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物理化学电子教案 —绪论
华南理工大学
应用化学系
物理化学教研组
引用与制作 借鉴与创新
肖士民 2004年
Xiaoshimin1945 @sohu,com
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Bilingual Education
I‘ll be teaching you
Physical Chemistry
this semester,
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Preface
In any scientific discipline,
a fundamental understanding is
more important than learning lists,
but this is probably more true
in physical chemistry than
in other branches of chemistry,
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Let`s be clear from the outset-
understanding is the key to
physical chemistry,but
the maelstrom of mathematics often
clouds the student‘s ability
to create a comprehensible mental
model of the subject,
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We Hope
that this text contributes to
helping you reach the level of
understanding you need,
Understanding the world around
you really is one of the thrills of
science,
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Thus we start with
the basic properties of matter which
allows us then to discuss
thermodynamics,
Thermodynamics leads naturally
into equilibria,solutions and
then kinetics,
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Contents
1,States of matter 2,Thermodynamics
3,Equilibria 4,Solutions
5,Kinetics 6,Electrochemistry
7,Thermodynamics of interface layer
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Others important chapters
For students of applied chemistry
1,Colloid dispersed system
2,Statistical thermodynamics
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The properties of gases
Equations of state,the perfect gas
The physical properties of a perfect
gas are completely described by the
amount of substance of which it is
comprised,
its temperature,its pressure and
the volume which it occupies.
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These four parameters (n,P,V,T)
are not independent,and the relations
between them are expressed in the gas
laws,
The three historical gas laws –Boyle‘s law,
Charles‘ law and Avogadro‘s principle – are
specific cases of the perfect gas equation of
state,which is usually quoted in the form
PV = nRT,where R is the gas constant,
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近代化学的发展趋势和特点
(1)从宏观到微观
(2)从体相到表相
(3)从定性到定量
(4)从单一学科到交叉学科
(5)从研究平衡态到研究非平衡态
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化学学科的发展趋势
只有深入到微观，才能掌握化
学变化的本质和结构与物性的关系。
(1) 从宏观到微观
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化学学科的发展趋势
多相化学反应在表相上进行，
了解 表相性质，推动表面化学和多相催化的发
展。
(2) 从体相到表相
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化学学科的发展趋势
计算机技术可进行人工模拟
和自动记录，以前只能 做定性研究的课题现在可
进行定量监测。
(3) 从定性到定量
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化学学科的发展趋势
各学科相互渗透、
相互结合，形成 交叉 科学，如生物物理化学、
高分子物理化学、界面与胶体化学、硅酸盐物
理化学等。
(4) 从单一学科到 交叉 学科
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化学学科的发展趋势
自 1960年
以来，逐渐形成了非平衡态热力学这个学科
分支。
(5)从平衡态到非平衡态
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物理化学的学习方法
(1)演绎法；归纳法。
(2)抓重点，推导公式。
(3)学会解题方法。
(4)自学，复习，思考，解题。
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关于物理量的表示及运算
表示式：物理量 = 数值 ·单位
A = {A} · [A]
量的符号：斜体、拉丁或希腊字母。
单位的符号：正体、小写字母，人名大写。
braces,
square brackets
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Attention:
运算：有 量方程式 和 数值方程式。
图 表中 用 数值。
Ln 后 用 数值。
t / ℃ = T/k –298.15
Two kinds of question arise in connection with the
physical and chemical transformation of matter,
One is ?Can it occur?‘,and the other is ?How
fast does it occur?‘.
T -
thermodynamic
temperature
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Gases are so simple that they provide
an excellent introduction to physical chemistry.
The basic quantities for the study of gases
are pressure and temperature.
The Zeroth Law of thermodynamics.
When two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third system,they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
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Deduce the perfect gas equation
1,Boyle‘s law PV = const （ const,n and T）
the partial derivative of P
with respect to V at constant
n and T,V
P
V
P
Tn
???
?
??
?
?
?
?
,
2,Lussac‘s law V / T = const (const,n and p）
the rate of change of V with
respect to T at constant n
and P,T
V
T
V
Pn
??
?
??
?
?
?
?
,
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How to deduce,
3,Avogadro‘s law V / n = const（ const,T and p）
V对 n的变化率：
n
V
n
V
PT
??
?
??
?
?
?
?
,
n const,P1 V1 T1 P2 V2 T2→
→T const
P2 V‘ T1 →
P const
P2 V‘‘ T2
===
V2=V‘‘
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The perfect gas equation
Use,1,Avogadro‘s law then V2=V‘‘ a
conclusion,only two independent variables.
2,Boyle‘s law then P1 V1 = P2 V‘
3,Gay Lussac‘s law then V‘ / T1 = V2 / T2
P1 V1 = P2 V‘ = P2 (V2 T1) / T2
P1 V1 / T1 = P2 V2 / T2 = nR
P V = n R T
n - the amount of substance
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The methods of deduction
1,the deductive method； 2,the derivative method.
F (n,P,V,T) = 0
V = f (P,T,n)
dn
n
VdT
T
VdP
P
VdV
PTPnTn
?
?
??
?
?
?
??
?
?
??
?
?
?
??
?
?
??
?
?
?
??
,,,
dV = -V/P dP + V/T dT + V/n dn
d lnV + d lnP = d lnT + d ln n
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The derivative method
d ln (PV) = d ln (nT)
d ln (PV/nT) = 0
PV / nT = const = R
P V = n RT
It is found by experiment that,when the
pressure is sufficiently low,all real gases
satisfy the perfect gas or ideal gas law.
R,the gas constant,
is a fundamental
constant,indepen-
dent of the nature
of the gas.
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Important relation
F (P,V,T) = 0
f‘P d P + f‘V d V + f‘T d T = 0
1,d P = 0,f‘V d V + f‘T d T = 0
(dV/dT)P = - f‘T / f‘V
2,d V = 0,f‘P d P + f‘T d T = 0
(dT / dP)V = - f‘P / f‘T
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Merely know that
3,dT = 0,f‘P d P + f‘V d V = 0
(d P/d V)T = - f‘V / f‘P
(d P/d V)T (d V/d T)P (d T/d P)V = -1
1???
?
??
?
?
?
??
?
??
?
?
?
??
?
??
?
?
?
?
P
T
T
V
V
P
VPT
Euler‘s cyclic relationP ?V
T
↖ ↙
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Mixtures of gases,partial pressures
Dalton‘s law of partial pressures states that
The pressure exerted by a mixture of gases behaving
perfectly is the sum of the pressures exerted by the
individual gases occupying the same volume alone.
P = pA + pB = (nA +nB)(RT / V)
That is,the partial pressure is proportional to the mole
fraction.
pA = p xA
Comment,Perfect gas behaviour has
not been assumed,the partial pressure
are defined as above for any gas.
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Incorporating imperfections
One way of examining imperfect behaviour is to plot the
compression factor Z = pVm/RT as a function of pressure.
For a perfect gas Z is unity under all conditions,and so
deviation from unity is a measure of imperfection.
In a pure substance the critical point is the state of highest
pressure and temperature at which distinct liquid and vapor
phases can coexist.
The pressure,temperature and molar volume at the critical
point are called the critical pressure pc,critical temperature
Tc and critical molar volume V m,c, These are referred to as
the critical constants of the gas.
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Comparing gases
In order to investigate this point of view we define the
reduced variables of a gas as the actual variables divided
by the corresponding critical constant:
reduced pressure,pr = p/pc ; Vr = Vm / V m,c; Tr = T /Tc
Van der Waals,who first tried this,hoped that the same
reduced volume of different real gases at the same reduced
temperature would exert the same reduced pressure,The
hope was largely fulfilled.
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Think carefully
Turn to page 30,Do the exercises,
1.5 1.9 1.16
The perfect gas equation is one
example of an equation of state.
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Bilingual Education
Physical Chemistry
P,W,Atkins
Oxford University Press
Selected from
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Preface to the Second Edition
In preparing
the second edition of this book
I have taken into account the advice
I have received from
readers
throughout the world,
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The principal changes
include
a revised introduction to thermodynamics,
a strengthening of the sections
on quantum theory and molecular structure,
and
an entirely new chapter
on macromolecules.
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I have also brought up to date
the sections
on X-ray diffraction,
magnetic resonance,
and
surface chemistry.
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Wherever possible
I have simplified
the notation and
the presentation,
particularly in the sections
on electrochemistry.
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The chapters
on statistical thermodynamics
have been restructured into
a simpler form.
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Every section
of the original edition
has been reconsidered
in order to improve the presentation,
introduce modern material,or
to simplify the notation
without loss of rigour.
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The illustrations
have been revised and
the visual presentation of the material
has been improved
in a variety of ways,
including the use of
computer graphics
in a novel format,
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All the
Tables,
Problems,
Examples,and
Further Reading entries
have been reconsidered
in detail.
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Throughout the revision,
however,
I have aimed
to retain the level of presentation
of the first edition,and
to preserve its style and approach.
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I owe
a considerable debt
to all those
who wrote to me
with comments either
on the first edition or
on the draft of the second…
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Preface to the First Edition
Authors should not preach to teachers,
Textbooks should be
flexible and adaptable,
yet have
a strong story line.
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I have tried
to conform to these demands
by dividing text into
three parts,
Equilibrium,
Structure,and
Change.
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Each part
begins
in an elementary way,
drawing on
the others
only weakly,
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Of course
they rapidly get tangled up with each
other ? as they should
because the subject is a unity ?
but teachers will be able to
match the text to their own needs
without unduly burdening
the student,
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The student,
I hope,
will be enticed to read his way into
chemistry‘s web of interdependencies,
and
will find that he can master them
without getting confused.
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Physical chemistry
possesses
its mathematics for a purpose:
there has to be enough mathematical spine
in the subject
to enable our ideas on the behaviour of
molecules and systems
to stand up to experimental verification.
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Ideas
that
cannot be tested
do not belong to
science,
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Nevertheless,
in an introductory treatment
the ideas
must not be overborne
by
the mathematics,
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In this text
I show how physical ideas
can be developed
mathematically,and
I take care to interpret
the mathematical statements
I make.
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Only where
the mathematics and
the chemistry
lose sight of each other
is physical chemistry a difficult subject,
so
I try never to let
that happen.
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These views
have let me to
a further organization
of the text,
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In several places
I have treated a subject
in two parts,
as ―Concepts‖ and
as ―Machinery‖.
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The former
establishes the ideas,
while the latter
extends and develops
them
more mathematically.
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This is the arrangement
I have adopted for
the First and Second Laws
of thermodynamics and,
later on in Part 2,
for statistical thermodynamics.
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The,Concepts” chapters
emphasize
the underlying physics
and
let the reader understand
the conceptual basis of
the subject;
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The, Machinery” chapters
let him discover the ramifications
of these ideas and
show him
how to apply them
to chemical problems.
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Throughout the text
I have used
a series of worked
examples.
These serve two purposes.
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The first is to show
how calculations are actually done,
an example with all its detailed working
can save pages of explanation and
give the reader a much clearer
impression of what is involved,and
a sense of reality,
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Their second purpose
is to introduce
a remark to extend the text,
or
to stimulate
the reader‘s imagination and
interests.
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Apart from
the Examples
there are
the Problems
at the end of
each chapter.
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I have included
a lot of simple ones
as well as a number
that require more time and effort,
and occasionally
access to a small
computer.
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Many
are based on recent literature.
I do not expect readers
to do all of them,but
I have provided a large number
so that teachers can be selective.
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The answers
to most Problems
will be found
at the end of the book.
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Virtually
all necessary data
are given in the Tables,and
the Table Index on p,1083
should permit quick location
of any item.
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SI units
are used throughout,but
I have sprinkled a selection of
others through the text
in order to keep older
literature accessible.
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Boxes
serve
to collect results of arguments
or
to summarize
handy information.
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Appendices
contain detailed developments or
background that
would have encumbered the main
text with too much detail or too
many equations.
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关于物理化学实验
1、物理化学实验 ----大循环,所有实验 ---同时开设。
一个实验有 4-5套仪器,2人合做一个实验，合用
一套仪器。 8-10人做同一个实验。
2、实验前一定要预先作好充分的准备、并写好预
习报告 ---即实验报告的前半部分。
3、做实验要认真、记录好数据、整理并清洁环境。
4、做一个实验 ---10分，预习 2分；做实验 4分；实
验报告 4分。
5、高分子 ---8个实验；轻化 ---6个；应化 ---18个。
The end
物理化学电子教案 —绪论
华南理工大学
应用化学系
物理化学教研组
引用与制作 借鉴与创新
肖士民 2004年
Xiaoshimin1945 @sohu,com
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
Bilingual Education
I‘ll be teaching you
Physical Chemistry
this semester,
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
Preface
In any scientific discipline,
a fundamental understanding is
more important than learning lists,
but this is probably more true
in physical chemistry than
in other branches of chemistry,
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
Let`s be clear from the outset-
understanding is the key to
physical chemistry,but
the maelstrom of mathematics often
clouds the student‘s ability
to create a comprehensible mental
model of the subject,
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
We Hope
that this text contributes to
helping you reach the level of
understanding you need,
Understanding the world around
you really is one of the thrills of
science,
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
Thus we start with
the basic properties of matter which
allows us then to discuss
thermodynamics,
Thermodynamics leads naturally
into equilibria,solutions and
then kinetics,
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
Contents
1,States of matter 2,Thermodynamics
3,Equilibria 4,Solutions
5,Kinetics 6,Electrochemistry
7,Thermodynamics of interface layer
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
Others important chapters
For students of applied chemistry
1,Colloid dispersed system
2,Statistical thermodynamics
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
The properties of gases
Equations of state,the perfect gas
The physical properties of a perfect
gas are completely described by the
amount of substance of which it is
comprised,
its temperature,its pressure and
the volume which it occupies.
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
These four parameters (n,P,V,T)
are not independent,and the relations
between them are expressed in the gas
laws,
The three historical gas laws –Boyle‘s law,
Charles‘ law and Avogadro‘s principle – are
specific cases of the perfect gas equation of
state,which is usually quoted in the form
PV = nRT,where R is the gas constant,
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
近代化学的发展趋势和特点
(1)从宏观到微观
(2)从体相到表相
(3)从定性到定量
(4)从单一学科到交叉学科
(5)从研究平衡态到研究非平衡态
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
化学学科的发展趋势
只有深入到微观，才能掌握化
学变化的本质和结构与物性的关系。
(1) 从宏观到微观
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
化学学科的发展趋势
多相化学反应在表相上进行，
了解 表相性质，推动表面化学和多相催化的发
展。
(2) 从体相到表相
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
化学学科的发展趋势
计算机技术可进行人工模拟
和自动记录，以前只能 做定性研究的课题现在可
进行定量监测。
(3) 从定性到定量
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
化学学科的发展趋势
各学科相互渗透、
相互结合，形成 交叉 科学，如生物物理化学、
高分子物理化学、界面与胶体化学、硅酸盐物
理化学等。
(4) 从单一学科到 交叉 学科
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
化学学科的发展趋势
自 1960年
以来，逐渐形成了非平衡态热力学这个学科
分支。
(5)从平衡态到非平衡态
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
物理化学的学习方法
(1)演绎法；归纳法。
(2)抓重点，推导公式。
(3)学会解题方法。
(4)自学，复习，思考，解题。
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
关于物理量的表示及运算
表示式：物理量 = 数值 ·单位
A = {A} · [A]
量的符号：斜体、拉丁或希腊字母。
单位的符号：正体、小写字母，人名大写。
braces,
square brackets
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
Attention:
运算：有 量方程式 和 数值方程式。
图 表中 用 数值。
Ln 后 用 数值。
t / ℃ = T/k –298.15
Two kinds of question arise in connection with the
physical and chemical transformation of matter,
One is ?Can it occur?‘,and the other is ?How
fast does it occur?‘.
T -
thermodynamic
temperature
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
Gases are so simple that they provide
an excellent introduction to physical chemistry.
The basic quantities for the study of gases
are pressure and temperature.
The Zeroth Law of thermodynamics.
When two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third system,they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
Deduce the perfect gas equation
1,Boyle‘s law PV = const （ const,n and T）
the partial derivative of P
with respect to V at constant
n and T,V
P
V
P
Tn
???
?
??
?
?
?
?
,
2,Lussac‘s law V / T = const (const,n and p）
the rate of change of V with
respect to T at constant n
and P,T
V
T
V
Pn
??
?
??
?
?
?
?
,
?上一内容 ?下一内容 ?回主目录 ?返回
How to deduce,
3,Avogadro‘s law V / n = const（ const,T and p）
V对 n的变化率：
n
V
n
V
PT
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n const,P1 V1 T1 P2 V2 T2→
→T const
P2 V‘ T1 →
P const
P2 V‘‘ T2
===
V2=V‘‘
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The perfect gas equation
Use,1,Avogadro‘s law then V2=V‘‘ a
conclusion,only two independent variables.
2,Boyle‘s law then P1 V1 = P2 V‘
3,Gay Lussac‘s law then V‘ / T1 = V2 / T2
P1 V1 = P2 V‘ = P2 (V2 T1) / T2
P1 V1 / T1 = P2 V2 / T2 = nR
P V = n R T
n - the amount of substance
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The methods of deduction
1,the deductive method； 2,the derivative method.
F (n,P,V,T) = 0
V = f (P,T,n)
dn
n
VdT
T
VdP
P
VdV
PTPnTn
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,,,
dV = -V/P dP + V/T dT + V/n dn
d lnV + d lnP = d lnT + d ln n
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The derivative method
d ln (PV) = d ln (nT)
d ln (PV/nT) = 0
PV / nT = const = R
P V = n RT
It is found by experiment that,when the
pressure is sufficiently low,all real gases
satisfy the perfect gas or ideal gas law.
R,the gas constant,
is a fundamental
constant,indepen-
dent of the nature
of the gas.
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Important relation
F (P,V,T) = 0
f‘P d P + f‘V d V + f‘T d T = 0
1,d P = 0,f‘V d V + f‘T d T = 0
(dV/dT)P = - f‘T / f‘V
2,d V = 0,f‘P d P + f‘T d T = 0
(dT / dP)V = - f‘P / f‘T
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Merely know that
3,dT = 0,f‘P d P + f‘V d V = 0
(d P/d V)T = - f‘V / f‘P
(d P/d V)T (d V/d T)P (d T/d P)V = -1
1???
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P
T
T
V
V
P
VPT
Euler‘s cyclic relationP ?V
T
↖ ↙
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Mixtures of gases,partial pressures
Dalton‘s law of partial pressures states that
The pressure exerted by a mixture of gases behaving
perfectly is the sum of the pressures exerted by the
individual gases occupying the same volume alone.
P = pA + pB = (nA +nB)(RT / V)
That is,the partial pressure is proportional to the mole
fraction.
pA = p xA
Comment,Perfect gas behaviour has
not been assumed,the partial pressure
are defined as above for any gas.
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Incorporating imperfections
One way of examining imperfect behaviour is to plot the
compression factor Z = pVm/RT as a function of pressure.
For a perfect gas Z is unity under all conditions,and so
deviation from unity is a measure of imperfection.
In a pure substance the critical point is the state of highest
pressure and temperature at which distinct liquid and vapor
phases can coexist.
The pressure,temperature and molar volume at the critical
point are called the critical pressure pc,critical temperature
Tc and critical molar volume V m,c, These are referred to as
the critical constants of the gas.
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Comparing gases
In order to investigate this point of view we define the
reduced variables of a gas as the actual variables divided
by the corresponding critical constant:
reduced pressure,pr = p/pc ; Vr = Vm / V m,c; Tr = T /Tc
Van der Waals,who first tried this,hoped that the same
reduced volume of different real gases at the same reduced
temperature would exert the same reduced pressure,The
hope was largely fulfilled.
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Think carefully
Turn to page 30,Do the exercises,
1.5 1.9 1.16
The perfect gas equation is one
example of an equation of state.
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Bilingual Education
Physical Chemistry
P,W,Atkins
Oxford University Press
Selected from
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Preface to the Second Edition
In preparing
the second edition of this book
I have taken into account the advice
I have received from
readers
throughout the world,
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The principal changes
include
a revised introduction to thermodynamics,
a strengthening of the sections
on quantum theory and molecular structure,
and
an entirely new chapter
on macromolecules.
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I have also brought up to date
the sections
on X-ray diffraction,
magnetic resonance,
and
surface chemistry.
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Wherever possible
I have simplified
the notation and
the presentation,
particularly in the sections
on electrochemistry.
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The chapters
on statistical thermodynamics
have been restructured into
a simpler form.
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Every section
of the original edition
has been reconsidered
in order to improve the presentation,
introduce modern material,or
to simplify the notation
without loss of rigour.
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The illustrations
have been revised and
the visual presentation of the material
has been improved
in a variety of ways,
including the use of
computer graphics
in a novel format,
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All the
Tables,
Problems,
Examples,and
Further Reading entries
have been reconsidered
in detail.
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Throughout the revision,
however,
I have aimed
to retain the level of presentation
of the first edition,and
to preserve its style and approach.
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I owe
a considerable debt
to all those
who wrote to me
with comments either
on the first edition or
on the draft of the second…
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Preface to the First Edition
Authors should not preach to teachers,
Textbooks should be
flexible and adaptable,
yet have
a strong story line.
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I have tried
to conform to these demands
by dividing text into
three parts,
Equilibrium,
Structure,and
Change.
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Each part
begins
in an elementary way,
drawing on
the others
only weakly,
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Of course
they rapidly get tangled up with each
other ? as they should
because the subject is a unity ?
but teachers will be able to
match the text to their own needs
without unduly burdening
the student,
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The student,
I hope,
will be enticed to read his way into
chemistry‘s web of interdependencies,
and
will find that he can master them
without getting confused.
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Physical chemistry
possesses
its mathematics for a purpose:
there has to be enough mathematical spine
in the subject
to enable our ideas on the behaviour of
molecules and systems
to stand up to experimental verification.
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Ideas
that
cannot be tested
do not belong to
science,
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Nevertheless,
in an introductory treatment
the ideas
must not be overborne
by
the mathematics,
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In this text
I show how physical ideas
can be developed
mathematically,and
I take care to interpret
the mathematical statements
I make.
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Only where
the mathematics and
the chemistry
lose sight of each other
is physical chemistry a difficult subject,
so
I try never to let
that happen.
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These views
have let me to
a further organization
of the text,
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In several places
I have treated a subject
in two parts,
as ―Concepts‖ and
as ―Machinery‖.
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The former
establishes the ideas,
while the latter
extends and develops
them
more mathematically.
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This is the arrangement
I have adopted for
the First and Second Laws
of thermodynamics and,
later on in Part 2,
for statistical thermodynamics.
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The,Concepts” chapters
emphasize
the underlying physics
and
let the reader understand
the conceptual basis of
the subject;
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The, Machinery” chapters
let him discover the ramifications
of these ideas and
show him
how to apply them
to chemical problems.
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Throughout the text
I have used
a series of worked
examples.
These serve two purposes.
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The first is to show
how calculations are actually done,
an example with all its detailed working
can save pages of explanation and
give the reader a much clearer
impression of what is involved,and
a sense of reality,
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Their second purpose
is to introduce
a remark to extend the text,
or
to stimulate
the reader‘s imagination and
interests.
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Apart from
the Examples
there are
the Problems
at the end of
each chapter.
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I have included
a lot of simple ones
as well as a number
that require more time and effort,
and occasionally
access to a small
computer.
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Many
are based on recent literature.
I do not expect readers
to do all of them,but
I have provided a large number
so that teachers can be selective.
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The answers
to most Problems
will be found
at the end of the book.
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Virtually
all necessary data
are given in the Tables,and
the Table Index on p,1083
should permit quick location
of any item.
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SI units
are used throughout,but
I have sprinkled a selection of
others through the text
in order to keep older
literature accessible.
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Boxes
serve
to collect results of arguments
or
to summarize
handy information.
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Appendices
contain detailed developments or
background that
would have encumbered the main
text with too much detail or too
many equations.
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关于物理化学实验
1、物理化学实验 ----大循环,所有实验 ---同时开设。
一个实验有 4-5套仪器,2人合做一个实验，合用
一套仪器。 8-10人做同一个实验。
2、实验前一定要预先作好充分的准备、并写好预
习报告 ---即实验报告的前半部分。
3、做实验要认真、记录好数据、整理并清洁环境。
4、做一个实验 ---10分，预习 2分；做实验 4分；实
验报告 4分。
5、高分子 ---8个实验；轻化 ---6个；应化 ---18个。
The end
