An Introduction to General
Linguistics
School of Western Studies
Heilongjiang University
Wu Li (吴 莉 )
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) － Father of Modern Linguistics
Lecturer profile
Wu Li (吴莉 )
MA (Heilongjiang University)
Associate professor of English
School of Western Studies
Heilongjiang University
Tel,86608652 (office)
Email,wuli668@yahoo.com.cn
About this course
1,Who this course is for
2,What this course is about
3,Duration of this course
4,How to study this course
5,How to do well in assessment
6,Suggested further reading
1,Who this course is for
(1) This course is intended for English majors,
generally for 3rd year college students
(undergraduates),or at any level of proficiency
from intermediate upwards,who need to know
the fundamentals of linguistics.
(2) Please note that a fairly good knowledge of
linguistics is required in any postgraduate
entrance exam,so we strongly advise prospective
MA students to spend adequate time on this
course,
(3) If you choose linguistics as your future research
interest and you plan to do more advanced work
in this academic field,it is the right time for you to
know the ABC of general linguistics.
2,What this course is about
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Chapter 3 Lexicon
Chapter 4 Syntax
Chapter 5 Meaning
Chapter 6 Language in Use
Chapter 7 Language,Culture,and Society
Chapter 8 Theories and Schools of Modern
Linguistics
3,Duration of this course
2 teaching hours per week for 17 weeks
in one semester to cover 8 chapters,
4,How to study this course
(1) You are kindly required to attend every
class and you need to take notes carefully and
quickly if you can,
(2) It is advisable to understand linguistic
theories,ideas or notions through examples
instead of memorizing word by word without
comprehension.
(3) Please review regularly what you have
learned after class,and do additional exercises
to strengthen the knowledge in your mind,
5,How to do well in assessment
(1) Required attendance and good performance in
class account for about 10% of your total score,
Please note that there are also some occasional
in-class quizzes,
(2) The test paper which accounts for 90% is mainly
based on what you have learned in class.
(3) It is an open-book exam,You can consult your
notes or any books you have about linguistics,
but NOT the students around you during the
exam.
6,Suggested further reading
(1) H,G,Widdowson:, 语言学,,
上海：上海外语教育出版社,2000,
(2) Stuart C,Poole:,语言学入门,,
北京：外语教学与研究出版社,2000.
(3) Victoria Fromkin.,语言导论,,
北京：北京大学出版社,2004.
(4) Grover Hudson:, 语言学入门纲要,,
北京：北京大学出版社,2005.
(5) 戴炜栋 何兆熊：, 新编简明英语语言学
教程,, 上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002.
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
A,Phonetics
B,Phonology
A,Phonetics
2.1 Speech production and perception
2.2 Speech organs (vocal organs)
2.3 Segments,divergences and phonetic
transcription
2.4 Consonants
2.5 Vowels
2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic
transcription
2.1 Speech production & perception
? Speech and writing are two media used by natural
languages as vehicles for communication,Of the 2
media of language,speech is more basic than
writing,
? We first begin with the study of sounds,which
is called ?phonetics? and then go on to the study of
sound patterns called ?phonology?.
? The study of sounds is divided into 3 areas:
(1) Articulatory phonetics
(2) Auditory phonetics
(3) Acoustic phonetics
2.2 Speech organs (vocal organs)
The vocal organs consist mainly of the lungs,windpipe,the throat,the
nose and the mouth.
? Three resonating cavities
(1) The pharyngeal cavity--The vocal cords (vocal folds) are either
(a) apart (b) close together or (c) totally closed
? When the vocal folds are apart,the air can pass through easily and the
sound produced is voiceless,Eg,[p] [t] [s]
? When they are close together,the air stream causes them to vibrate
against each other and the sound produced is voiced,Eg,[b] [d] [z]
? When they are totally closed,no air can pass between them and the
result is the glottal stop (?),Thus the sound is inaudible,but it has its
effect on surrounding segment,In English it is often occurs initially to
produce a word like idiot which begins with a vowel.
(2) The oral cavity--The tongue (the tip,the blade,the front,the back and
the root),the soft palate (velum),the hard palate,the uvula,the
alveolar ridge,the teeth and the lips,
(3) The nasal cavity--The soft palate may be lowered so that the air can
go through the nasal cavity,then the sound produced will have a nasal
resonance called a nasal,
The Vocal Tract (声道 )
2.3 Segments,divergences and
phonetic transcription
2.3.1 Segments and divergences
2.3.2 Phonetic transcription
2.3.1 Segments and divergences
? Segment— In the production of the word egg,we
recognize 2 sound segments [e] and [g] for e and
g,the other g is silent; lake has 3 sound segments
[l] [ei] and [k] for l,a,and k,the e is silent,
? Divergence---The English spelling doesn?t
represent its pronunciation,
George Bernard Shaw pointed out the lack of
precision in English orthography by spelling
fish as ghoti,as gh is pronounced as [f] in
enough,o as [i] in women and ti as [∫] in nation.
Spelling and Speech
2.3.2 Phonetic transcription
IPA—the International Phonetic Alphabet
It was proposed by the Danish grammarian Otto Jespersen
in 1886 and the first version of IPA was published in August
1888,
Its principles were that there should be a separate letter
for each distinctive sound,and that the same symbol should
be used for that sound in any lge in which it appears,The
alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters
as possible,using new letters and diacritics only when
absolutely necessary,The present system of the IPA derives
mainly from one developed in the 1920s by the British
phonetician Daniel Jones at the University of London,The
latest version of the IPA was revised in 1993 and updated in
1996.
2.4 Consonants
2.4.1 Consonants and vowels
2.4.2 Consonants
2.4.3 Manners of articulation
2.4.4 Place of articulation
2.4.5 The consonants of English
2.4.1 Consonants and vowels
Consonants—The air stream coming from the
lungs is obstructed in one way or another in
the production.
Vowels—The air stream encounters no
obstruction whatsoever in the production,
Semi-vowels---Some segments are neither
vowels nor consonants but midway between
the two,Eg,[h] [w] [j]
2.4.2 Consonants
? Manners of articulation---The manner or the
way in which obstruction is created
? Place of articulation---The place where
obstruction is created
2.4.3 Manners of articulation
(1) Stop (plosive),3 phases
(a) The closing phase (b) The hold phase (c) The release phase
oral stops,[p] [b],[t] [d],[k] [g] nasal stops,[m] [n] [η]
(2) Fricative,[f] [v],[G][e],[s] [z],[.] [9] [h]
(3) (Median) Approximant,[w],[r] [j]
(4) Lateral (approximant), [l]
(5) Trill (roll),[r]
If only one vibration is produced (i.e,the tongue makes a single tap
against the alveolar ridge),it is called a tap （ flap).
(6) Affricates,[t.] [d9]
Please note,[ts] [dz],[tr] [dr] now don?t enjoy the proper position in
English because the first 2 are used only for suffixes and foreign words
only,while the latter 2 are often realized as 2 different sounds in many
people?s speech.
2.4.4 Place of articulation
(1) Bilabial,[p] [b],[m] [w]
(2) Labiodental,[f] [v]
(3) Dental,[G] [e]
(4) Alveolar,[t] [d],[s] [z],[n],[r] [l]
(5) Post-alveolar,[.] [9],[t.] [d9]
(6) Retroflex,[r]
(7) Palatal,[j]
(8) Velar,[k] [g],[η]
(9) Uvular,No such sounds in English
(10) Pharyngeal,No such sounds in English
(11) Glottal,[h] [?]
2.4.5 The consonants of English
? RP— Received Pronunciation
It is a form of English pronunciation and the most common model
accent in the teaching of English as a foreign language,Many people
called it BBC or Oxford English,RP originates historically in the
southeast of England and is spoken by the upper middle and upper
classes in England,It is widely used in the private sector of the
education system and spoken by most newsreaders of BBC network,
? The description of English consonants
(1) voiced or voiceless
(2) manner of articulation
(3) place of articulation
Eg,[b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative
[m] bilabial nasal [j] palatal approximant
[h] glottal fricative [l] alveolar lateral
[p] [z]
Consonant phones of English
2.5 Vowels
2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description
2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels
2.5.3 Vowel glides
2.5.4 The vowels of RP
2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description
There are 4 criteria:
? The part of the tongue that is raised---front,center
or back.
? The extent to which the tongue rises in the
direction of the palate---high,mid (mid-high,mid-
low) and low.
? The kind of opening made at the lips—various
degrees of lips rounding or spreading,close,
close-mid,open-mid and open.
? The position of the soft palate—raised for oral
vowels,and lowered for vowels which have been
nasalized,
2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels
(by Daniel Jones in his Outline of English Phonetics)
The cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined,fixed
and unchanging,intended to provide a frame of reference for the
description of the actual vowels of existing languages,The cardinal vowel
diagram is a set of standard reference points on a combination articulatory
and auditory judgments,All cardinal vowels are monophthongs and their
quality does not change during their production,
By convention,the 8 primary cardinal vowels are：
CV1[i],CV2[e],CV3[ε],CV4[a],CV5[α] CV6 [%],CV7 [o],CV8 [u]
The first 5 are unrounded while the last 3 are rounded,
2.5.3 Vowel glides
? Pure (monophthong)—The quality of sound remains constant
throughout the articulation.
? Vowel glides—There is an audible change of the quality of sound
throughout the articulation.
(1) Diphthongs—A single movement of the tongue.
Three kinds of diphthongs in English
A,Centering diphthongs,Those that move from an initial vowel to a
central/mid position near [?],Eg,[i?,W?,u?]
B,Closing diphthongs,Those that move from an initial vowel to a
close/front position near [i],Eg,[ei,ai,%i]
C,Those that move to a close/back position near [u],Eg,[?u,au]
(2) Triphthongs—A double movement of the tongue,They are produced
by a glide from one vowel to another and then to a 3rd
rapidly and continuously,
Eg,[ai?,au?],in wire and hour.
2.5.4 The vowels of RP
? Various symbols have been used for the representation of vowels
by different writers,
? The description of the vowels needs to meet 4 basic
requirements:
(1) The height of the tongue raising (high,mid,low)
(2) The position of the highest part of the tongue
(front,central,back)
(3) Lip-rounding (rounded vs unrounded)
(4) The length of the vowels or tenseness of the vowel (tense
vs,long,lax vs short)
Eg,[i:] high front tense unrounded
[u] high back lax rounded
[%] low back lax rounded
[*]
Vowel phones of English
2.6 Coarticulation & phonetic transcription
2.6.1 Coarticulation
2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions
2.6.1 Coarticulation（协同发音）
The simultaneous or overlapping articulations
process,
? If the sound becomes more like the following
sound,it is anticipatory coarticulation（提前
协同发音）, Eg,lamb
? If the sound displays the influence of the
preceding sound,it is perseverative
coarticulation（持续协同发音）, Eg,map
2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions
? Diacritics--A set of symbols added to the letter
symbols to make minute (slight) difference
between variations of the same sound than the
letters alone make possible,
? Broad transcription--A simple set of letter-symbols
only,normally used in dictionaries and textbooks,
? Narrow transcription--A more specific set of letter-
symbols with diacritics to show more phonetic
details,required and used by the phoneticians in
their study of speech sound,
Eg,see P54 (Table 2.4)
B,Phonology
2.7 Phonological analysis
2.8 Phonemes and allophones
2.9 Phonological process
2.10 Distinctive features
2.11 Syllables
2.12 Stress
2.13 Tone
2.14 Intonation
2.7 Phonological analysis
? Phonetics
It is of general nature,it studies all the possible natural speech sounds
used in all human lges,and how they are produced,transmitted and
received,and how they differ from each other ( i.e,what phonetic
features they have) and how they can be classified.
? Phonology
It studies the sound systems of lges,it is concerned with the
patterning of sounds in human lges,its primary aim is to
discover the principles that govern the way sounds are
organized in lges,and explain the variations that occur,It also
studies the way in which speakers of a lge systematically use a
selection of these sounds in order to express meaning,The
conclusion we reach about the phonology of one lge is very
often lge specific and should not be applied to another lge,
2.8 Phonemes and allophones
2.8.1 Minimal pairs
2.8.2 The phoneme theory
2.8.3 Allophones
2.8.1 Minimal pairs
? Minimal pair--Two different words that are identical in
every way except for one sound segment
which occurs in the same place in the strings.
Eg,pin-bin,bin-tin,tie-die,choke-joke,pill-bill,bill-till,till-kill.
They should meet 3 conditions:
(1) They are different in meaning.
(2) They differ only in one sound segment.
(3) The different sounds occur in the same position in the
strings.
? Minimal set ---A group of words which meet all the above 3
conditions.
Eg,big-dig-pig-wig,pill-bill-till-kill,etc.
? Provide two minimal pairs for each of the following groups of English
phonemes,
(A) /t/,/d/ (B) /m/,/n/ (C) /e/,/#/
2.8.2 The phoneme theory
The,minimal pairs” shows that the word
phoneme simply refers to,a unit of clear
sound contrast”,the existence of a minimal
pair automatically gives phonemic status to
the sounds responsible for the contrasts.
2.8.3 Allophones (1)
? Phone---a phonetic unit or segment,it doesn’t necessarily distinguish
meaning.
Eg,[s] and [t] do,as in [si:m] and [ti:m],But [t] and [th],[k] and [kh] don?t,as in
[sth%p] and [st%p],[dis?kh(.n] and [dis?k(.n),
? Phoneme---The basic unit of distinctive value in phonology,it is an
abstract unit,not any particular sound,but rather it is
represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain
phonetic context,it is a collection of distinctive phonetic
features.(A phoneme is capable of distinguish meaning),
Eg,The phoneme /p/ is represented differently in [phit],[tiph] and [spit]
Please note,Phonemic transcriptions are put between slant lines / / while
phonetic transcriptions are between square bracket [ ],Phonetic
transcriptions are broad ones.
? Allophones---The different phones which can represent a phoneme in
different phonetic environments,
Eg,clear [l] and dark [\] are allophones,they are the variants of the phoneme / l
/.The choice of an allophone,that is,how a phoneme is represented by a
phone,is not random in most cases,it is rule-governed by the phonetic context,
2.8.3 Allophones (2)
Compare
? Segment—Any unit,at any level of representation,which is
described as forming sequences with others,Thus,
phonemes and morphemes are generally segments.
Eg,lake has 3 sound segments or phonemes [l] [ei] and [k] for letters l,a,
and k,the e is silent,boys has 2 segments or morphemes boy and –s.
? Phone—A speech sound which is identified as the realization of a
single phoneme,
Eg,[t.],[i] and [p] are phones which realize successive phonemes in [t.ip]
(chip),Allophones are different phones by which an identical phoneme
can be realized.
? Phoneme—The smallest distinctive sound unit in a given lge,
Eg,[tip] in English realizes the 3 successive phonemes represented in
spelling by the letters t,i and p.
2.8.3 Allophones (3)
? Phonetic similarity,The allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic
resemblance.
Eg,[ ph,p] are both voiceless bilabial stops differing only in aspiration.
? Phonemic contrast,If phonetically similar sounds are 2 distinctive phonemes,
they form a phonemic contrast (ie,they distinguish meaning).
Eg,/p/ and/b/ can occur in the same environments ([pin] and [bin])
? Complementary distribution,If phonetically similar sounds are allophones of
the same phoneme,they do not distinguish meaning,but complement each
other in distribution (ie,they occur in different phonetic environments),
Eg,① The clear [l] always occurs before a vowel while the dark [\] always occurs
between a vowel and a consonant,or at the end of a word,So the 2
allophones are in complementary distribution.
② [p] and [ph] never contrast each other,they are 2 allophones of the same
phoneme /p/,they occur in different environments,When one pronounces a
word which begins with /p/,they choose the aspirated allophone [ph],and if
the /p/ occurs after the sound /s/,they will choose the unaspirated allophone
[p].
? Free variation,If 2 sounds can occur in the same environment and the
substitution of one sound for another does not cause a change of
meaning,they are in free variation,
Eg,either ( [aie?] [i:e?]),economics ( [ek?nomiks] [i:k?nomiks] )
2.9 Phonological process
2.9.1 Assimilation (coarticulation)
2.9.2 Phonological process and
phonological rules
2.9.3 Rule ordering (omitted)
2.9.1 Assimilation (coarticulation)
A process in which one sound takes on some or all
the characteristics of a neighboring sound,
? Regressive assimilation,a following sound
influences a preceding sound（逆同化）
→ anticipatory coarticulation
（提前协同发音 see 2.6.1） Eg,lamb
? Progressive assimilation,a preceding sound
influences a following sound（顺同化）
→ perseverative coarticulation
（持续协同发音 see 2.6.1） Eg,map
2.9.2 Phonological process and
phonological rules
? Phonological process
A target segment undergoes a structural
change in certain environments or contexts,
? Phonological rules
(1) Nasalization rule Eg,been [bi,n]
(2) Dentalization rule Eg,health [he lθ]
(3) Velarization rule Eg,key [ki:]
2.10 Distinctive features
? Distinctive features--The features that a phoneme
possesses,making it different from other phonemes,They
are lge-specific (What distinguishes meaning in one lge
does not necessarily do so in another lge),
Compare,the design features of language (See 2.3)
? Binary features— 2 values denoted by + and -.
Eg,the feature [+nasal] is used for distinguishing nasals from
non-nasals so the nasal sounds are marked [+nasal] and
all other non-nasal sounds are [-nasal].
? The place features are
[PLACE,Labial] p [PLACE,Coronal] p
[PLACE,Dorsal] p [PLACE,Guttural] p
Eg,See P67 Table 2.5
Distinctive feature matrix for English consonant
phonemes
2.11 Syllables
2.11.1 The syllable structure
2.11.2 Sonority scale
2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal
onset principle
2.11.1 The syllable structure
? Monosyllable—one syllable,Eg,sit,pig,name,stop,vest
? Polysyllable—more than one syllable,Eg,apple,button,mammal,university,student
? A syllable must have a nucleus (核心 ) or peak (峰 ) which is often a vowel,sometimes a
consonant plays the part of a nucleus,
Eg,table consists of a syllable [tei] and a syllable [bl],in the first syllable,the nucleus is [ei]
while in the second one it is the consonant [1] to function as the nucleus (apple,bottle,
mammal,etc),Similarly,[n] can also have such function in English,Eg,button ["b(t2]
(cotton,mutton,etc),
We can divide a syllable into 2 parts,the rhyme (rime 韵基 ) and the onset (节首，开始 ).
A vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus; the consonant(s) after it is the coda（韵尾,结尾）,
The Greek letter σ is used for a syllable,all syllables must have a nucleus but not all
syllables have an onset and coda,See P69 (16) --- clasp
? Open syllable—has no coda,only tense vowels (long vowels) and diphthongs can occur
in open syllables,
? Closed syllable—with coda.
Differences in syllable structure exist in different cultures,
English syllable structure is (((C) C) C) V ((((C) C) C) C),
Eg,sixths→CVCCCC [siks Gs],spring →CCCVC [spri η],eye →V [ai]
The Chinese syllable is (C) V (C),
Eg,方 → CV (fang)，反 → CV (fan),爱 → V (ai)
2.11.2 Sonority scale
? In English consonant cluster in onset and coda positions disallow many consonant
combinations due to the existence of sonority scale,The degree of sonority of different
classes of sound affects their possible positions in the syllable structure.
See P70,(17)(18)(19)
? Sequential rules,The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular lge,
Eg,the 4 different phonemes in English /k,b,l,i/,[blik],[klib],[bilk],[kilb] are the only
permissible arrangements in English while [lbki],[ilbk],[bkil],[ilkb] are not possible.
Eg,If 3 consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word,the combination
should be:
(1) the first phoneme must be /s/
(2) the second must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/
(3) the third must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/
Eg,spring,strict,square,splendid,scream
? Deletion rules,A sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.
Eg,Delete a [g] sound when it occurs before a final nasal consonant like sign,design
although it is represented in spelling by the letter g,However,their corresponding forms
signature,designation,the [g] sound represented by the letter g is pronounced.
2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal
onset principle
Maximal onset principle
When there is a choice as to where to place a
consonant,it is put into the onset rather than
the coda.
2.12 Stress
? Stress—The degree of force used in producing a
syllable,In transcription,a raised vertical line ["] is
used just before the syllable it relates to.
? Stressed & unstressed syllable—The former is
more prominent than the later due to an increase
in loudness,length or pitch,So stress is a relative
notion,The location of stress in English
distinguishes meaning.
? Word stress--A certain syllable of a word is
pronounced with greater force than the other or
others
2.13 Tone
Tones--pitch variations caused by the
different rates of vibration of the vocal cords,
they can distinguish meaning like phonemes,
(Chinese is a typical tone language,English is
not.)
2.14 Intonation
? Intonation--When pitch,stress and sound length
are tied to the sentence rather than to the word in
isolation,they are collectively known as intonation,
It plays an important role in the conveyance of
meaning in almost every language,esp,in English,
For the same sequence of words,different tones
may cause different meanings for the hearers.
? English has 4 basic types of intonation,
falling,rising,fall-rise and the rise-fall.
Linguistics
School of Western Studies
Heilongjiang University
Wu Li (吴 莉 )
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) － Father of Modern Linguistics
Lecturer profile
Wu Li (吴莉 )
MA (Heilongjiang University)
Associate professor of English
School of Western Studies
Heilongjiang University
Tel,86608652 (office)
Email,wuli668@yahoo.com.cn
About this course
1,Who this course is for
2,What this course is about
3,Duration of this course
4,How to study this course
5,How to do well in assessment
6,Suggested further reading
1,Who this course is for
(1) This course is intended for English majors,
generally for 3rd year college students
(undergraduates),or at any level of proficiency
from intermediate upwards,who need to know
the fundamentals of linguistics.
(2) Please note that a fairly good knowledge of
linguistics is required in any postgraduate
entrance exam,so we strongly advise prospective
MA students to spend adequate time on this
course,
(3) If you choose linguistics as your future research
interest and you plan to do more advanced work
in this academic field,it is the right time for you to
know the ABC of general linguistics.
2,What this course is about
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Chapter 3 Lexicon
Chapter 4 Syntax
Chapter 5 Meaning
Chapter 6 Language in Use
Chapter 7 Language,Culture,and Society
Chapter 8 Theories and Schools of Modern
Linguistics
3,Duration of this course
2 teaching hours per week for 17 weeks
in one semester to cover 8 chapters,
4,How to study this course
(1) You are kindly required to attend every
class and you need to take notes carefully and
quickly if you can,
(2) It is advisable to understand linguistic
theories,ideas or notions through examples
instead of memorizing word by word without
comprehension.
(3) Please review regularly what you have
learned after class,and do additional exercises
to strengthen the knowledge in your mind,
5,How to do well in assessment
(1) Required attendance and good performance in
class account for about 10% of your total score,
Please note that there are also some occasional
in-class quizzes,
(2) The test paper which accounts for 90% is mainly
based on what you have learned in class.
(3) It is an open-book exam,You can consult your
notes or any books you have about linguistics,
but NOT the students around you during the
exam.
6,Suggested further reading
(1) H,G,Widdowson:, 语言学,,
上海：上海外语教育出版社,2000,
(2) Stuart C,Poole:,语言学入门,,
北京：外语教学与研究出版社,2000.
(3) Victoria Fromkin.,语言导论,,
北京：北京大学出版社,2004.
(4) Grover Hudson:, 语言学入门纲要,,
北京：北京大学出版社,2005.
(5) 戴炜栋 何兆熊：, 新编简明英语语言学
教程,, 上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002.
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
A,Phonetics
B,Phonology
A,Phonetics
2.1 Speech production and perception
2.2 Speech organs (vocal organs)
2.3 Segments,divergences and phonetic
transcription
2.4 Consonants
2.5 Vowels
2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic
transcription
2.1 Speech production & perception
? Speech and writing are two media used by natural
languages as vehicles for communication,Of the 2
media of language,speech is more basic than
writing,
? We first begin with the study of sounds,which
is called ?phonetics? and then go on to the study of
sound patterns called ?phonology?.
? The study of sounds is divided into 3 areas:
(1) Articulatory phonetics
(2) Auditory phonetics
(3) Acoustic phonetics
2.2 Speech organs (vocal organs)
The vocal organs consist mainly of the lungs,windpipe,the throat,the
nose and the mouth.
? Three resonating cavities
(1) The pharyngeal cavity--The vocal cords (vocal folds) are either
(a) apart (b) close together or (c) totally closed
? When the vocal folds are apart,the air can pass through easily and the
sound produced is voiceless,Eg,[p] [t] [s]
? When they are close together,the air stream causes them to vibrate
against each other and the sound produced is voiced,Eg,[b] [d] [z]
? When they are totally closed,no air can pass between them and the
result is the glottal stop (?),Thus the sound is inaudible,but it has its
effect on surrounding segment,In English it is often occurs initially to
produce a word like idiot which begins with a vowel.
(2) The oral cavity--The tongue (the tip,the blade,the front,the back and
the root),the soft palate (velum),the hard palate,the uvula,the
alveolar ridge,the teeth and the lips,
(3) The nasal cavity--The soft palate may be lowered so that the air can
go through the nasal cavity,then the sound produced will have a nasal
resonance called a nasal,
The Vocal Tract (声道 )
2.3 Segments,divergences and
phonetic transcription
2.3.1 Segments and divergences
2.3.2 Phonetic transcription
2.3.1 Segments and divergences
? Segment— In the production of the word egg,we
recognize 2 sound segments [e] and [g] for e and
g,the other g is silent; lake has 3 sound segments
[l] [ei] and [k] for l,a,and k,the e is silent,
? Divergence---The English spelling doesn?t
represent its pronunciation,
George Bernard Shaw pointed out the lack of
precision in English orthography by spelling
fish as ghoti,as gh is pronounced as [f] in
enough,o as [i] in women and ti as [∫] in nation.
Spelling and Speech
2.3.2 Phonetic transcription
IPA—the International Phonetic Alphabet
It was proposed by the Danish grammarian Otto Jespersen
in 1886 and the first version of IPA was published in August
1888,
Its principles were that there should be a separate letter
for each distinctive sound,and that the same symbol should
be used for that sound in any lge in which it appears,The
alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters
as possible,using new letters and diacritics only when
absolutely necessary,The present system of the IPA derives
mainly from one developed in the 1920s by the British
phonetician Daniel Jones at the University of London,The
latest version of the IPA was revised in 1993 and updated in
1996.
2.4 Consonants
2.4.1 Consonants and vowels
2.4.2 Consonants
2.4.3 Manners of articulation
2.4.4 Place of articulation
2.4.5 The consonants of English
2.4.1 Consonants and vowels
Consonants—The air stream coming from the
lungs is obstructed in one way or another in
the production.
Vowels—The air stream encounters no
obstruction whatsoever in the production,
Semi-vowels---Some segments are neither
vowels nor consonants but midway between
the two,Eg,[h] [w] [j]
2.4.2 Consonants
? Manners of articulation---The manner or the
way in which obstruction is created
? Place of articulation---The place where
obstruction is created
2.4.3 Manners of articulation
(1) Stop (plosive),3 phases
(a) The closing phase (b) The hold phase (c) The release phase
oral stops,[p] [b],[t] [d],[k] [g] nasal stops,[m] [n] [η]
(2) Fricative,[f] [v],[G][e],[s] [z],[.] [9] [h]
(3) (Median) Approximant,[w],[r] [j]
(4) Lateral (approximant), [l]
(5) Trill (roll),[r]
If only one vibration is produced (i.e,the tongue makes a single tap
against the alveolar ridge),it is called a tap （ flap).
(6) Affricates,[t.] [d9]
Please note,[ts] [dz],[tr] [dr] now don?t enjoy the proper position in
English because the first 2 are used only for suffixes and foreign words
only,while the latter 2 are often realized as 2 different sounds in many
people?s speech.
2.4.4 Place of articulation
(1) Bilabial,[p] [b],[m] [w]
(2) Labiodental,[f] [v]
(3) Dental,[G] [e]
(4) Alveolar,[t] [d],[s] [z],[n],[r] [l]
(5) Post-alveolar,[.] [9],[t.] [d9]
(6) Retroflex,[r]
(7) Palatal,[j]
(8) Velar,[k] [g],[η]
(9) Uvular,No such sounds in English
(10) Pharyngeal,No such sounds in English
(11) Glottal,[h] [?]
2.4.5 The consonants of English
? RP— Received Pronunciation
It is a form of English pronunciation and the most common model
accent in the teaching of English as a foreign language,Many people
called it BBC or Oxford English,RP originates historically in the
southeast of England and is spoken by the upper middle and upper
classes in England,It is widely used in the private sector of the
education system and spoken by most newsreaders of BBC network,
? The description of English consonants
(1) voiced or voiceless
(2) manner of articulation
(3) place of articulation
Eg,[b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative
[m] bilabial nasal [j] palatal approximant
[h] glottal fricative [l] alveolar lateral
[p] [z]
Consonant phones of English
2.5 Vowels
2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description
2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels
2.5.3 Vowel glides
2.5.4 The vowels of RP
2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description
There are 4 criteria:
? The part of the tongue that is raised---front,center
or back.
? The extent to which the tongue rises in the
direction of the palate---high,mid (mid-high,mid-
low) and low.
? The kind of opening made at the lips—various
degrees of lips rounding or spreading,close,
close-mid,open-mid and open.
? The position of the soft palate—raised for oral
vowels,and lowered for vowels which have been
nasalized,
2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels
(by Daniel Jones in his Outline of English Phonetics)
The cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined,fixed
and unchanging,intended to provide a frame of reference for the
description of the actual vowels of existing languages,The cardinal vowel
diagram is a set of standard reference points on a combination articulatory
and auditory judgments,All cardinal vowels are monophthongs and their
quality does not change during their production,
By convention,the 8 primary cardinal vowels are：
CV1[i],CV2[e],CV3[ε],CV4[a],CV5[α] CV6 [%],CV7 [o],CV8 [u]
The first 5 are unrounded while the last 3 are rounded,
2.5.3 Vowel glides
? Pure (monophthong)—The quality of sound remains constant
throughout the articulation.
? Vowel glides—There is an audible change of the quality of sound
throughout the articulation.
(1) Diphthongs—A single movement of the tongue.
Three kinds of diphthongs in English
A,Centering diphthongs,Those that move from an initial vowel to a
central/mid position near [?],Eg,[i?,W?,u?]
B,Closing diphthongs,Those that move from an initial vowel to a
close/front position near [i],Eg,[ei,ai,%i]
C,Those that move to a close/back position near [u],Eg,[?u,au]
(2) Triphthongs—A double movement of the tongue,They are produced
by a glide from one vowel to another and then to a 3rd
rapidly and continuously,
Eg,[ai?,au?],in wire and hour.
2.5.4 The vowels of RP
? Various symbols have been used for the representation of vowels
by different writers,
? The description of the vowels needs to meet 4 basic
requirements:
(1) The height of the tongue raising (high,mid,low)
(2) The position of the highest part of the tongue
(front,central,back)
(3) Lip-rounding (rounded vs unrounded)
(4) The length of the vowels or tenseness of the vowel (tense
vs,long,lax vs short)
Eg,[i:] high front tense unrounded
[u] high back lax rounded
[%] low back lax rounded
[*]
Vowel phones of English
2.6 Coarticulation & phonetic transcription
2.6.1 Coarticulation
2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions
2.6.1 Coarticulation（协同发音）
The simultaneous or overlapping articulations
process,
? If the sound becomes more like the following
sound,it is anticipatory coarticulation（提前
协同发音）, Eg,lamb
? If the sound displays the influence of the
preceding sound,it is perseverative
coarticulation（持续协同发音）, Eg,map
2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions
? Diacritics--A set of symbols added to the letter
symbols to make minute (slight) difference
between variations of the same sound than the
letters alone make possible,
? Broad transcription--A simple set of letter-symbols
only,normally used in dictionaries and textbooks,
? Narrow transcription--A more specific set of letter-
symbols with diacritics to show more phonetic
details,required and used by the phoneticians in
their study of speech sound,
Eg,see P54 (Table 2.4)
B,Phonology
2.7 Phonological analysis
2.8 Phonemes and allophones
2.9 Phonological process
2.10 Distinctive features
2.11 Syllables
2.12 Stress
2.13 Tone
2.14 Intonation
2.7 Phonological analysis
? Phonetics
It is of general nature,it studies all the possible natural speech sounds
used in all human lges,and how they are produced,transmitted and
received,and how they differ from each other ( i.e,what phonetic
features they have) and how they can be classified.
? Phonology
It studies the sound systems of lges,it is concerned with the
patterning of sounds in human lges,its primary aim is to
discover the principles that govern the way sounds are
organized in lges,and explain the variations that occur,It also
studies the way in which speakers of a lge systematically use a
selection of these sounds in order to express meaning,The
conclusion we reach about the phonology of one lge is very
often lge specific and should not be applied to another lge,
2.8 Phonemes and allophones
2.8.1 Minimal pairs
2.8.2 The phoneme theory
2.8.3 Allophones
2.8.1 Minimal pairs
? Minimal pair--Two different words that are identical in
every way except for one sound segment
which occurs in the same place in the strings.
Eg,pin-bin,bin-tin,tie-die,choke-joke,pill-bill,bill-till,till-kill.
They should meet 3 conditions:
(1) They are different in meaning.
(2) They differ only in one sound segment.
(3) The different sounds occur in the same position in the
strings.
? Minimal set ---A group of words which meet all the above 3
conditions.
Eg,big-dig-pig-wig,pill-bill-till-kill,etc.
? Provide two minimal pairs for each of the following groups of English
phonemes,
(A) /t/,/d/ (B) /m/,/n/ (C) /e/,/#/
2.8.2 The phoneme theory
The,minimal pairs” shows that the word
phoneme simply refers to,a unit of clear
sound contrast”,the existence of a minimal
pair automatically gives phonemic status to
the sounds responsible for the contrasts.
2.8.3 Allophones (1)
? Phone---a phonetic unit or segment,it doesn’t necessarily distinguish
meaning.
Eg,[s] and [t] do,as in [si:m] and [ti:m],But [t] and [th],[k] and [kh] don?t,as in
[sth%p] and [st%p],[dis?kh(.n] and [dis?k(.n),
? Phoneme---The basic unit of distinctive value in phonology,it is an
abstract unit,not any particular sound,but rather it is
represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain
phonetic context,it is a collection of distinctive phonetic
features.(A phoneme is capable of distinguish meaning),
Eg,The phoneme /p/ is represented differently in [phit],[tiph] and [spit]
Please note,Phonemic transcriptions are put between slant lines / / while
phonetic transcriptions are between square bracket [ ],Phonetic
transcriptions are broad ones.
? Allophones---The different phones which can represent a phoneme in
different phonetic environments,
Eg,clear [l] and dark [\] are allophones,they are the variants of the phoneme / l
/.The choice of an allophone,that is,how a phoneme is represented by a
phone,is not random in most cases,it is rule-governed by the phonetic context,
2.8.3 Allophones (2)
Compare
? Segment—Any unit,at any level of representation,which is
described as forming sequences with others,Thus,
phonemes and morphemes are generally segments.
Eg,lake has 3 sound segments or phonemes [l] [ei] and [k] for letters l,a,
and k,the e is silent,boys has 2 segments or morphemes boy and –s.
? Phone—A speech sound which is identified as the realization of a
single phoneme,
Eg,[t.],[i] and [p] are phones which realize successive phonemes in [t.ip]
(chip),Allophones are different phones by which an identical phoneme
can be realized.
? Phoneme—The smallest distinctive sound unit in a given lge,
Eg,[tip] in English realizes the 3 successive phonemes represented in
spelling by the letters t,i and p.
2.8.3 Allophones (3)
? Phonetic similarity,The allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic
resemblance.
Eg,[ ph,p] are both voiceless bilabial stops differing only in aspiration.
? Phonemic contrast,If phonetically similar sounds are 2 distinctive phonemes,
they form a phonemic contrast (ie,they distinguish meaning).
Eg,/p/ and/b/ can occur in the same environments ([pin] and [bin])
? Complementary distribution,If phonetically similar sounds are allophones of
the same phoneme,they do not distinguish meaning,but complement each
other in distribution (ie,they occur in different phonetic environments),
Eg,① The clear [l] always occurs before a vowel while the dark [\] always occurs
between a vowel and a consonant,or at the end of a word,So the 2
allophones are in complementary distribution.
② [p] and [ph] never contrast each other,they are 2 allophones of the same
phoneme /p/,they occur in different environments,When one pronounces a
word which begins with /p/,they choose the aspirated allophone [ph],and if
the /p/ occurs after the sound /s/,they will choose the unaspirated allophone
[p].
? Free variation,If 2 sounds can occur in the same environment and the
substitution of one sound for another does not cause a change of
meaning,they are in free variation,
Eg,either ( [aie?] [i:e?]),economics ( [ek?nomiks] [i:k?nomiks] )
2.9 Phonological process
2.9.1 Assimilation (coarticulation)
2.9.2 Phonological process and
phonological rules
2.9.3 Rule ordering (omitted)
2.9.1 Assimilation (coarticulation)
A process in which one sound takes on some or all
the characteristics of a neighboring sound,
? Regressive assimilation,a following sound
influences a preceding sound（逆同化）
→ anticipatory coarticulation
（提前协同发音 see 2.6.1） Eg,lamb
? Progressive assimilation,a preceding sound
influences a following sound（顺同化）
→ perseverative coarticulation
（持续协同发音 see 2.6.1） Eg,map
2.9.2 Phonological process and
phonological rules
? Phonological process
A target segment undergoes a structural
change in certain environments or contexts,
? Phonological rules
(1) Nasalization rule Eg,been [bi,n]
(2) Dentalization rule Eg,health [he lθ]
(3) Velarization rule Eg,key [ki:]
2.10 Distinctive features
? Distinctive features--The features that a phoneme
possesses,making it different from other phonemes,They
are lge-specific (What distinguishes meaning in one lge
does not necessarily do so in another lge),
Compare,the design features of language (See 2.3)
? Binary features— 2 values denoted by + and -.
Eg,the feature [+nasal] is used for distinguishing nasals from
non-nasals so the nasal sounds are marked [+nasal] and
all other non-nasal sounds are [-nasal].
? The place features are
[PLACE,Labial] p [PLACE,Coronal] p
[PLACE,Dorsal] p [PLACE,Guttural] p
Eg,See P67 Table 2.5
Distinctive feature matrix for English consonant
phonemes
2.11 Syllables
2.11.1 The syllable structure
2.11.2 Sonority scale
2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal
onset principle
2.11.1 The syllable structure
? Monosyllable—one syllable,Eg,sit,pig,name,stop,vest
? Polysyllable—more than one syllable,Eg,apple,button,mammal,university,student
? A syllable must have a nucleus (核心 ) or peak (峰 ) which is often a vowel,sometimes a
consonant plays the part of a nucleus,
Eg,table consists of a syllable [tei] and a syllable [bl],in the first syllable,the nucleus is [ei]
while in the second one it is the consonant [1] to function as the nucleus (apple,bottle,
mammal,etc),Similarly,[n] can also have such function in English,Eg,button ["b(t2]
(cotton,mutton,etc),
We can divide a syllable into 2 parts,the rhyme (rime 韵基 ) and the onset (节首，开始 ).
A vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus; the consonant(s) after it is the coda（韵尾,结尾）,
The Greek letter σ is used for a syllable,all syllables must have a nucleus but not all
syllables have an onset and coda,See P69 (16) --- clasp
? Open syllable—has no coda,only tense vowels (long vowels) and diphthongs can occur
in open syllables,
? Closed syllable—with coda.
Differences in syllable structure exist in different cultures,
English syllable structure is (((C) C) C) V ((((C) C) C) C),
Eg,sixths→CVCCCC [siks Gs],spring →CCCVC [spri η],eye →V [ai]
The Chinese syllable is (C) V (C),
Eg,方 → CV (fang)，反 → CV (fan),爱 → V (ai)
2.11.2 Sonority scale
? In English consonant cluster in onset and coda positions disallow many consonant
combinations due to the existence of sonority scale,The degree of sonority of different
classes of sound affects their possible positions in the syllable structure.
See P70,(17)(18)(19)
? Sequential rules,The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular lge,
Eg,the 4 different phonemes in English /k,b,l,i/,[blik],[klib],[bilk],[kilb] are the only
permissible arrangements in English while [lbki],[ilbk],[bkil],[ilkb] are not possible.
Eg,If 3 consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word,the combination
should be:
(1) the first phoneme must be /s/
(2) the second must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/
(3) the third must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/
Eg,spring,strict,square,splendid,scream
? Deletion rules,A sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.
Eg,Delete a [g] sound when it occurs before a final nasal consonant like sign,design
although it is represented in spelling by the letter g,However,their corresponding forms
signature,designation,the [g] sound represented by the letter g is pronounced.
2.11.3 Syllabification and the maximal
onset principle
Maximal onset principle
When there is a choice as to where to place a
consonant,it is put into the onset rather than
the coda.
2.12 Stress
? Stress—The degree of force used in producing a
syllable,In transcription,a raised vertical line ["] is
used just before the syllable it relates to.
? Stressed & unstressed syllable—The former is
more prominent than the later due to an increase
in loudness,length or pitch,So stress is a relative
notion,The location of stress in English
distinguishes meaning.
? Word stress--A certain syllable of a word is
pronounced with greater force than the other or
others
2.13 Tone
Tones--pitch variations caused by the
different rates of vibration of the vocal cords,
they can distinguish meaning like phonemes,
(Chinese is a typical tone language,English is
not.)
2.14 Intonation
? Intonation--When pitch,stress and sound length
are tied to the sentence rather than to the word in
isolation,they are collectively known as intonation,
It plays an important role in the conveyance of
meaning in almost every language,esp,in English,
For the same sequence of words,different tones
may cause different meanings for the hearers.
? English has 4 basic types of intonation,
falling,rising,fall-rise and the rise-fall.
