清华大学：经济学原理：Ch_13

1 生产成本 The Costs of Production 第十三章 Chapter 13 生产成本 The Costs of Production 供给定律The Law of Supply: ?当某一物品的价格更高时，企业愿意生 产和销售的该种物品会更多。 Firms are willing to produce and sell a greater quantity of a good when the price of the good is high. ?其结果就是供给曲线向上倾斜。 This results in a supply curve that slopes upward. 企业的目标 The Firm’s Objective 企业的经济目标是追求利润最大。 The economic goal of the firm is to maximize profits. 企业的总收益与总成本 A Firm’s Total Revenue and Total Cost ?总收益Total Revenue ?企业因为出售其产出而得到的金额。 The amount that the firm receives for the sale of its output. ?总成本Total Cost ?企业为购买投入所支付的金额。 The amount that the firm pays to buy inputs. 企业的利润 A Firm’s Profit 利润就是企业的总收益减去它的总成本。 Profit is the firm’s total revenue minus its total cost. 利润＝总收益－总成本 Profit = Total revenue - Total cost 作为机会成本的成本 Costs as Opportunity Costs 一个企业的生产成本包括其生产 物品与服务的所有机会成本。 A firm’s cost of production includes all the opportunity costs of making its output of goods and services. 2 显性和隐性成本 Explicit and Implicit Costs 企业的生产成本包括显性成本和隐性成本。 A firm’s cost of production include explicit costs and implicit costs. ?显性成本包括对生产要素直接的资金支出。 Explicit costs involve a direct money outlay for factors of production. ?隐性成本不涉及直接的资金支出。 Implicit costs do not involve a direct money outlay. 经济利润和会计利润 Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit ?经济学家衡量的是企业的经济利润，它是总收 益减去所有的机会成本（显性和隐性的）。 Economists measure a firm’s economic profit as total revenue minus all the opportunity costs (explicit and implicit). ?会计师衡量的是会计利润，它是企业的总收益 仅减去显性成本。也即他们忽略了隐性成本。 Accountants measure the accounting profit as the firm’s total revenue minus only the firm’s explicit costs. In other words, they ignore the implicit costs. 经济利润和会计利润 Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit ?当总收益超过显性和隐性成本之和，企业 就获得了经济利润。 When total revenue exceeds both explicit and implicit costs, the firm earns economic profit. ?经济利润小于会计利润。 Economic profit is smaller than accounting profit. 经济利润和会计利润 Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit 收益 Revenue 总机会成本 Total Opportunity Costs 经济学家如何看企业 How an Economist Views a Firm 显性成本 Explicit Costs 经济利润 Economic Profit 隐性成本 Implicit Costs Explicit costs Accounting profit How an Accountant Views a Firm 收益 Revenue 会计利润 显性成本 会计师如何看企业 例：EVA与作为机会成本的资本成本 ?传统的公司业绩衡量以会计利润为核心， 只考虑以利息形式表现的债务融资成本， 而忽略了股权资本的机会成本。 ? EVA（Economic Value Added，经济增加 值）考虑股东投入股本的机会成本，即股 东投资于其他风险程度类似的企业所获取 的利益。 经济增加值（EVA） ＝税后净营业利润－资本使用成本 例：EVA与作为机会成本的资本成本 ?从会计报表上看，2002年1214家中国上市 公司平均会计净利润为6428万元。 ?用EVA衡量方法来看，2002年中国上市公 司的平均EVA为-1564万元。只有1/3的上 市公司EVA为正数。 （资料来源：“谁创造财富，谁毁灭财富－2002年中国上 市公司价值创造和毁灭排行榜”，《财经（杂志）》， 2003年11月05日，83－94页。） 3 生产函数和总成本 A Production Function and Total Cost Number of Workers Output Marginal Product of Labor Cost of Factory Cost of Workers Total Cost of Inputs 0 0 $30 $0 $30 1 50 50 30 10 40 2 90 40 30 20 50 3 120 30 30 30 60 4 140 20 30 40 70 5 150 10 30 50 80 工人数量产量劳动的边际产量工厂成本工人成本投入总成本 生产函数 The Production Function 生产函数表示生产某物品所使用的投 入的数量和该物品产出的数量之间的 关系。 The production function shows the relationship between quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that good. 边际产量 Marginal Product 在生产过程中，任一投入的边际产量 ，就是从增加一单位的该种投入中所 获得的产量的增加量。 The marginal product of any input in the production process is the increase in the quantity of output obtained from an additional unit of that input. 边际产量 Marginal Product 额外的投入 Additional input 额外的产出 Additional output = 边际产量 Marginal product 边际产量递减 Diminishing Marginal Product ?边际产量递减指的是某投入的边际产量随其投入量增加而 下降的性质。 Diminishing marginal product is the property whereby the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases. ?例：随着一个企业雇佣的工人越来越多，每一个新增的工 人对产量的贡献就越来越小，因为企业拥有的设备数量是 有限的。 Example: As more and more workers are hired at a firm, each additional worker contributes less and less to production because the firm has a limited amount of equipment. 生产函数 A Production Function... Quantity of Output (cookies per hour) 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Number of Workers Hired0 12345 生产函数 Production function 产量（每小 时糕点数） 雇佣工人数 4 边际产量递减 Diminishing Marginal Product ?生产函数的斜率衡量了某一投入（如工 人）的边际产量。 The slope of the production function measures the marginal product of an input, such as a worker. ?当边际产量递减时，生产函数变得越来 越平坦。 When the marginal product declines, the production function becomes flatter. 边际产量递减的应用： 马尔萨斯的“人口论” ?食物的生产有两种主要的投入：土地和劳动 ?由于土地面积固定，而人口（劳动力）不断 增长，所以劳动的边际（食物）产量递减。 ?劳动的边际产量递减最终导致劳动的平均产 量递减。 ?劳动的平均产量递减导致人们平均的食物拥 有量递减，人类由此可能出现生存危机。 边际产量递减的应用： 马尔萨斯的“人口论” ?为什么马尔萨斯的预言没有实现？ ?土地面积实际上增加了，更重要的是 ，农业技术大为提高了，这促使世界 上大部分地区劳动的边际产量和平均 产量提高 ?但是，马尔萨斯的逻辑对于控制人口 增长的政府政策仍然是有指导意义的 。 从生产函数到总成本曲线 From the Production Function to the Total-Cost Curve ?一个企业能够生产的数量与其成本之间 的关系，决定着它的价格决策。 The relationship between the quantity a firm can produce and its costs determines pricing decisions. ?总成本曲线用图形表示了这一关系。 The total-cost curve shows this relationship graphically. 生产函数与总成本 A Production Function and Total Cost Number of Workers Output Marginal Product of Labor Cost of Factory Cost of Workers Total Cost of Inputs 0 0 $30 $0 $30 1 50 50 30 10 40 2 90 40 30 20 50 3 120 30 30 30 60 4 140 20 30 40 70 5 150 10 30 50 80 饥饿海伦的糕点厂Hungry Helen’s Cookie Factory 工人数量产量劳动的边际产量工厂成本工人成本投入总成本 总成本曲线Total-Cost Curve... 总成本 Total Cost $80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 产量Quantity of Output (每小时糕点数cookies per hour) 0 20 40 1401201008060 总成本曲线 Total-cost curve 5 成本的不同衡量方法 The Various Measures of Cost 生产成本可以分解为固定 成本和可变成本。 Costs of production may be divided into fixed costs and variable costs. 固定和可变成本 Fixed and Variable Costs ?固定成本是指那些不随生产的产品数量 改变而改变的成本。 Fixed costs are those costs that do not vary with the quantity of output produced. ?可变成本是指那些随企业改变生产产品 数量而变化的成本。 Variable costs are those costs that do change as the firm alters the quantity of output produced. 总成本一族 Family of Total Costs ?总固定成本Total Fixed Costs (TFC) ?总可变成本Total Variable Costs (TVC) ?总成本Total Costs (TC) 总成本＝总固定成本＋总变动成本 TC = TFC + TVC 总成本一族 Family of Total Costs Quantity Total Cost Fixed Cost Variable Cost 0 $ 3.00 $3.00 $ 0.00 1 3.30 3.00 0.30 2 3.80 3.00 0.80 3 4.50 3.00 1.50 4 5.40 3.00 2.40 5 6.50 3.00 3.50 6 7.80 3.00 4.80 7 9.30 3.00 6.30 8 11.00 3.00 8.00 9 12.90 3.00 9.90 10 15.00 3.00 12.00 平均成本 Average Costs ?平均成本由企业的成本除以生产产品的 数量得出。 Average costs can be determined by dividing the firm’s costs by the quantity of output produced. ?平均成本是普通一单位产品的成本。 The average cost is the cost of each typical unit of product. 平均成本一族 Family of Average Costs ?平均固定成本Average Fixed Costs (AFC) ?平均可变成本Average Variable Costs (AVC) ?平均总成本Average Total Costs (ATC) 平均总成本＝平均固定成本＋平均可变成本 ATC = AFC + AVC 6 平均成本一族 Family of Average Costs AFC = = FC Q AVC = = VC Q ATC = = TC Q 固定成本固定成本 Fixed cost 数量数量Quantity 可变成本可变成本 Variable cost 数量数量Quantity 总成本总成本 Total cost 数量数量Quantity $3.00 平均成本一族 Family of Average Costs Quantity AFC AVC ATC 0 ——— 1 $0.30 $3.30 2 1.50 0.40 1.90 3 1.00 0.50 1.50 4 0.75 0.60 1.35 5 0.60 0.70 1.30 6 0.50 0.80 1.30 7 0.43 0.90 1.33 8 0.38 1.00 1.38 9 0.33 1.10 1.43 10 0.30 1.20 1.50 边际成本 Marginal Cost ?边际成本（MC）衡量的是当企业增加一 单位产量时总成本的增加量。 Marginal cost (MC) measures the amount total cost rises when the firm increases production by one unit. ?边际成本有助于回答下面的问题： Marginal cost helps answer the following question: ?生产额外一单位产量的成本是多少？ How much does it cost to produce an additional unit of output? 边际成本 Marginal Cost Q TC = 产量变动量 (Change in quantity) 总成本变动量 (Change in total cost) =MC ? ? 边际成本 Marginal Cost Quantity Total Cost Marginal Cost Quantity Total Cost Marginal Cost 0 $3.00 — 1 3.30 $0.30 6 $7.80 $1.30 2 3.80 0.50 7 9.30 1.50 3 4.50 0.70 8 11.00 1.70 4 5.40 0.90 9 12.90 1.90 5 6.50 1.10 10 15.00 2.10 数总成边际成数总成边际成 总成本曲线Total-Cost Curve... $0.00 $2.00 $4.00 $6.00 $8.00 $10.00 $12.00 $14.00 $16.00 0 24681012 产量Quantity of Output (每小时柠檬水杯数glasses of lemonade per hour) 总成本 Total Cost 总成本曲线 Total-cost curve 7 ATC AVC MC 平均成本和边际成本曲线 Average-Cost and Marginal-Cost Curves... $0.00 $0.50 $1.00 $1.50 $2.00 $2.50 $3.00 $3.50 0 24681012 产量Quantity of Output (每小时柠檬水杯数glasses of lemonade per hour) 成本 Costs AFC 成本曲线及其形状 Cost Curves and Their Shapes 边际成本随产量上升而上升。 Marginal cost rises with the amount of output produced. ?它反映了边际产量递减的性质。 This reflects the property of diminishing marginal product. 成本曲线及其形状 Cost Curves and Their Shapes $0.00 $0.50 $1.00 $1.50 $2.00 $2.50 024681012 产量Quantity of Output (每小时柠檬水杯数glasses of lemonade per hour) 成本 Costs MC 成本曲线及其形状 Cost Curves and Their Shapes 平均总成本曲线为U形。 The average total-cost curve is U-shaped. ?当产量很低时，平均总成本很高，因为固定成本分摊到仅 有的几单位产量上。 At very low levels of output average total cost is high because fixed cost is spread over only a few units. ?当产量增加时，平均总成本下降。 Average total cost declines as output increases. ?（随后）平均总成本开始上升，因为平均可变成本大幅度 上升了。 Average total cost starts rising because average variable cost rises substantially. 成本曲线及其形状 Cost Curves and Their Shapes U形曲线的底部出现在使平均总成 本最小的产量处。这一产量有时被 称作企业的有效率规模。 The bottom of the U-shape occurs at the quantity that minimizes average total cost. This quantity is sometimes called the efficient scale of the firm. 成本曲线及其形状 Cost Curves and Their Shapes $0.00 $0.50 $1.00 $1.50 $2.00 $2.50 $3.00 $3.50 024681012 产量Quantity of Output (每小时柠檬水杯数glasses of lemonade per hour) 成本 Costs ATC 8 边际成本和平均总成本之间的关系 Relationship Between Marginal Cost and Average Total Cost ?只要边际成本小于平均总成本，平均总 成本就是下降的。 Whenever marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is falling. ?只要边际成本大于平均总成本，平均总 成本就是上升的。 Whenever marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost is rising. 边际成本和平均总成本之间的关系 Relationship Between Marginal Cost and Average Total Cost 边际成本曲线与平均总成本曲线在 有效率规模处相交。 The marginal-cost curve crosses the average-total-cost curve at the efficient scale. ?有效率规模是使平均总成本最小的产 量。 Efficient scale is the quantity that minimizes average total cost. MC ATC 边际成本和平均总成本的关系 Relationship Between Marginal Cost and Average Total Cost $0.00 $0.50 $1.00 $1.50 $2.00 $2.50 $3.00 $3.50 024681012 产量Quantity of Output (每小时柠檬水杯数glasses of lemonade per hour) 成本 Costs 成本的不同衡量方法 The Various Measures of Cost 现在就可以考察各种不同的成本衡 量方法之间的关系了。 It is now time to examine the relationships that exist between the different measures of cost. 成本的各种衡量方法 The Various Measures of Cost 大鲍勃的面包房Big Bob’s Bagel Bin Quantity of Bagels Total Cost Fixed Cost Variable Cost Average Fixed Cost Average Variable Cost Average Total Cost Marginal Cost 0 $2.00 $2.00 $0.00 1 $3.00 $2.00 $1.00 $2.00 $1.00 $3.00 $1.00 2 $3.80 $2.00 $1.80 $1.00 $0.90 $1.90 $0.80 3 $4.40 $2.00 $2.40 $0.67 $0.80 $1.47 $0.60 4 $4.80 $2.00 $2.80 $0.50 $0.70 $1.20 $0.40 5 $5.20 $2.00 $3.20 $0.40 $0.64 $1.04 $0.40 6 $5.80 $2.00 $3.80 $0.33 $0.63 $0.97 $0.60 7 $6.60 $2.00 $4.60 $0.29 $0.66 $0.94 $0.80 8 $7.60 $2.00 $5.60 $0.25 $0.70 $0.95 $1.00 9 $8.80 $2.00 $6.80 $0.22 $0.76 $0.98 $1.20 10 $10.20 $2.00 $8.20 $0.20 $0.82 $1.02 $1.40 11 $11.80 $2.00 $9.80 $0.18 $0.89 $1.07 $1.60 12 $13.60 $2.00 $11.60 $0.17 $0.97 $1.13 $1.80 13 $15.60 $2.00 $13.60 $0.15 $1.05 $1.20 $2.00 14 $17.80 $2.00 $15.80 $0.14 $1.13 $1.27 $2.20 面包圈数量总成本固定成本可变成本 平均固定 成本 平均可变 成本 平均总 成本边际成本 大鲍勃的成本曲线 Big Bob’s Cost Curves... $0.00 $2.00 $4.00 $6.00 $8.00 $10.00 $12.00 $14.00 $16.00 $18.00 $20.00 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 产量Quantity of Output (每小时面包数bagels per hour) 总成本 To t a l Co st 总成本 Total Cost Curve 9 AFC AVC MC 大鲍勃的成本曲线 Big Bob’s Cost Curves... 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 产量Quantity of Output 成本 Co st s ATC 成本曲线的三个重要性质 Three Important Properties of Cost Curves ?边际成本随产量增加最终会上升。 Marginal cost eventually rises with the quantity of output. ?平均总成本曲线为U形。 The average-total-cost curve is U-shaped. ?边际成本曲线与平均总成本曲线相交在平均 总成本的最小值处。 The marginal-cost curve crosses the average- total-cost curve at the minimum of average total cost. 长期成本 Costs in the Long Run ?对于许多企业来说，总成本如何在固定和可 变成本之间进行分解，取决于所考虑问题的 时间范围。 For many firms, the division of total costs between fixed and variable costs depends on the time horizon being considered. ?在短期内，某些成本是固定不变的。 In the short run some costs are fixed. ?在长期内，固定成本变成可变成本。 In the long run fixed costs become variable costs. 长期成本 Costs in the Long Run 因为许多成本在短期内是固定不变 的，而在长期内是可以改变的，企 业的长期成本曲线就有别于它的短 期成本曲线。 Because many costs are fixed in the short run but variable in the long run, a firm’s long-run cost curves differ from its short-run cost curves. 短期和长期的平均总成本 Average Total Cost in the Short and Long Runs... 产量Quantity of 每日汽车数Cars per Day 0 平均总成本 Average Total Cost ATC in short run with small factory ATC in short run with medium factory ATC in short run with large factory ATC in long run 规模经济与规模不经济 Economies and Diseconomies of Scale ?规模经济发生在长期平均总成本随产量增加而下 降时。 Economies of scale occur when long-run average total cost declines as output increases. ?规模不经济发生在长期平均总成本随产量增加而 上升时。 Diseconomies of scale occur when long-run average total cost rises as output increases. ?规模报酬不变发生在长期平均总成本不随产量增 加而改变时。 Constant returns to scale occur when long-run average total cost does not vary as output increases. 10 规模经济与规模不经济 Economies and Diseconomies of Scale 规模不经济 Diseconomies of scale 汽车每日产量Quantity of Cars per Day 0 平均总成本 Average Total Cost ATC in long run 规模经济 Economies of scale 规模报酬不变 Constant Returns to scale 总结 Summary ?企业的目标是追求最大利润，利润等于总收益减 去总成本。 The goal of firms is to maximize profit, which equals total revenue minus total cost. ?当分析企业的行为时，重要的是要包括生产的所 有机会成本。 When analyzing a firm’s behavior, it is important to include all the opportunity costs of production. ?某些机会成本是显性的，但其他机会成本是隐性 的。 Some opportunity costs are explicit while other opportunity costs are implicit. 总结 Summary ?企业的成本反映了它的生产过程。 A firm’s costs reflect its production process. ?一个典型企业的生产函数随投入量的增加变得愈 发平坦，表现出边际产量递减的性质。 A typical firm’s production function gets flatter as the quantity of input increases, displaying the property of diminishing marginal product. ?一个企业的总成本被分解为固定和可变成本。固 定成本不随产量改变；可变成本随产量改变。 A firm’s total costs are divided between fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs don’t vary with quantities produced; variable costs do. 总结 Summary ?平均总成本是总成本除以产量。 Average total cost is total cost divided by the quantity of output. ?边际成本是产量增加一单位时总成本上 升的数量。 Marginal cost is the amount by which total cost would rise if output were increased by one unit. ?边际成本总是随产量上升。 The marginal cost always rises with the quantity of output. 总结 Summary ?平均总成本是U形的。 The average-total-cost curve is U-shaped. ?边际成本曲线总是和平均总成本曲线相 交在ATC的最低点。 The marginal-cost curve always crosses the average-total-cost curve at the minimum of ATC. ?企业的成本通常依赖于所考虑的时间范 围。 A firm’s costs often depend on the time horizon being considered.