive value equal to that of maize, but
brown, high-tannin types, grown for their resis-
tance to attack by birds, and their decreased
liability to weathering and fungal infestation,
have a reduced nutritive value (Cromwell, 1991).
Sorghum provided 11% of all the cereal grain
fed to broilers in the U.S.A. in 1984, and 9% of
all the cereal grain fed to livestock in the U.S.A.
As compared with dry-rolled sorghum, recon-
stituted sorghum (moistened to 25-30% m.c. and
then stored for 14-21 days in a silo in a low oxygen
atmosphere before feeding) produced a better
daily weight gain in feed-lot cattle, and also
produced a considerable improvement in feed
the feed usage of barley (7.0 million tonnes) in
that year (USDA, 1987b), although worldwide
the usage of oats for animal feed, at 38.3 million
tonnes per annum, was less than one-third of the
amount of barley so used worldwide, viz. 126.8
million tonnes, in 1984-1986 (FAO, 1990).
Oatshaveauniquenutritionalvalue,particularly
for animals which require feed having a relatively
high level of good quality protein, but with lower
energy content. The level of protein in oat groats
is higher than that in other cereals; moreover, the
quality of oat protein, particularly the amino acid
balance, surpasses that of the protein of other
cereals, as shown by feeding tests (Webster, 1986;
McMullen, 1991).
The good value of high-protein oats has been
shown in diets for swine and poultry, although
the nutritive value for these non-ruminants can
be further improved by supplementation of the
oats with lysine and methionine (Webster, 1986).
For feeding to animals, oats are first ground
or rolled. Rolled oats can provide 10% of the feed
for calves (along with 65% of maize, sorghum or
barley) (Klopfenstein et al., 1991), and is a good
starter feed for pigs, although too expensive for
other pigs. Ground oats can provide 25% of the
feed for pregnant sows, 20% for lactating sows,
10% for young pigs, 15% for growing and finishing
pigs (with maize, wheat or barley supplying most
of the remainder of the feed) (Cromwell, 1991).
For feeding to pigs, the oats should be ground
through a hammer mill, using a '/z in. screen.
Pelleting of the ground oats gives faster growth
than unpelleted meal for swine (Cromwell, 1991).
The feeding value for swine, relative to maize,
is 100% for oat groats, and 80% for whole oats.
For poultry, oats have 93% of the value of maize
for broilers, 89% for layers (Cromwell, 1991;
Nakaue and Arscott, 1991).
For feeding to finishing lambs for the market,
oats have 80% of the feeding value of maize (Ely,
1991). in 1986 (USDA, 1987a,c).
Historically, oats are regarded as the ideal feed
for horses, and in North America this view still
obtains. For young or poor-toothed horses, the
whole oats are best rolled or crushed. As com-
pared with whole oats, crushed oats gave a 5%
feeding advantage for working horses, and a 2 1%
308 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
gain ratio (Stock et al., 1985). When fed to swine,
reconstituted sorghum gave a slight improvement
only in the case of high-tannin sorghum.
For beef cattle, grain sorghum has 85-95% of
digested slowly in the rumen and has a relatively
lower total tract digestibility (Klopfenstein et al. ,
1991).
Ground sorghum can provide up to 80% Of the
71% for young pigs, 78% for growing pigs, and
poultry, suggested rations include 18% of sorghum
14% for developers (13-18 weeks), and 20% for
layer-breeders (fed as all-mash in a warm climate)
(Nakaue and Arscott, 1991).
Rye in animal feed
Of the annua1 tota1 wor1d usage Of rye for
animal feed, of 14.5 million tonnes, in the period
1984-1986, nearly 94% was used in Europe and
and Germany (FRD plus GDR) 15.2%. Usage in
the who1e Of north and centra1 America was Only
3.4% of the total.
Rye is used in areas where it is cheaper than
Rice in feed for animals
A total of 6.5 million tonneS of rice was used
annually, worldwide, in the period 1984-86 for
animal feeding, nearly all (6.0 million tonnes)
Mt) (FAO, 1990).
For feeding swine, rice if pelleted can replace
50% of the maize in the feed, or 35% if fed as
meal. For young pigs, the feed could contain 20%
feeding value of pelleted, broken rice for swine
Considerable use for animal feeding is made of
a mixture of rice bran and rice polishings - is a
high energy, high protein foodstuff comparing
well with wheat. It contributes a useful amount
of biotin, pantothenic acid, niacin, vitamin E and
linoleic acid to mixed feeds, thereby reducing the
requirement for supplementation with vitamin/
minerals premix. The contribution of linoleic acid
in rice pollards is of particular value in rations
for laying hens, where it has a beneficial effect
For growing pigs, up to 30% of rice pollard can
be fed in balanced rations without adverse effects
on growth rate or carcase quality (Roese, 1978).
Extracted rice bran (the residue left after oil
the feeding va1ue Of maize* The sorghum is
being used in Asia (China 3.2 Mt; Thailand 0.7
feed for pregnant sows, 76% for lactating sowsJ
of rice bran, if pelleted (Sharp, 1991). The
84% for finishing Pigs (Cromwell, 1991)' For
is 96% of that of maize (Gromwell, 1991).
for chick starters, 13" for growers (7-12 weeks)J
the by-products of rice milling. Rice pollards -
the USSR, the USSR using 39.3%, "land 30*3%
On egg size (Australian Technical Millers, 1980).
bar1ey, but, a1though rye is high in energy7
growth Of anima1s On rye is 'lower than On Other
cereals, possibly because its unpdatabiliq restricts
intake* Rye contins a high level Of pectin (a
exuaction from rice bran) has an increased content
of protein and a good amino acid profile for mono-
gastric animals, also good protein and phosphorus
COntentS for ruminants. However, it is not a good
carbohydrate), which reduces its feeding value.
Thus, rye is compounded with other cereals for
animal feed. Rye also contains a resorcinol -
5-alkyl-resorcinol - which was once thought to
be toxic to animals. Attempts are being made to
breed lines of rye with lower levels of resorcinol.
Horses feed on rye grain show no ill effects
SOurce of fatty acids.
Rice mill feed is a mixture of rice pollards and
ground rice hulls used for animal feed. In 1986,
0.72 million tonnes of rice mill feed were used
for animal feed in the U.S.A. (USDA, 1987~).
Ground rice hulls are a highly fibrous, low
from possible toxic constituents (Antoni, 1960),
and rye can be successfully fed to swine and
energy foodstuff, suitable for diluting the energY
level in rations for cattle, sheep, goats, Pigs and
cattie when it contributes up to 50% in a mixed
feed.
The presence of ergot in rye is a risk if the rye
is fed to swine, as the ergot can cause abortion
in sows, and reduce the performance of growing
pigs (Drews and Seibel, 1976; Cromwell, 1991;
Lorenz, 1991).
poultry (Australian Technical Millers, 1980). The
total digestible nutrients (at 14% m.c.) in rice
hull are 15% for cattle and 25% for sheep (Juliano,
1985).
Rice hulls contain 9-20% of lignin, thereby
limiting their use for animal feed. Various de-
lignification processes have been suggested, e.g.
FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 309
maize for swine, but became equal to maize when
supplemented with lysine.
Pearl millet (rolled) provided excellent protein
for beef cattle, and steers gained as well on rolled
pearl millet as on sorghum (Serna-Saldivar et al,
1991).
treatment with alkali or with acid (see Juliano
1985, Ch. 19 for details). Treatment with 12%
caustic soda also reduced the high silica content
of rice hulls, while treatment of the hulls with
anhydrous ammonia plus monocalcium phosphate
at elevated temperature and pressure increased
the crude protein equivalent, broke down the
harsh silica surface, and softened the hulls, thus
providing an acceptable feedstuff for cattle and
sheep (Juliano, 1985).
An even more successful treatment of rice hulls
was incubation with Bacillus spp. for several days:
this treatment reduced the lignin and crude fibre
contents to a greater degree than soaking in
caustic soda (Juliano, 1985).
The millets for animal feeding
Of the 3.1 million tonnes of millet used world-
wide annually for animal feed in 1984-1986, 1.3
million tonnes were used in the former Soviet
Union, 1.1 Mt in Asia (including 0.7 Mt in
China), and 0.5 Mt in Africa (including 0.3 Mt
in Egypt) (FAO, 1990). There was no recorded
use of millet for animal feed in the U.S.A. during
this period, although it is reported that proso
millet (Panicum miliaceum) is grown in the U. S.A.
for birdseed (Serna-Saldivar et al., 1991).
Feeding trials have shown that millets have
nutritive values comparable to, or better than,
those of the other major cereals: proso millet has
89% of the value of maize for feeding swine, and
can replace 100% of the maize in rations for swine
(Cromwell, 1991). Animals fed millet perform
better than those fed sorghum; they produce
better growth because the millet has a higher
calorific content and better quality protein (Serna-
Saldivar et al., 1991).
Poultry produced better gains when fed millet
than when fed sorghum or wheat; the efficiency
of feed conversion was better for chicks fed pearl
millet (Pennisetum amem'canum) than on wheat,
maize or sorghum; proso millet was equivalent
to sorghum or maize in respect of egg production
and weight, and efficiency of feed use.
For swine, finger millet (Eleusine coracana) was
as good as maize for pig finishing diets; proso
millet had a slightly lower feed efficiency than
Production of ethanol from cereals
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is produced by the
enzymic action of yeast on sugars, which are
themselves produced by the hydrolysis of starch.
In as much as all cereals contain a large proportion
of starch, it should be possible to obtain ethanol
from any cereal. This happens when cereal grains
are malted and then brewed to make beer, which
is an aqueous solution of alcohol. The production
of ethanol can be regarded as a modification of
the brewing process, in which starch separated
from the grains is the starting material, and pure
ethanol, rather than an aqueous solution, is the
final product.
The principal reasons for making ethanol from
cereals are that ethanol can be used as a partial
replacement of gasoline as a fuel for internal
combustion engines and that the process is a
useful way of dealing with surplus grain whenever
it arises. Interest in the process increases when
fuel shortages occur and/or when prices of feed
grain are depressed.
Thus, a wheat surplus in Sweden in 1984 was
dealt with by establishing a plant that separated
the starch from a residue to be used for animal
feed. About half of the starch (the best quality)
was to be used by the paper industry, the
remainder for production of ethanol. The addi-
tion of 4% of ethanol to gasoline does not lead to
starting problems or to an increase in fuel con-
sumption and, in fact, increases the octane number
(Wadmark, 1988).
The possible yield of ethanol varies according
to the type of cereal used: 430 l/t from rice, 340-
360 l/t from wheat, 240-250 Ut from barley and
oats (Dale, 1991).
The process of manufacture of ethanol from
cereals starts by grinding the grain and then
cooking it with water and acid or alkali. Amylase
enzyme is added to the cooled mash to promote
310 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
the hydrolysis of starch to glucose, and the mash
is then fermented with yeast, releasing carbon
dioxide gas, and producing alcohol. The wort is
treated with steam in a beer still, and the alcohol
is finally separated in a rectification column,
yielding 95% ethanol and leaving a protein-
enriched residue, suitable for animal feeding
(Dale, 1991).
As a motor fuel, ethanol has various advantages
over gasoline: it has a very high octane number;
it increases engine power; it burns more cleanly,
producing less carbon monoxide and oxides of
nitrogen. On the other hand, there may be 1989a,b).
difficulties in starting the engine on ethanol alone,
and accordingly a blend of ethanol with gasoline
is generally used.
Other uses for ethanol made from cereals,
besides motor fuel, include use as a solvent in
antifreeze and as the raw material for the manu-
facture of various chemicals, e.g. acetaldehyde,
ethyl acetate, acetic acid, glycols (Dale, 1991).
The carbon dioxide evolved during the fermen-
tation stage finds uses in oil fields, for recovery
of additional oil, in the manufacture of methanol,
as a refrigerant and in carbonated beverages
(Dale, 1991).
A process for the continuous production of
ethanol from cereals, involving screening, filter-
ing, saccharification, fermentation and distillation
stages, has recently been patented (Technipetrol
SPA, 1989), while a dual-purpose flour mill has
been described in which the flour is air-classified
to produce a high protein fraction (particle size:
2-5 pm) and a residual protein-depleted fraction
for use as the starting material for production of
ethanol (Bonnet and Willm, 1989).
Corncobs can be used for the production of
ethanol, and also of furfural (vide infra). By
treating the cobs with dilute sulphuric acid, 80%
of the pentosans in the cobs are converted to
pentoses, from which furfural is obtained, while
the residual cellulose can be hydrolyzed to glucose
in 65% yield (Clark and Lathrop, 1953).
Extrusion cooking has been suggested as a
method for pretreating grain to be used for the
production of ethanol. The thermomechanical
effects of extrusion cooking produce gelatiniza-
tion and liquefaction of the starch so that no
liquefying enzyme is needed for the subsequent
saccharification with glucoamylase. Ethanol yields
from wet-extruded and from steam-cooked grain
were almost equal, but the extrusion method uses
less energy. Roller-milled whole barley, wheat or
oats can be used in this process, with or without
the addition of thermostable alpha-amylase, which
appears to have little effect during extrusion
cooking. The fermentation stage is carried out
using either yeast (Saccharomyces cmevisiae) or the
bacterium Zymomonas mobilis, the latter produc-
ing an increased initial rate of fermentation (Linko,
Furfural production from cereals
Corncobs, the hulls of oats and rice, and the
fibrous parts of other cereals are rich in pentosans,
condensation products of pentose sugars, which
are associated with cellulose as constituents of
cell walls, particularly of woody tissues.
Thus, the pentosan content of oat hulls is given
as 29%, along with 29% of cellulose and 16% of
lignin (McMullen, 1991). Pentosans are the start-
ing material for the manufacture of furfural, a
chemical with many uses. Indeed, commercial
utilization of oat hulls and other pentosan-rich
cereal materials lies in the manufacture of furfural
(MacArthur-Grant, 1986).
Furfural was first produced commercially in
1922. By 1975, oat hulls were providing about
22% of the annual demand for furfural in the
U.S.A., but thereafter the demand for furfural
and other furan chemicals far outstripped the
supply of oat hulls, and increasing use was then
made of other sources of pentosans, viz. rice
hulls, corncobs, bagasse (Shukla, 1975).
Plants for the commercial production of furfural
from agricultural residues have been established
in the U.S.A. The plant at Cedar Rapids, Iowa,
uses oat hulls and corncobs; the one at Memphis,
TN uses rice hulls, corncobs and cottonseed
hulls; while the plant at Omaha, NB uses corn-
cobs only (Clark and Lathrop, 1953).
The commercial process for manufacturing
furfural involves the boiling of the pentosan-
containing material with strong acid (sulphuric
or hydrochloric) and steam for 7-9 h at 70 psi
FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 31 1
HC - CH tanks; production of tetrahydrofurfural alcohol, a
II II solvent for dyes, paints, etc.; production of
"c\ /C-CHo
polytetramethylene ether glycol for making
thermoplastics; manufacture of D-xylose, phenolic
C5HIoO5 = C,H,O'CHO t 3H20 Furfural resin glues and adhesives; production of anti-
Pentose Fur f ura I
skid tread composition; filter aid in breweries
(MacArthur-Grant, 1986).
(C5H804), + nHpO = nC5Hlo05
Pen toson Pentose
0
FIG. 15.1 Chemical reactions in the production of furfural
from pentosans.
Other industrial uses for cereals
pressure. Previous grinding of the hulls is not
required. A sequence of reactions takes place. The There are many other industrial uses, besides
pentosans are dissociated from the cellulose; then the production of ethanol and furfural, for cereal
the pentosans are hydrolyzed to pentose sugars, grains, their milled products, and the by-products
and finally the pentose sugars undergo cyclo- of milling. Use of cereals in malting, brewing and
hydration to form furfural, a heterocyclic adehyde, distilling have been discussed in Ch. 9. Other
which is removed continuously by steam distillation industrial uses are dependent on either the chemical
(see Fig. 15.1) (Dunlop, 1973; Johnson, 1991). characteristics or the physical properties of the
The theoretical yield of furfural from pentose raw material. They make use of cereals or cereal
is 64% (plus 36% of water), so the theoretical products as absorbents, abrasives, adhesives,
yield of furfural from oat hulls containing 29% binders and fillers, carriers, and for such purposes
of pentosans would be 22%, although a yield of as filter aids, litter for animals, fertilizers, floor-
only about 13% is achieved in practice. The yield sweepings, fuel, soil conditioners, oil well drilling
from corncobs is similar, while that from rice aid. They are also used in the paper and mineral
hulls is somewhat lower, at 12% theoretical, 5% processing industries.
in practice (Juliano, 1985; Pomeranz, 1987).
A large proportion of the cost of the process is Wheat
Industrial uses for the milling products of
accounted for by the need to raise high pressure
wheat have been listed by Pomeranz (1987). Both
steam: for every 1 lb of furfural produced, 15-
Furfural finds uses as a selective solvent for
sizing and coating, and as adhesives in the manu-
refining lubricating oils and petroleum spirit, and
facture of paper, boards, plywood, etc. Starch is
for refining animal and vegetable oils in the
also used for finishing textiles.
Gluten separated from wheat flour finds uses
manufacture of margarine. It is also used for the
purification of butadiene, which is needed for the
in paper manufacture, as an adhesive, and as the
starting material for the preparation of sodium
manufacture of synthetic rubber.
One of the most important uses for furfural,
glutamate and glutamic acid.
however, is in the manufacture of nylon. Nylon,
Wheat germ is used in the production of antibio-
26 lb Of high pressure stearn at 1880c are required'
wheat flour and wheat starch are used in paper
a spthetic fibre, defined chemical1y as a &amide,
was first produced in 1927 by the firm E' I' du
tics, ph-aceuticals and sb conditioners, while
wheat bran may be used as a carfier of enzymes,
antibiotics and vitamins (Pomeranz, 1987).
Starch is also used to make rigid urethane foam
for insulation and paints, in plastics and to
process crude latex in the manufacture of rubber.
Pont de Nemours and Co., and was introduced
to the industry in 1939. 'Polyamides' are formed
by the condensation of a diamide and dibasic acid,
and those moSt Often wed in the manufacture Of
nylon are hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid.
The value of furfural arises from the fact that it
is an important source of hexamethylene diamine.
Other uses for furfural include: production of
formaldehyde furfural resins for making pipes and
Rye
The gums, both soluble and insoluble, make
rye a good substitute for other gums in wet-end
31 2 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
additives. The starch in rye flour has a high water-
binding capacity and finds use as adhesives, for
example in the glue, match and plastics industries,
and as pellet binders and foundry core binders
(Drews and Seibel, 1976; Lorenz, 1991).
Maize starch
Starch is modified in various ways for use in
the paper-making industry. Such modifications
include acid modification and hydroxyethylation
(with ethylene oxide) for paper coating, oxidation
(with sodium hypochlorite) and phosphated (with
sodium phosphate) for paper sizing and improve-
ment of paper strength, cationic derivatives for
paper strengthening, stiffening and improved
pigment retention by the paper.
Dextrinized starch, pregelatinized starch, and
succinate derivatives are used as adhesives, while
carboxymethylated starch is used in paints, oil
drilling muds, wall-paper adhesives and detergents
(Johnson, 1991).
Maize and sorghum
Maize grits are used in the manufacture of wall
paper paste, and of glucose by ‘direct hydrolysis’.
Coarse or granulated maize meal is used for
dance floor wax and for handsoap; fine meal or
corn (maize) cones finds use as a dusting agent
and as an abrasive in hand soap.
Corn (maize) gluten is used as a cork-binding
agent, as an additive for printing dyes, and in
pharmaceuticals.
Acid-modified flours of maize and sorghum are
used as binders for wall board and gypsum board,
providing a strong bond between gypsum and the
liner. In the building industry, maize flour is used
to provide insulation of fibre board and plywood,
and wafer board. In the pharmaceutical industry,
maize flour is used for the production of citric acid
and other chemicals by fermentation processes.
Extrusion-cooked maize flour and sorghum
flour are used as core-binders or foundry binders
in sand-cereal-linseed oil systems, while a ther-
mosetting resin has been made by combining an
acid-modified, extruded maize flour with glyoxal
or a related polyaldehyde, the mixture binding
the sand particles. As an adhesive, maize flour
and sorghum grits are used in the production of
charcoal briquets, corrugated paper, and animal
feed pellets.
Both maize flour and sorghum flour find uses
in ore-refining, e.g. in the refining of bauxite
(aluminium ore), and as binders in pelletizing
iron ore. Another use for precooked maize flour
or starch and for sorghum grits is in oil well
drilling, where the flour or starch reduces loss of
water in the drilling mud which cools and lubri-
cates the drilling bit. For this purpose, the flours
may be precooked on hot rolls or by extrusion
cooking.
Maize flour has been used as an extender in
polyvinyl alcohol and polyvinyl chloride films for
use as agricultural mulches, and as extenders in
rigid polyurethane resins for making furniture
(Alexander, 1987).
Corn (maize) cobs consist chiefly of cellulose,
hemicellulose (pentosan), lignin and ash. Their
industrial uses have been listed by Clark and
Lathrop (1953). They include:
Agricultural uses: as litter for poultry, prefer-
ably reduced to particles of 0.25-0.75 in. in size.
Their use reportedly reduces the mortality of
chickens from coccidiosis.
As mulch around plants, for retaining moisture
and controlling weeds, and as a soil conditioner
for improving soil texture.
As carriers and diluents for insecticides and pesti-
cides, preferably ground to pass a U.S. standard
No. 60 sieve. Partly rolled crushed cobs have been
used as material on which to grow mushrooms.
Industrial uses: those based on physical proper-
ties include use for corncob pipes; in the manufac-
ture of vinegar; as an abrasive, when finely
ground, for cleaning fur and rugs; for cleaning
moulds in the rubber and glass industries; for
soft-grit air-blasting, burnishing and polishing
the parts of airplane engines and electric motors.
Soft-grit blasting can remove or absorb rust, scale
from hard water, oil, grease, wax and dirt from
a variety of metals.
Finely ground cobs can replace sawdust (when
mixed with sand and paraffin oil) as a floor
sweeping compound, and can be used as an
abrasive in soaps.
FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 313
Rice hulls differ, however, in yielding a large
amount of ash (22%) upon incineration, of which
95% is silica, most of the rest being lime and
potash. Thus, rice hills can be used as a source
of high-grade silica in various manufacturing
industries.
Oat husk is used as a filter aid in breweries,
where it is mixed with the ground malt and water
in the mash tun in order to keep the mass porous.
It is also used, when finely ground, as a diluent
or filler in linoleum, and as an abrasive in air-
blasting for removing oil and products of cor-
rosion from machined metal components, as an
antiskid tread component, and as a plywood glue
extender (Hutchinson, 1953; McMullen 1991).
The cariostatic properties of oat hulls suggest
possible uses as components of chewing gum and
other products (McMullen, 1991).
Uses for rice hulls include chicken litter, soil
amendment for potting plants, ammoniated for
fertilizers, filter aid, burnt for floor sweepings,
binder for pelleted feeds, insulating material,
filler for building materials (e.g. wallboard: see
Brit. Pat. No. 1,403,154), binder and absorbent
for pesticides, explosives (Juliano, 1985; Sharp,
1991).
Rice hulls may be used as an abrasive in soft-
grit blasting of metal parts, but as the hulls
contain 18-20% of silica they are too abrasive
when used alone, and are preferably mixed with
ground corncobs in the ratio of 40% rice hulls to
60% of cob particles (Clark and Lathrop, 1953).
Rice hulls have also been used successfully for
mopping up oil spillages on the surface of water.
After skimming off the hulls, the water was left
clean enough to drink.
Fine sieve fractions of ground rice hulls can be
used as excipients (carriers) for nutrients, pharm-
aceuticals, biological additives in animal feed
premixes, and for poison baits.
The high silica content of rice hull ash is the
reason for the use of the ash as a constituent of
cement, together with slaked lime: rice hull ash
cement is more acid-resistant than portland cement
(Juliano, 1985). Rice hull ash can be used as a
silica source in glass and ceramics industries, e.g.
for making Silex bricks (in Italy) and Porasil
bricks (in Canada). Slaked lime reacts with the
Ground corncobs find uses in the manufacture
of building materials, including asphalt shingles
and roofing, brick and ceramics; and as fillers for
explosives, e.g. in the manufacture of dynamite,
for concrete, for plastics (to replace wood flour),
for plywood glues and adhesives - in which the
corncob flour improves the spreading and binding
properties, and for rubber compounds and tyres
- in which the corncob material adds non-skid
properties.
The lignin separated from corncobs by alkaline
treatment could be used as a filler for plastic
moulding compounds; as a soil stabilizer in road
building; in the manufacture of leather and as an
adhesive, but it is more expensive than lignin
obtained from wood. Thus, economic uses for
corncobs depend on those properties in which
cobs show a superiority over wood waste or other
materials (Clark and Lathrop, 1953).
Industrial uses based on chemical properties
(besides the manufacture of ethanol and furfural,
see above) include the manufacture of ferment-
able sugars, solvents and liquid fuel; production
of charcoal, gas and other chemicals by destruc-
tive distillation; use as a solid fuel (oven-dry cobs
have a calorific value of about 18.6 MJ/kg; 8000
Btu/lb); and in the manufacture of pulp, paper
and board (Clark and Lathrop, 1953; Klabunde,
1970).
Oats
Suggested uses for oat starch are as coating
agents in the pharmaceutical industry; in photo-
copy papers; and as adhesives; but the starch
would be competing, in these uses, with rice
starch and wheat starch.
Oatmeal is used in the cosmetics industry as a
component of facial masks and soap. The cleaning
effect of the oatmeal may be due to the beta-glucan
component, or to the oat oil (Webster, 1986).
Hulls of rice and oats
As the composition of the hulls (husks) of oats
and of rice somewhat resembles that of corncobs,
many of the industrial uses for the hulls duplicate
some of those mentioned above for corncobs.
314 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS
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ROESE, G. (1978) Rice pollard good value. Rice Mill News,
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ROONEY, L. W. and SERNA-SALDIVAR, S. 0. (1991) Sorghum.
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LORENZ, K. J. and KULP, K. (Eds.), Marcel Dekker,
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SCHINGOETHE, D.J. (1991) Feeding dairy COWS. In: Livestock
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N.J., U.S.A.
SERNA-SALDIVAR, S. 0. MCDONOUGH, C. M. and ROONEY,
L. W. (1991) The millets. In: Handbook of Cereal Science
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Further Reading
BRIT. PAT. SPEC. No. 585,772 (1944). Improvements in the
manufacture of furfural.
BROWN, I., sYMoNs, E. F. and WILSON, B. w. (1947)
Furfural: a pilot plant investigation of its production from
Austrialian raw materials. J. Coun. Sci. Industr. Res. 20:
225.
CHURCH, D. C. (1991) Livestock Feeds and Feeding, 3rd edn.
Prentice-Hall International Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J.,
U.S.A.
HITCHCOCK, L. B. and DUFFEY, H. R. (1948) Commercial
production of furfural in its 25th year. Chem. Engng. Prog.
LATHROP, A. W. and BOHSTEDT, G. (1938) Oat mill feed: its
usefulness and value in livestock rations. Wisconsin Agr.
Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 135.
SINDT, M. et al. (1987). Nebr. Beef Cattle RPt. MP 52: 9.
MEUSER, F. and WIEDMANN, W. (1989) In: Extwion
STOCK, R. et al. (1985). Nebr. Beef Cattle Rpt. MP 48: 32. Cooking, MERCIER, M., LINKO, P. and HARPER, J. (Eds.)
TECHNIPETROL SPA (1989) Process and apparatus for the Amer. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St Paul, MN, U.S.A.
cor~~uous Production of ethanol from cereals, and method PETERS, F. N. (1937) Furfural as an outlet for cellulosic
of operating said apparatus. World Intellectual Property waSte material. Chemy E~~~ N~~ 15: 269.
Organization Patent 89/01 522.
RACHIE, K. 0. (1975) The Millets - Importance, Utilization
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ( 1987a) and Outlook. International Crop Research Institute for
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (1987b) SMITH, A. (1989) Extrusion cooking: a review. Food sci.
World grain situation and outlook. Foreign Agr. Ser. Circ.
Series FG-2-87 (November), Washington, D.C. WOLF, M. J., MACMASTERS, M. M., CANNON, J. A.,
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (1987~) ROSEWALL, E. C. and RIST, C. E. (1953) Preparation and
Feed situation and outlook. Econ. Res. Ser. FDS-304 properties of hemicelluloses from corn hulls. Cereal Chem.
(November), Washington, D.C. 30: 451.
Ap‘cultural StUtiStiCS 1986. U.S.D.A., Washington, D.C.
Semi-Arid Tropics, Begumpet, Hyderabad, India.
Technol. Today 3 (3): 156-161.