15 Feed and Industrial Uses for Cereals Introduction two categories: wheat, oats, rice and sorghum, of which about 7% of the entire crop in each case is used for industrial purposes, and barley, rye, (12-15%) is used industrially. The wor1dwide usage Of all the cereds’ gathered Sheets, is about 4% for seed, and the remainder almost equally shared between human food use (49%) and animal feed plus ‘processing and other’ (principally industrial) use (47%). The last cate- gory divides into about 37% for animal feed plus siderable variation among the eight principal cereals, as shown in Table 15.1. together, as revea1ed in the FAo Food Ba1ance maize and millet, of which nearly twice as much Raw materials used for feed and industrially 10% for industrial use. There is, however, con- The raw materials used for these purposes fall into three categories: 1. The whole grain as harvested, or perhaps with a minimum of processing. 2. Certain components of the grain which pro- vide the starting material for chemical process- ing. These would include starch, for production Cereal Food Feed and other Seed of ethanol, and pentosans, for manufacture of (Yo) (%) furfural. Wheat 66.5 20.2 6.7 6.6 3. By-products of the milling process, which are Barley 5.4 73.1 14.9 6.6 not usually suitable for human food, but which can be used for animal feed and for a wide Oats 5.3 78.3 7.3 9.1 33.4 43.9 14.3 8.4 range of industrial uses, including fillers, adhe- Rye Rice 88.0 1.8 7.0 3.2 Maize 20.7 63.9 13.9 1.5 sives, abrasives, etc., besides the manufacture of furfural. Sorghum 35.2 56.6 6.9 1.3 Millet 74.7 10.8 11.8 2.7 Total 49.0 36.9 9.8 4.3 Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990. TABLE 15.1 World Usage of the Principal Cereals, 1984-86 average* Processing (Yo) (Oh) Animal feed Apart from usage for human food, animal feed is by far the largest use for cereals - both whole grains and milling by-products. Thus, in 1986/87, out of a total world produc- tion of all cereals of 1,830 million tonnes, 892 million tonnes (48.7%) were used for animal feed (USDA, 1987b). * Source: FA0 Food Balance Sheets 1984-86. Food and Thus, very little rice or millet is used for feed, while over 70% of the entire crops of barley and oats are so used, with the use of maize and sorghum for animal feed not far behind. For industrial use, the cereals seem to fall into 302 FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 303 Maize is easily the most widely used cereal, kind of cereal involved and the proportion of that with about 282 million tonnes being used for cereal in the feed; also on the species of animal animal feed (annually) worldwide in 1984-1986, for which the feed is intended, particularly whether followed by barley (about 127 million tonnes) and for ruminants or for monogastric animals and wheat (about 103 million tonnes) (FAO, 1990). probably also on the stage in the animal’s life A large proportion of the cereal grains fed to cycle, e.g. thinking of poultry, whether for young animals passes through the hands of ‘animal feed chicks, for broilers, or for laying hens. processors’. By way of example, of the 5.2 million Some of the treatments applied by animal feed tonnes of wheat used for animal feed in the UK processors to cereal grain, and the resulting in 1988/89, 2.87 million tonnes (55%) were used benefits are described below. by animal feed processors (a figure based on returns from compounders only, in Great Britain) Grinding (H-GCA, 1990). The remainder, still a consider- able quantity, would presumably have been fed This is the commonest treatment, and relatively directly from the farm to the animals, not via inexpensive. Roller mills or hammer mills may processors. be used, but hammer mills are favoured because, In the same year, 1988/89, 5.1 million tonnes by choice of a screen of suitable size, the hammer of wheat were used by flour millers in the UK mill can yield ground material of any particular which, besides yielding 3.954 million tonnes of size from cracked grain to a fine powder. The flour, also produced 1.132 million tonnes of objective of grinding is to improve the digestibility. milling by-products - bran and middlings (fine Coarsely-ground grain is preferred for ruminants; offal), most of which would have been used for more finely-ground grain for swine and poultry. animal feed. Thus, the total quantity of wheat plus wheat milling by-products used for feeding Soaking animals in the UK in 1988/89 must have been about 6.3 million tonnes (NABIM, 1991). Grain may be soaked in water for 12-24 h, A similar state of affairs probably exists for followed by rolling, for livestock feeding. The wheat in other countries, and also, to varying soaking softens the grain and causes it to swell, extents, for other cereal grains worldwide. thereby improving palatability. Processing cereals for animal feed Reconstitution The treatments applied to cereals by animal A process in which grain is moistened to 25- feed processors are both expensive and time- 30% m.c. and then stored in an oxygen-limiting consuming, and obviously would not be under- silo for 14-21 days. This process is successful taken unless such treatments offered considerable with maize and sorghum, and improves the feed/ advantages over the feeding of untreated whole growth ratio for beef cattle. grain, and were cost-effective. Both cold and hot, dry and wet, mechanical and chemical methods Steam-rolling and steam-f,aking of treatment may be used, with the objectives of improving palatability, avoiding wastage, and Grain is treated with steam for 3-5 min (for encouraging consumption, thus leading to a greater steam-rolled) or for 15-30 min (for steam-flaked) efficiency of food usage and perhaps faster growth. and then rolled between a pair of smooth rollers. Other objectives would be to improve digestibility These processes improve the physical texture and and/or nutritive value, to prevent spoilage, soften the grain. Steam-flaking makes thinner and to detoxify poisons and to inactivate anti- flakes than steam-rolling. The heat treatment may nutritional factors. improve protein utilization by ruminants. In the The actual treatment used will depend on the steam-flaking process there will be some rupturing 304 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS of the starch granules, and partial gelatinization of the starch, resulting in more efficient use of the feed by ruminants. Pelleting Steamed grain is ground and the mass is forced through a die to make pellets - a form which all domestic animals seem to prefer to meal. However, pelleted cereals are not recommended for ruminants because a decrease in food intake may ensue. On the other hand, pelleting leads to increased consumption by swine and poultry, possibly because pelleting masks the flavour of unpalatable ingredients in the diet. Pelleting also improves the utilization of amino acids by swine. The heat used in pelleting may be effective in inactivating heat-labile toxins. Popping and micronizing rupture of the endosperm improves utilization of the starch in the digestive tract. Micronizing is a similar process to popping, but uses infrared radiation for heating the grain. Treatment of high-moisture grain Grain harvested at a relatively high moisture content, e.g. 20-35% m.c., can be chemically treated to prevent the development of moulds during storage, to produce excellent feed. Recommended treatment of high-moisture grain is with acids, used at a rate of 1.0-1.5%. Such acids could be propionic alone, or with acetic or formic acids. Maize and barley, thus treated, can be fed to swine, maize and sorghum to beef cattle (Church, 1991). (Cromwell, 1991). Feeding maize to animals Maize (corn) provided 85% of the cereals fed to broilers in the U.S.A. in 1984, with sorghum providing 11% and wheat 4% (USDA, 1987a). In 1986, the cereals contributing to the feed for livestock in the U.S.A. were: maize 75%, sorghum 9%, oats 6%, barley 4%, wheat plus rye 6%. For beef cattle, maize is generally fed with another cereal: the greatest benefit comes from combining slowly digested grains (maize, sorghum) with rapidly digested grains (wheat, barley, high- moisture maize). A combination of 67% of wheat plus 33% of dry-rolled maize gave a 6% comple- mentary effect as compared with feeding 100°/~ dry-rolled maize (Kreikmeier, 1987). Cattle fed 75% of high-moisture maize plus 25% of dry- rolled grain sorghum or dry maize gained more rapidly and used the feed more efficiently than those fed either grain alone (Sindt et al., 1987). For cows, a typical diet would contain 41% of high-moisture maize (along with alfalfa and soya- bean meal, etc.) (Schingoethe, 1991). Grinding, cracking or rolling the grains, or steam-flaking, may improve the digestibility. A calf-grower feed might contain 65% of maize, sorghum or barley, plus 10% of rolled oats and 20% of soyabean meal (Morrill, 1991). Typical feeds for early-weaned lambs would In grain that has been popped and then rolled, include 67% of ground shelled maize plus 10% of cottonseed hulls, or 74% of ground ear maize plus soyabean meal and supplements (Ely, 1991). For pigs of all ages, maize might provide 85% of the grain in the rations. Use of high-lysine maize would allow a reduction in the amount of soyabean meal needed. The feed grains must be ground, e.g. through a hammer mill with %ti% in. screen. Finely-ground maize is used more efficiently than coarsely-ground, but very fine grinding, making a dusty meal, is to be avoided. The proportion of ground maize in the feed for swine at various stages of growth could be 80% for pregnant sows and gilts, 76% for lactation diets for sows and gilts, 63-71% for young pigs, 78% for growing pigs, and 84% for finishing pigs For feeding poultry, maize, sorghum, wheat and barley are the most important cereals and should be ground and perhaps pelleted. Pelleting prevents the sorting out of constituents of the diet, and is recommended for chicks and broilers. Pelleting minimizes wastage and improves palatability. Maize could provide 57% of the feed for broiler starters, 62% for broiler finishers, 45% for chicks, 57% for growers (7-12 FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 305 weeks) and developers (13-18 weeks), 48% for preferred to one in which ground maize is the laying hens (Nakaue and Arscott, 1991). sole cereal because it results in better plumage, For horses, 25-39% of the feed could be less feather-picking, and less cannibalism. On the cracked maize, along with 45-30% of rolled and other hand, the corncob plus maize feed gives a 7-10% of wheat bran (Ott, 1991). reduced egg production and less body-weight By-products of the milling of maize are also gain (Clark and Lathrop, 1953). used for animal feeding. A product known as hominy feed comprises the entire by-product Barley for animal feed streams from the dry milling of maize. It is a relatively inexpensive high-fibre, high-calorie Apart from its use in malting, brewing and material which is high in carotenoids (yellow distilling (c.f. Ch. 9), the next most important pigments desirable for chicken feed) and vitamins use for barley is as food for animals, particularly A and D. Hominy feed is an excellent source pigs, in the form of barley meal. of energy for both ruminants and monogastric As whole barley contains about 34% of crude animals, in this respect being equal or superior fibre, and is relatively indigestible, the preferred to whole maize. Hominy feed competes with type of barley for animal feeding is one with a other maize by-products - corn gluten feed and low husk content. Low protein barleys are favoured spent brewers’ grains - as an animal feed. for malting and brewing, but barley of high Hominy feed may partially replace grain in diets protein content is more desirable for animal feed. for horses, provided the feed is pelleted (Ott, The total digestible nutrients in barley are 1991). Gluten feed is recovered from the steeping given as 79%. Digestible coefficients for consti- water in which maize is steeped as a stage in wet- tuents of ground barley are 76% for protein, 80% milling (q.v.). After the separation of the germ, for fat, 92% for carbohydrate and 56% for fibre in the wet-milling of maize, and extraction of the (Morrison, 1947). oil, the residue - germ cake - is used for cattle The feeding value of barley is said to be equal feed. to that of maize for ruminants (Hockett, 1991) and 85-90% of that of maize for swine (Cromwell, 1991). For swine, barley can replace all the maize in the feed; indeed, barley is preferred to maize Maize cobs The maize cob (corn cob in the U.S.A.) is the for certain animals, e.g. pigs. The feeding value central rachis of the female inflorescence of the of barley for pigs is improved by grinding, plant to which the grains are attached, and which pelleting, cubing, rolling or micronizing (Hockett, remains as agricultural waste after threshing. As 1991). It is also used extensively in compound about 180 kg of cobs (d.b.) are obtained from feeds. each tonne of maize shelled, the annual produc- For poultry, a feed containing barley and maize tion of cobs in the U.S.A. alone is of the order improved egg production and feed efficiency as of 30 million tomes. compared with either cereal fed alone (Lorenz Cobs consist principally of cellulose 35%, pen- and Kulp, 1991). tosans 40% and lignin 15%. Agricultural uses for Swine fed barley grew faster and had a more maize cobs, listed by Clark and Lathrop (1953), efficient feed/gain ratio if the barley was pelleted include litter for poultry and other animals; than if fed as meal. Feed for pregnant sows and mulch and soil conditioner; animal and poultry gilts can contain up to 85% of ground barley, up feeds. The feeding value of corncobs is about 62% to 65% for lactating sows, 80% for growing pigs of that of grains. Up to 67% of ground corncobs, and 86% for finishing pigs (Cromwell, 1991). with 14% of ground shelled maize and some The barley is normally fed either crushed or soyabean meal and molasses-urea provided a as a coarse meal, thereby avoiding wastage that suitable feed for cattle. For poultry, a feed could result from the passage of undigested grains containing corncob meal plus ground maize is through the alimentary tract. The widespread use 306 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS of barley by pig feeders is related to its effect on the body fat, which becomes firm and white if the ration contains a large amount of barley meal (Watson, 1953). ‘Hiproly’ (i.e. hi-pro-ly) barley is a mutant two- row barley from Ethiopia containing the ‘Zys’ gene, which confers high lysine content (cf. p. 71). Hiproly barley contains 2630% more lysine than is found in normal barley. High-lysine barley has been shown to improve the growth rate of pigs (Hockett, 1991). A recent high-lysine barley mutant originating in Denmark is Riso 1508, with 50% more lysine than in Hiproly barley. Riso 1508 is intended to provide a feedstuff with an improved amino acid balance for the pig and dairy industries, one objective being to avoid the neces- sity of feeding fishmeal, which gives a taint to the product. By-products from the dry milling of barley to make pearl barley are used for animal feed, particularly for ruminants and horses, as con- stituents of compound feeds. Brewers’ grains and distillers’ dried grains are by-products from the brewing and distilling industries that can be incorporated in feeds for ruminants; they are too fibrous for pigs and poultry. Wheat for animal feeding world-wide, averaged 19.8 million tonnes per annum. In the U.S.A. alone, in 1988/89, 270 million bu (about 7.35 million tonnes) were used for livestock feed. The use of wheat for animal feed is influenced by price, location and nutrient value (Mattern, 1991). The importance of wheat as an animal feedstuff is further illustrated by the establishment, by the Home-Grown Cereals Authority, in the U.K., of quality specifications for ‘standard feed wheat’, in association with the National Farmers’ Union and the U.K. Agricultural Supply Trade Associa- tion, in 1978, and subsequently updated. These quality specifications, which apply to pain destined for the feed compounder, mention moisture con- tent (max. 16%) and content of impurities - ergot, max. 0.05%; other cereals 5%; non-grain impurities 3% (H-GCA, 1990). Wheat fed directly to animals, viz. not via a feed processor, could include parcels that did not meet these standards and also wheat that was unfit for milling. When wheat was fed to cattle, the efficiency of feed usage was greater for dry-rolled wheat than for wholewheat. Dry milling increased grain digestibility from 63 to 88%. Further processing, e.g. steam-flaking or extruding, gave no further improvement (Church, 1991). For beef cattle, wheat is best used in combination with other feed grains, e.g. maize or grain sorghum. A blend of 67% wheat plus 33% dry-milled maize improved feed efficiency as compared with either wheat or maize alone (Ward and Klopfenstein, 1991). When fed to finishing lambs for market, wheat had 105% of the feeding value of shelled maize when the wheat comprised up to 50% of the total grain (Ely, 1991). For pigs, wheat is an excellent food, but is often too expensive. Wheat is similar to maize on an energy basis, but has a higher con- tent of protein, lysine, and available phosphorus, and wheat can replace all or part of the maize in the diet for pigs. Non-millable wheat, damaged moderately by insects, disease, or containing garlic, can be fed to swine (Cromwell, 1991). For feeding poultry, wheat should be ground, and preferably pelleted, to avoid sorting out of feed constituents by the birds. For poultry, the feed efficiency of wheat is 93-95% of that of maize Wheat milling by-products - bran and midd- lings - provide palatable food for animals. Wheat middlings can replace grain in the feed, provided the diets are pelleted - otherwise they are too dusty. The energy of wheat middlings is utilized better by ruminants than by monogastric animals. Cows fed rations containing 60% of concentrate did well if 40% of the concentrate was wheat middlings; swine did well when wheat middlings replaced up to 30% of the maize in the rations. Middlings are also fed to poultry. Wheat bran is the favoured feedstuff for horses and for all ruminants (Church, 1991). Oats for feeding animals The usage of oats for livestock feeding in the U.S.A. in 1986 was 9.6 million tonnes, exceeding The animal-feed use of wheat 1980-1984, (Nakaue and Arscott, 1991). FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 307 advantage for weanlings and yearlings (Ott, 1973). Oats that are musty should not be used (Ott, 1991). The by-products of the dry milling of oats - oat dust, meal seeds, oat feed meal - are of reasonably good feeding value. Oat feed meal (= oat mill feed in the U.S.A.) is a feed of low nutritive value suitable for ruminants, used to dilute the energy content of maize and other grains. Feed oats - the lights, doubles and thin oats removed during the cleaning of oats - are almost equally nutritious to normal oats, and are used for livestock feeding (Webster, 1986). Sorghum for animal feed Sorghum is a major ingredient in the feed for swine, poultry and cattle, particularly in the Western hemisphere. From the worldwide pro- duction of sorghum of 66 million tonnes in 1984- 1986, 56.6% (37.3 million tonnes) were used for animal feed. In the same period, the U.S.A. alone produced 14.9 million tonnes, of which 14.8 million tonnes went for animal feed (FAO, 1990). For feeding to animals, the sorghum is hammer- mill ground and then generally steam-flaked, using high moisture steam for 5-15 min to raise the moisture content to 18-20%, followed by rolling to make thin flakes (Rooney and Serna- Saldivar, 1991). Steam-flaking improves the feed efficiency of sorghum. For swine, low-tannin types of sorghum have a nutritive value equal to that of maize, but brown, high-tannin types, grown for their resis- tance to attack by birds, and their decreased liability to weathering and fungal infestation, have a reduced nutritive value (Cromwell, 1991). Sorghum provided 11% of all the cereal grain fed to broilers in the U.S.A. in 1984, and 9% of all the cereal grain fed to livestock in the U.S.A. As compared with dry-rolled sorghum, recon- stituted sorghum (moistened to 25-30% m.c. and then stored for 14-21 days in a silo in a low oxygen atmosphere before feeding) produced a better daily weight gain in feed-lot cattle, and also produced a considerable improvement in feed the feed usage of barley (7.0 million tonnes) in that year (USDA, 1987b), although worldwide the usage of oats for animal feed, at 38.3 million tonnes per annum, was less than one-third of the amount of barley so used worldwide, viz. 126.8 million tonnes, in 1984-1986 (FAO, 1990). Oatshaveauniquenutritionalvalue,particularly for animals which require feed having a relatively high level of good quality protein, but with lower energy content. The level of protein in oat groats is higher than that in other cereals; moreover, the quality of oat protein, particularly the amino acid balance, surpasses that of the protein of other cereals, as shown by feeding tests (Webster, 1986; McMullen, 1991). The good value of high-protein oats has been shown in diets for swine and poultry, although the nutritive value for these non-ruminants can be further improved by supplementation of the oats with lysine and methionine (Webster, 1986). For feeding to animals, oats are first ground or rolled. Rolled oats can provide 10% of the feed for calves (along with 65% of maize, sorghum or barley) (Klopfenstein et al., 1991), and is a good starter feed for pigs, although too expensive for other pigs. Ground oats can provide 25% of the feed for pregnant sows, 20% for lactating sows, 10% for young pigs, 15% for growing and finishing pigs (with maize, wheat or barley supplying most of the remainder of the feed) (Cromwell, 1991). For feeding to pigs, the oats should be ground through a hammer mill, using a '/z in. screen. Pelleting of the ground oats gives faster growth than unpelleted meal for swine (Cromwell, 1991). The feeding value for swine, relative to maize, is 100% for oat groats, and 80% for whole oats. For poultry, oats have 93% of the value of maize for broilers, 89% for layers (Cromwell, 1991; Nakaue and Arscott, 1991). For feeding to finishing lambs for the market, oats have 80% of the feeding value of maize (Ely, 1991). in 1986 (USDA, 1987a,c). Historically, oats are regarded as the ideal feed for horses, and in North America this view still obtains. For young or poor-toothed horses, the whole oats are best rolled or crushed. As com- pared with whole oats, crushed oats gave a 5% feeding advantage for working horses, and a 2 1% 308 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS gain ratio (Stock et al., 1985). When fed to swine, reconstituted sorghum gave a slight improvement only in the case of high-tannin sorghum. For beef cattle, grain sorghum has 85-95% of digested slowly in the rumen and has a relatively lower total tract digestibility (Klopfenstein et al. , 1991). Ground sorghum can provide up to 80% Of the 71% for young pigs, 78% for growing pigs, and poultry, suggested rations include 18% of sorghum 14% for developers (13-18 weeks), and 20% for layer-breeders (fed as all-mash in a warm climate) (Nakaue and Arscott, 1991). Rye in animal feed Of the annua1 tota1 wor1d usage Of rye for animal feed, of 14.5 million tonnes, in the period 1984-1986, nearly 94% was used in Europe and and Germany (FRD plus GDR) 15.2%. Usage in the who1e Of north and centra1 America was Only 3.4% of the total. Rye is used in areas where it is cheaper than Rice in feed for animals A total of 6.5 million tonneS of rice was used annually, worldwide, in the period 1984-86 for animal feeding, nearly all (6.0 million tonnes) Mt) (FAO, 1990). For feeding swine, rice if pelleted can replace 50% of the maize in the feed, or 35% if fed as meal. For young pigs, the feed could contain 20% feeding value of pelleted, broken rice for swine Considerable use for animal feeding is made of a mixture of rice bran and rice polishings - is a high energy, high protein foodstuff comparing well with wheat. It contributes a useful amount of biotin, pantothenic acid, niacin, vitamin E and linoleic acid to mixed feeds, thereby reducing the requirement for supplementation with vitamin/ minerals premix. The contribution of linoleic acid in rice pollards is of particular value in rations for laying hens, where it has a beneficial effect For growing pigs, up to 30% of rice pollard can be fed in balanced rations without adverse effects on growth rate or carcase quality (Roese, 1978). Extracted rice bran (the residue left after oil the feeding va1ue Of maize* The sorghum is being used in Asia (China 3.2 Mt; Thailand 0.7 feed for pregnant sows, 76% for lactating sowsJ of rice bran, if pelleted (Sharp, 1991). The 84% for finishing Pigs (Cromwell, 1991)' For is 96% of that of maize (Gromwell, 1991). for chick starters, 13" for growers (7-12 weeks)J the by-products of rice milling. Rice pollards - the USSR, the USSR using 39.3%, "land 30*3% On egg size (Australian Technical Millers, 1980). bar1ey, but, a1though rye is high in energy7 growth Of anima1s On rye is 'lower than On Other cereals, possibly because its unpdatabiliq restricts intake* Rye contins a high level Of pectin (a exuaction from rice bran) has an increased content of protein and a good amino acid profile for mono- gastric animals, also good protein and phosphorus COntentS for ruminants. However, it is not a good carbohydrate), which reduces its feeding value. Thus, rye is compounded with other cereals for animal feed. Rye also contains a resorcinol - 5-alkyl-resorcinol - which was once thought to be toxic to animals. Attempts are being made to breed lines of rye with lower levels of resorcinol. Horses feed on rye grain show no ill effects SOurce of fatty acids. Rice mill feed is a mixture of rice pollards and ground rice hulls used for animal feed. In 1986, 0.72 million tonnes of rice mill feed were used for animal feed in the U.S.A. (USDA, 1987~). Ground rice hulls are a highly fibrous, low from possible toxic constituents (Antoni, 1960), and rye can be successfully fed to swine and energy foodstuff, suitable for diluting the energY level in rations for cattle, sheep, goats, Pigs and cattie when it contributes up to 50% in a mixed feed. The presence of ergot in rye is a risk if the rye is fed to swine, as the ergot can cause abortion in sows, and reduce the performance of growing pigs (Drews and Seibel, 1976; Cromwell, 1991; Lorenz, 1991). poultry (Australian Technical Millers, 1980). The total digestible nutrients (at 14% m.c.) in rice hull are 15% for cattle and 25% for sheep (Juliano, 1985). Rice hulls contain 9-20% of lignin, thereby limiting their use for animal feed. Various de- lignification processes have been suggested, e.g. FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 309 maize for swine, but became equal to maize when supplemented with lysine. Pearl millet (rolled) provided excellent protein for beef cattle, and steers gained as well on rolled pearl millet as on sorghum (Serna-Saldivar et al, 1991). treatment with alkali or with acid (see Juliano 1985, Ch. 19 for details). Treatment with 12% caustic soda also reduced the high silica content of rice hulls, while treatment of the hulls with anhydrous ammonia plus monocalcium phosphate at elevated temperature and pressure increased the crude protein equivalent, broke down the harsh silica surface, and softened the hulls, thus providing an acceptable feedstuff for cattle and sheep (Juliano, 1985). An even more successful treatment of rice hulls was incubation with Bacillus spp. for several days: this treatment reduced the lignin and crude fibre contents to a greater degree than soaking in caustic soda (Juliano, 1985). The millets for animal feeding Of the 3.1 million tonnes of millet used world- wide annually for animal feed in 1984-1986, 1.3 million tonnes were used in the former Soviet Union, 1.1 Mt in Asia (including 0.7 Mt in China), and 0.5 Mt in Africa (including 0.3 Mt in Egypt) (FAO, 1990). There was no recorded use of millet for animal feed in the U.S.A. during this period, although it is reported that proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) is grown in the U. S.A. for birdseed (Serna-Saldivar et al., 1991). Feeding trials have shown that millets have nutritive values comparable to, or better than, those of the other major cereals: proso millet has 89% of the value of maize for feeding swine, and can replace 100% of the maize in rations for swine (Cromwell, 1991). Animals fed millet perform better than those fed sorghum; they produce better growth because the millet has a higher calorific content and better quality protein (Serna- Saldivar et al., 1991). Poultry produced better gains when fed millet than when fed sorghum or wheat; the efficiency of feed conversion was better for chicks fed pearl millet (Pennisetum amem'canum) than on wheat, maize or sorghum; proso millet was equivalent to sorghum or maize in respect of egg production and weight, and efficiency of feed use. For swine, finger millet (Eleusine coracana) was as good as maize for pig finishing diets; proso millet had a slightly lower feed efficiency than Production of ethanol from cereals Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is produced by the enzymic action of yeast on sugars, which are themselves produced by the hydrolysis of starch. In as much as all cereals contain a large proportion of starch, it should be possible to obtain ethanol from any cereal. This happens when cereal grains are malted and then brewed to make beer, which is an aqueous solution of alcohol. The production of ethanol can be regarded as a modification of the brewing process, in which starch separated from the grains is the starting material, and pure ethanol, rather than an aqueous solution, is the final product. The principal reasons for making ethanol from cereals are that ethanol can be used as a partial replacement of gasoline as a fuel for internal combustion engines and that the process is a useful way of dealing with surplus grain whenever it arises. Interest in the process increases when fuel shortages occur and/or when prices of feed grain are depressed. Thus, a wheat surplus in Sweden in 1984 was dealt with by establishing a plant that separated the starch from a residue to be used for animal feed. About half of the starch (the best quality) was to be used by the paper industry, the remainder for production of ethanol. The addi- tion of 4% of ethanol to gasoline does not lead to starting problems or to an increase in fuel con- sumption and, in fact, increases the octane number (Wadmark, 1988). The possible yield of ethanol varies according to the type of cereal used: 430 l/t from rice, 340- 360 l/t from wheat, 240-250 Ut from barley and oats (Dale, 1991). The process of manufacture of ethanol from cereals starts by grinding the grain and then cooking it with water and acid or alkali. Amylase enzyme is added to the cooled mash to promote 310 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS the hydrolysis of starch to glucose, and the mash is then fermented with yeast, releasing carbon dioxide gas, and producing alcohol. The wort is treated with steam in a beer still, and the alcohol is finally separated in a rectification column, yielding 95% ethanol and leaving a protein- enriched residue, suitable for animal feeding (Dale, 1991). As a motor fuel, ethanol has various advantages over gasoline: it has a very high octane number; it increases engine power; it burns more cleanly, producing less carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. On the other hand, there may be 1989a,b). difficulties in starting the engine on ethanol alone, and accordingly a blend of ethanol with gasoline is generally used. Other uses for ethanol made from cereals, besides motor fuel, include use as a solvent in antifreeze and as the raw material for the manu- facture of various chemicals, e.g. acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, acetic acid, glycols (Dale, 1991). The carbon dioxide evolved during the fermen- tation stage finds uses in oil fields, for recovery of additional oil, in the manufacture of methanol, as a refrigerant and in carbonated beverages (Dale, 1991). A process for the continuous production of ethanol from cereals, involving screening, filter- ing, saccharification, fermentation and distillation stages, has recently been patented (Technipetrol SPA, 1989), while a dual-purpose flour mill has been described in which the flour is air-classified to produce a high protein fraction (particle size: 2-5 pm) and a residual protein-depleted fraction for use as the starting material for production of ethanol (Bonnet and Willm, 1989). Corncobs can be used for the production of ethanol, and also of furfural (vide infra). By treating the cobs with dilute sulphuric acid, 80% of the pentosans in the cobs are converted to pentoses, from which furfural is obtained, while the residual cellulose can be hydrolyzed to glucose in 65% yield (Clark and Lathrop, 1953). Extrusion cooking has been suggested as a method for pretreating grain to be used for the production of ethanol. The thermomechanical effects of extrusion cooking produce gelatiniza- tion and liquefaction of the starch so that no liquefying enzyme is needed for the subsequent saccharification with glucoamylase. Ethanol yields from wet-extruded and from steam-cooked grain were almost equal, but the extrusion method uses less energy. Roller-milled whole barley, wheat or oats can be used in this process, with or without the addition of thermostable alpha-amylase, which appears to have little effect during extrusion cooking. The fermentation stage is carried out using either yeast (Saccharomyces cmevisiae) or the bacterium Zymomonas mobilis, the latter produc- ing an increased initial rate of fermentation (Linko, Furfural production from cereals Corncobs, the hulls of oats and rice, and the fibrous parts of other cereals are rich in pentosans, condensation products of pentose sugars, which are associated with cellulose as constituents of cell walls, particularly of woody tissues. Thus, the pentosan content of oat hulls is given as 29%, along with 29% of cellulose and 16% of lignin (McMullen, 1991). Pentosans are the start- ing material for the manufacture of furfural, a chemical with many uses. Indeed, commercial utilization of oat hulls and other pentosan-rich cereal materials lies in the manufacture of furfural (MacArthur-Grant, 1986). Furfural was first produced commercially in 1922. By 1975, oat hulls were providing about 22% of the annual demand for furfural in the U.S.A., but thereafter the demand for furfural and other furan chemicals far outstripped the supply of oat hulls, and increasing use was then made of other sources of pentosans, viz. rice hulls, corncobs, bagasse (Shukla, 1975). Plants for the commercial production of furfural from agricultural residues have been established in the U.S.A. The plant at Cedar Rapids, Iowa, uses oat hulls and corncobs; the one at Memphis, TN uses rice hulls, corncobs and cottonseed hulls; while the plant at Omaha, NB uses corn- cobs only (Clark and Lathrop, 1953). The commercial process for manufacturing furfural involves the boiling of the pentosan- containing material with strong acid (sulphuric or hydrochloric) and steam for 7-9 h at 70 psi FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 31 1 HC - CH tanks; production of tetrahydrofurfural alcohol, a II II solvent for dyes, paints, etc.; production of "c\ /C-CHo polytetramethylene ether glycol for making thermoplastics; manufacture of D-xylose, phenolic C5HIoO5 = C,H,O'CHO t 3H20 Furfural resin glues and adhesives; production of anti- Pentose Fur f ura I skid tread composition; filter aid in breweries (MacArthur-Grant, 1986). (C5H804), + nHpO = nC5Hlo05 Pen toson Pentose 0 FIG. 15.1 Chemical reactions in the production of furfural from pentosans. Other industrial uses for cereals pressure. Previous grinding of the hulls is not required. A sequence of reactions takes place. The There are many other industrial uses, besides pentosans are dissociated from the cellulose; then the production of ethanol and furfural, for cereal the pentosans are hydrolyzed to pentose sugars, grains, their milled products, and the by-products and finally the pentose sugars undergo cyclo- of milling. Use of cereals in malting, brewing and hydration to form furfural, a heterocyclic adehyde, distilling have been discussed in Ch. 9. Other which is removed continuously by steam distillation industrial uses are dependent on either the chemical (see Fig. 15.1) (Dunlop, 1973; Johnson, 1991). characteristics or the physical properties of the The theoretical yield of furfural from pentose raw material. They make use of cereals or cereal is 64% (plus 36% of water), so the theoretical products as absorbents, abrasives, adhesives, yield of furfural from oat hulls containing 29% binders and fillers, carriers, and for such purposes of pentosans would be 22%, although a yield of as filter aids, litter for animals, fertilizers, floor- only about 13% is achieved in practice. The yield sweepings, fuel, soil conditioners, oil well drilling from corncobs is similar, while that from rice aid. They are also used in the paper and mineral hulls is somewhat lower, at 12% theoretical, 5% processing industries. in practice (Juliano, 1985; Pomeranz, 1987). A large proportion of the cost of the process is Wheat Industrial uses for the milling products of accounted for by the need to raise high pressure wheat have been listed by Pomeranz (1987). Both steam: for every 1 lb of furfural produced, 15- Furfural finds uses as a selective solvent for sizing and coating, and as adhesives in the manu- refining lubricating oils and petroleum spirit, and facture of paper, boards, plywood, etc. Starch is for refining animal and vegetable oils in the also used for finishing textiles. Gluten separated from wheat flour finds uses manufacture of margarine. It is also used for the purification of butadiene, which is needed for the in paper manufacture, as an adhesive, and as the starting material for the preparation of sodium manufacture of synthetic rubber. One of the most important uses for furfural, glutamate and glutamic acid. however, is in the manufacture of nylon. Nylon, Wheat germ is used in the production of antibio- 26 lb Of high pressure stearn at 1880c are required' wheat flour and wheat starch are used in paper a spthetic fibre, defined chemical1y as a &amide, was first produced in 1927 by the firm E' I' du tics, ph-aceuticals and sb conditioners, while wheat bran may be used as a carfier of enzymes, antibiotics and vitamins (Pomeranz, 1987). Starch is also used to make rigid urethane foam for insulation and paints, in plastics and to process crude latex in the manufacture of rubber. Pont de Nemours and Co., and was introduced to the industry in 1939. 'Polyamides' are formed by the condensation of a diamide and dibasic acid, and those moSt Often wed in the manufacture Of nylon are hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid. The value of furfural arises from the fact that it is an important source of hexamethylene diamine. Other uses for furfural include: production of formaldehyde furfural resins for making pipes and Rye The gums, both soluble and insoluble, make rye a good substitute for other gums in wet-end 31 2 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS additives. The starch in rye flour has a high water- binding capacity and finds use as adhesives, for example in the glue, match and plastics industries, and as pellet binders and foundry core binders (Drews and Seibel, 1976; Lorenz, 1991). Maize starch Starch is modified in various ways for use in the paper-making industry. Such modifications include acid modification and hydroxyethylation (with ethylene oxide) for paper coating, oxidation (with sodium hypochlorite) and phosphated (with sodium phosphate) for paper sizing and improve- ment of paper strength, cationic derivatives for paper strengthening, stiffening and improved pigment retention by the paper. Dextrinized starch, pregelatinized starch, and succinate derivatives are used as adhesives, while carboxymethylated starch is used in paints, oil drilling muds, wall-paper adhesives and detergents (Johnson, 1991). Maize and sorghum Maize grits are used in the manufacture of wall paper paste, and of glucose by ‘direct hydrolysis’. Coarse or granulated maize meal is used for dance floor wax and for handsoap; fine meal or corn (maize) cones finds use as a dusting agent and as an abrasive in hand soap. Corn (maize) gluten is used as a cork-binding agent, as an additive for printing dyes, and in pharmaceuticals. Acid-modified flours of maize and sorghum are used as binders for wall board and gypsum board, providing a strong bond between gypsum and the liner. In the building industry, maize flour is used to provide insulation of fibre board and plywood, and wafer board. In the pharmaceutical industry, maize flour is used for the production of citric acid and other chemicals by fermentation processes. Extrusion-cooked maize flour and sorghum flour are used as core-binders or foundry binders in sand-cereal-linseed oil systems, while a ther- mosetting resin has been made by combining an acid-modified, extruded maize flour with glyoxal or a related polyaldehyde, the mixture binding the sand particles. As an adhesive, maize flour and sorghum grits are used in the production of charcoal briquets, corrugated paper, and animal feed pellets. Both maize flour and sorghum flour find uses in ore-refining, e.g. in the refining of bauxite (aluminium ore), and as binders in pelletizing iron ore. Another use for precooked maize flour or starch and for sorghum grits is in oil well drilling, where the flour or starch reduces loss of water in the drilling mud which cools and lubri- cates the drilling bit. For this purpose, the flours may be precooked on hot rolls or by extrusion cooking. Maize flour has been used as an extender in polyvinyl alcohol and polyvinyl chloride films for use as agricultural mulches, and as extenders in rigid polyurethane resins for making furniture (Alexander, 1987). Corn (maize) cobs consist chiefly of cellulose, hemicellulose (pentosan), lignin and ash. Their industrial uses have been listed by Clark and Lathrop (1953). They include: Agricultural uses: as litter for poultry, prefer- ably reduced to particles of 0.25-0.75 in. in size. Their use reportedly reduces the mortality of chickens from coccidiosis. As mulch around plants, for retaining moisture and controlling weeds, and as a soil conditioner for improving soil texture. As carriers and diluents for insecticides and pesti- cides, preferably ground to pass a U.S. standard No. 60 sieve. Partly rolled crushed cobs have been used as material on which to grow mushrooms. Industrial uses: those based on physical proper- ties include use for corncob pipes; in the manufac- ture of vinegar; as an abrasive, when finely ground, for cleaning fur and rugs; for cleaning moulds in the rubber and glass industries; for soft-grit air-blasting, burnishing and polishing the parts of airplane engines and electric motors. Soft-grit blasting can remove or absorb rust, scale from hard water, oil, grease, wax and dirt from a variety of metals. Finely ground cobs can replace sawdust (when mixed with sand and paraffin oil) as a floor sweeping compound, and can be used as an abrasive in soaps. FEED AND INDUSTRIAL USES FOR CEREALS 313 Rice hulls differ, however, in yielding a large amount of ash (22%) upon incineration, of which 95% is silica, most of the rest being lime and potash. Thus, rice hills can be used as a source of high-grade silica in various manufacturing industries. Oat husk is used as a filter aid in breweries, where it is mixed with the ground malt and water in the mash tun in order to keep the mass porous. It is also used, when finely ground, as a diluent or filler in linoleum, and as an abrasive in air- blasting for removing oil and products of cor- rosion from machined metal components, as an antiskid tread component, and as a plywood glue extender (Hutchinson, 1953; McMullen 1991). The cariostatic properties of oat hulls suggest possible uses as components of chewing gum and other products (McMullen, 1991). Uses for rice hulls include chicken litter, soil amendment for potting plants, ammoniated for fertilizers, filter aid, burnt for floor sweepings, binder for pelleted feeds, insulating material, filler for building materials (e.g. wallboard: see Brit. Pat. No. 1,403,154), binder and absorbent for pesticides, explosives (Juliano, 1985; Sharp, 1991). Rice hulls may be used as an abrasive in soft- grit blasting of metal parts, but as the hulls contain 18-20% of silica they are too abrasive when used alone, and are preferably mixed with ground corncobs in the ratio of 40% rice hulls to 60% of cob particles (Clark and Lathrop, 1953). Rice hulls have also been used successfully for mopping up oil spillages on the surface of water. After skimming off the hulls, the water was left clean enough to drink. Fine sieve fractions of ground rice hulls can be used as excipients (carriers) for nutrients, pharm- aceuticals, biological additives in animal feed premixes, and for poison baits. The high silica content of rice hull ash is the reason for the use of the ash as a constituent of cement, together with slaked lime: rice hull ash cement is more acid-resistant than portland cement (Juliano, 1985). Rice hull ash can be used as a silica source in glass and ceramics industries, e.g. for making Silex bricks (in Italy) and Porasil bricks (in Canada). Slaked lime reacts with the Ground corncobs find uses in the manufacture of building materials, including asphalt shingles and roofing, brick and ceramics; and as fillers for explosives, e.g. in the manufacture of dynamite, for concrete, for plastics (to replace wood flour), for plywood glues and adhesives - in which the corncob flour improves the spreading and binding properties, and for rubber compounds and tyres - in which the corncob material adds non-skid properties. The lignin separated from corncobs by alkaline treatment could be used as a filler for plastic moulding compounds; as a soil stabilizer in road building; in the manufacture of leather and as an adhesive, but it is more expensive than lignin obtained from wood. Thus, economic uses for corncobs depend on those properties in which cobs show a superiority over wood waste or other materials (Clark and Lathrop, 1953). Industrial uses based on chemical properties (besides the manufacture of ethanol and furfural, see above) include the manufacture of ferment- able sugars, solvents and liquid fuel; production of charcoal, gas and other chemicals by destruc- tive distillation; use as a solid fuel (oven-dry cobs have a calorific value of about 18.6 MJ/kg; 8000 Btu/lb); and in the manufacture of pulp, paper and board (Clark and Lathrop, 1953; Klabunde, 1970). Oats Suggested uses for oat starch are as coating agents in the pharmaceutical industry; in photo- copy papers; and as adhesives; but the starch would be competing, in these uses, with rice starch and wheat starch. Oatmeal is used in the cosmetics industry as a component of facial masks and soap. The cleaning effect of the oatmeal may be due to the beta-glucan component, or to the oat oil (Webster, 1986). Hulls of rice and oats As the composition of the hulls (husks) of oats and of rice somewhat resembles that of corncobs, many of the industrial uses for the hulls duplicate some of those mentioned above for corncobs. 314 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS silica during firing to provide a vitreous calcium Prenctice-Hall International Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.Y., U.S.A. silicate bond. Rice hull ash can be used as a Source of~odium NATIONS (1990) Food balance sheets, 198436. F.A.O., silicate for the manufacture of water glass, re- Rome- HOCKETT, E. A. (1991) Barley. In: Handbook of Cereal inforcing rubber compounds, as an absorbent for Science and Technology, Ch. 3. LORENZ, K. J. and KULP, oil, as an insulator for steel ingots, as an abrasive K. (Eds.), Marcel Dekkor, Inc., N.Y., U.S.A. HOME-GROWN CEREALS AUTHORITY (1990). Cereal Statistics. for tooth paste, as an absorbent and as a water H-GCA, London. purifier (Australian Technical Millers Association, HUTCHINSON, J. B. (1953) The quality of cereals and their industrial uses. Chemy Ind. 578. JOHNSON, L. A. (1991). Corn: production, processing, 1980). Rice hu11s fired at temperatures be1ow 'OooC utilization. In: Handbook of Cerealscience and Technology, yield amorphous silica which has been used for Ch. 2, LORENZ, K. J. and KULP, K. (Eds.), Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., U.S.A. solar cells. The silica can be chlorinated to Silicon edn. Amer. A~~~~. Cereal Chem., St Paul, Minn., U.S.A. tetrachloride, which is then reacted with metal- KLABUNDE, H. (1970) Various methods for the industrial processing of corn. Northw. Miller May: 83. making solar-grade silicon. Feeding growing-finishing beef cattle. In: Livestock Feeds and Feeding, Ch 14. CHURCH, D. C. (Ed.) Prentice-Hall International, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., U.S.A. KREIKMEIER, K. (1987) Nebr. Beef Cattle Rpt. MP 52:9 LINKO, P. (1989a) The twin-screw extrusion cooker as a versatile tool for wheat processing. In: Wheat is Unique, Ch. 22. POMERANZ, Y. (Ed.) Amer. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St Paul, MN, U.S.A. LINKO, P. (1989b) Extrusion cooking in bioconversions. In: Extrusion Cooking, Ch. 8, MERCIER, M., LINKO, P. and HARPER, J. (Eds.), Amer. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St Paul, MN, U.S.A. LORENZ, K. J. (1991) Rye. In: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, LORENZ, K. J. and KULP, K. (Eds) Marcel Dekker Inc., N.Y., U.S.A. LORENZ, K. J.. and KULP, K. (1991) Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology. Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y ., U.S.A. MACARTHUR-GRANT, L. A. (1986) Sugars and nonstarchy polysaccharides in oats. In: Oats: Chemistry and Technology, Ch. 4. WEBSTER, F. H. (Ed.), Amer. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St Paul, MN, U.S.A. MARTIN, J. H. and MACMASTERS, M. M. (1951) Industrial uses for grain sorghum. U.S. Dept. Agric., Yearbook Agric., 1951, p. 349. and Technology, Ch. 1, LORENZ, K. J. and KULP, K. (Eds) Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., U.S.A. Science and Technology, Ch. 4, LORENZ, K. J. and KULP, K. (Eds.) Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., U.S.A. MORRILL, J. L. (1991) Feeding dairy calves and heifers. In: Livestock feeds andfeeding, 3rd e&, Ch. 16, CHURCH, D. c. (Ed.) Prenctice-Hall International Inc., Englewood cliffs, MORRISON, F. B. (1947). Feeds and Feeding. 20th edn. Morrison Publ. Co., Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A. NAKAUE, H. S. and ARSCOTT, G. H. (1991) Feeding poultry. In: Livestock Feeds and Feeding, 3rd edn, Ch 22. CHURCH, D. C. (Ed.) Prentice-Hall International, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., U.S.A. NATIONAL ASSXIATION OF BRITISH AND IRISH MILLERS (1991) Facts and Figures 1991. N.A.B.I.M., London. FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANISATION OF THE UNITED making solar-@ade si1icon, which can be used for JULIANO, B.0. (1985) Rice: Chemisny and Technology, 2nd lurgical grade si1icon to produce trichlorsilane for KLOPFENSTEIN, T. J., STOCK, R. and WARD, J. K. (1991) References ALEXANDER, R. J. (1987) Corn dry milling: processes, products, applications. In: Corn: Chemistry and Technology, Ch. 11, WATSON, S. A. and RAMSTAD, P. E. (Eds), Amer. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St Paul, MN, U.S.A. ANTON], J. (1960) Rye as feedmeal. Landbauforschung 10: 69-72, AUSTRALIAN TECHNICAL MILLERS ASSOCIATION (1980) Cur- rent use and development of rice by-products. Australas. Baker Millers J. April: 27. BONNET, A. and WILLM, C. (1989) Wheat mill for production of proteins and ethanol. Ind. Cer. Nov/Dec.: 3746. CHURCH, D. C. (1991) Feed preparation and processing. In: Livestock Feeds and Feeding, 3rd edn, Ch. 11, CHURCH, D. C. (Ed.) Prentice-Hall International Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., U.S.A. CLARK, T. F. and LATHROP, E. C. (1953) Corncobs - Their Composition, Availability, Agricultural and Industrial Uses. U.S. Dept. Agric., Agric. Res. Admin., Bur. Agric. Ind. Chem., AIC-177, revised 1953. and the production of composite articles therefrom. Brit. Pat. Spec. No. 1,403,154. CROMWELL, G. L. (1991) Feeding swine. In: Livestock Feeds Prentice-Hall International, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., U.S.A. DALE, B. E. (1991) Ethanol production from cereal grains. In: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Ch. 24, LORENZ, K. J. AND KULP, K. (Eds) Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., U.S.A. N.J., U.S.A. DREW& E. and SEIBEL, w. (1976) Bread-baking and other uses around the world. In: Rye: Production, Chemistry, Techn01o& BUSHUK, w. (Ed.) Amere Assoc. Cerea1 Chem., St Paul, MN, U.S.A. DUNLOP, A. p. (1973) The furfural industry. I~: Indmtial Uses of Cereals, pp. 229-236, POMERANZ, Y. (Ed.) Amer. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St Paul, MN, U.S.A. ELY, D. G. (1991) Feeding lambs for market. In: Livestock Feeds and Feeding, 3rd edn, C. 19, CHURCH, D. C. (Ed.) COR TECH REsEARCH LTD. (1972) Resin-coated rice hu11s MATTERN, p. J. (1991) Wheat. In: Handbook of Cerealscience and Feeding, 3rd edn, Ch. 21, CHURCH, D. C. (Ed.), MCMULLEN? M. s. (1991) Oats. 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(1978) Rice pollard good value. Rice Mill News, June. ROONEY, L. W. and SERNA-SALDIVAR, S. 0. (1991) Sorghum. In: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Ch. 5. LORENZ, K. J. and KULP, K. (Eds.), Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., U.S.A. SCHINGOETHE, D.J. (1991) Feeding dairy COWS. In: Livestock Feeds and Feeding, 3rd edn., Ch. 15. CHURCH, D. C. (Ed.) Prentice-Hall International Inc., Englewood cliffs, N.J., U.S.A. SERNA-SALDIVAR, S. 0. MCDONOUGH, C. M. and ROONEY, L. W. (1991) The millets. In: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technolok3’~ Ch. 6, LoRENZ, K. J. and KULp, K. (Eds.), Marcel Dekker Inc., N.Y., U.S. A. SHARP, R. N. (1991) Rice: production, processing, utilization. In: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Ch. 7. LORENZ, K. J. and KULP, K. (Eds), Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., U.S.A. 44: 669. SHUKL.4, T. p. (1975) Chemistry of oats: Protein foods and other industrial products. Crit. Rev. Food. Sci. Nutr., October: 38-31. Further Reading BRIT. PAT. SPEC. No. 585,772 (1944). Improvements in the manufacture of furfural. BROWN, I., sYMoNs, E. F. and WILSON, B. w. (1947) Furfural: a pilot plant investigation of its production from Austrialian raw materials. J. Coun. Sci. Industr. Res. 20: 225. CHURCH, D. C. (1991) Livestock Feeds and Feeding, 3rd edn. Prentice-Hall International Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., U.S.A. HITCHCOCK, L. B. and DUFFEY, H. R. (1948) Commercial production of furfural in its 25th year. Chem. Engng. Prog. LATHROP, A. W. and BOHSTEDT, G. (1938) Oat mill feed: its usefulness and value in livestock rations. Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 135. SINDT, M. et al. (1987). Nebr. Beef Cattle RPt. MP 52: 9. MEUSER, F. and WIEDMANN, W. (1989) In: Extwion STOCK, R. et al. (1985). Nebr. Beef Cattle Rpt. MP 48: 32. Cooking, MERCIER, M., LINKO, P. and HARPER, J. (Eds.) TECHNIPETROL SPA (1989) Process and apparatus for the Amer. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St Paul, MN, U.S.A. cor~~uous Production of ethanol from cereals, and method PETERS, F. N. (1937) Furfural as an outlet for cellulosic of operating said apparatus. World Intellectual Property waSte material. Chemy E~~~ N~~ 15: 269. Organization Patent 89/01 522. RACHIE, K. 0. (1975) The Millets - Importance, Utilization UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ( 1987a) and Outlook. International Crop Research Institute for UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (1987b) SMITH, A. (1989) Extrusion cooking: a review. Food sci. World grain situation and outlook. Foreign Agr. Ser. Circ. Series FG-2-87 (November), Washington, D.C. WOLF, M. J., MACMASTERS, M. M., CANNON, J. A., UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (1987~) ROSEWALL, E. C. and RIST, C. E. (1953) Preparation and Feed situation and outlook. Econ. Res. Ser. FDS-304 properties of hemicelluloses from corn hulls. Cereal Chem. (November), Washington, D.C. 30: 451. Ap‘cultural StUtiStiCS 1986. U.S.D.A., Washington, D.C. Semi-Arid Tropics, Begumpet, Hyderabad, India. Technol. Today 3 (3): 156-161.