8-1
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Organizational
Structure
8
8-2
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Designing Organizational Structure
?Organizing,the process by which managers
establish working relationships among
employees to achieve goals,
? Organizational Structure,formal system of task &
reporting relationships showing how workers use
resources,
? Organizational design,managers make specific choices
resulting in a given organizational structure,
?Successful organizational design depends on
the organization’s unique situation,
8-3
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Factors Affecting Organizational Design
Environment
Strategy
Human
Resources
Technology Determine design or organizational
structure
Figure 8.1
8-4
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Determinants of Structure
? The environment,The quicker the environment
changes,the more problems face managers,
?Structure must be more flexible when environmental
change is rapid,
? Usually need to decentralize authority,
? Strategy,Different strategies require the use of
different structures,
?A differentiation strategy needs a flexible structure,
low cost may need a more formal structure,
?Increased vertical integration or diversification also
requires a more flexible structure,
8-5
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Determinants of Structure
? Technology,The combination of skills,knowledge,tools,
equipment,computers and machines used in the
organization,
?More complex technology makes it harder for managers to
regulate the organization,Technology can be measured by,
? Task Variety,new problems a manager encounters,
? Task Analyzability,programmed solutions available to a
manager to solve problems,
?High task variety and low analyzability present many
unique problems to managers,
? Flexible structure works best in these conditions,
?Low task variety and high analyzability allow managers
to rely on established procedures,
8-6
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Technology & People
? Small Batch Technology,produces small quantities of
one-of-a-kind products,
?Based on the skills of the workers who need a flexible
structure,
? Mass Production Technology,automated machines make
high volumes of standard products,
?Workers perform repetitive tasks so a formal structure
works well,
? Continuous Process Technology,totally mechanized
systems of automatic machines,
?Workers must watch for unexpected problems and react
quickly,A flexible structure is needed here,
8-7
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Determinants of Structure
? Human Resources,the final factor affecting
organizational structure,
?Higher skilled workers who need to work in teams
usually need a more flexible structure,
?Higher skilled workers often have professional
norms (CPA’s,physicians),
Managers must take into account all four
factors (environment,strategy,technology
and human resources) when designing the
structure of the organization,
8-8
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Job Design
?Job Design,group tasks into specific jobs,
?Results in a division of labor between workers that is
effective and efficient,
? Job simplification,reduction of the tasks each worker
performs,
?Too much and boredom results,
? Job enlargement,increase tasks for a given job to
reduce boredom,
? Job enrichment,increases the degree of responsibility
a worker has over a job,
?can lead to increased worker involvement,
8-9
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Job Characteristics Model
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Meaningfulness
of work
Responsibility
for Work
Outcomes
Knowledge of
results of
work
High,
Motivation
Performance
Satisfaction
Figure 8.2
8-10
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Job Characteristics Model
? Jobs have five characteristics describing extent of,
– Skill variety,employee uses a wide range of skills
– Task identity,worker involved in all tasks of job from
beginning to end of the production process
– Task significance,worker feels the task is meaningful to
organization,
– Autonomy,employee has freedom to schedule tasks and
carry them out,
– Feedback,worker gets direct information about how well
the job is done,
? These affect the motivation,satisfaction and performance of
employees,
8-11
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Grouping Jobs into Functions
?Once tasks are grouped into jobs,
managers must decide how to group jobs
together,
? Function,people working together with similar
skills,tools or techniques to perform their jobs,
?Functional structure consists of departments such
as marketing,production,and finance,
? Workers can learn from others doing similar tasks,
? Easy for managers to monitor and evaluate workers,
? Hard for one department to communicate with others,
? Managers can become preoccupied with their department
and forget the firm
Pros
Cons
8-12
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
A Sample of Pier 1’s Functional Structure
V, P, T a x V, P, C o n t r o l l e r
V, P, M I S D i r e ct o r
C o r p, P l a n n i n g
E x e c,V, P,
F i n a n ce & A d m i n,
S e n i o r V, P,
S t o r e s
D i r e ct o r
T r a n sp o r t a t i o n
V, P,
D i st r i b u t i o n
S e n i o r V, P,
L o g i st i cs
C l a r k Jo h n so n
C E O
Figure 8.3
8-13
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Divisional Structures
?A division is a collection of functions working together to produce a product,
?Divisions create smaller,manageable parts of a firm,
Divisions develop a business-level strategy to compete,
A division has marketing,finance,and other functions,
Functional managers report to divisional managers who then report to
corporate management,
? Product structure,divisions created according to the type
of product or service,
? Geographic structure,divisions based on the area of a
country or world served,
? Market structure,divisions based on the types of
customers served,
8-14
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Product Structure
W a s hi ng M a c hi ne
D i v i s i on
Li gh t i ng
D i v i s i on
T e l e v i s i on
D i v i s i on
C orpo r a t e
M a na ge r s
C E O
C orpo r a t i on
Figure 8.4a
8-15
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Geographic Structure
N o r t h e r n
R e g i o n
W e s t e r n
R e g i o n
S o u t h e r n
R e g i o n
E a s t e r n
R e g i o n
C o r p o r a t e
M a n a g e r s
C E O
C orpor a t i on
Figure 8.4 b
8-16
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Market Structure L a rg e B u s i n e s s
C u s t o m e rs
S m a l l B u s i n e s s
C u s t o m e rs
E d u c a t i o n a l
I n s t i t u t i o n s
I n d i v i d u a l
C u s t o m e rs
C o rp o ra t e
M a n a g e rs
C E O
C o rp o ra t i o n
Figure 8.4c
8-17
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Global Structures
?When managers find different problems or
demands across the globe,global solutions are
needed,
? Global geographic structure,different divisions serve
each world region,
?For customer needs that vary between regions,
? Global product structure,Customers in different regions
buy similar products so firms keep most functional work
at home and set up a division to market product abroad,
8-18
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Matrix & Product Teams
? Matrix structure,managers group people by function
and product teams simultaneously,
?Results in a complex network of reporting relationships,
?Very flexible and can respond rapidly to change,
?Each employee has two bosses which can cause
problems,
? Functional manager gives different directions than
product manager and employee cannot satisfy both,
? Product Team Structure,no 2-way reporting and the
members are permanently assigned to the team and
empowered to bring a product to market,
8-19
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Matrix Structure
Figure 8.7a
CEO
Func,
Managers
Sales Design Production
Product
team A
Product
team B
Product
team C
Product Team
= two boss employee
Tea
m
M
ana
ger
s
8-20
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Product Team Structure
CEO
Func,
Managers
Sales Design Production
Manufacturing Manufacturing Manufacturing
= Product Team Manager = Team member
Figure 8.7b
8-21
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Hybrid Structures
?Many large organizations have divisional
structures where each manager can select the
best structure for that particular division,
? One division may use a functional structure,one
geographic,and so on,
?This ability to break a large organization into
many smaller ones makes it much easier to
manage,
8-22
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Coordinating Functions
?To ensure sufficient coordination between
functions,managers delegate authority,
? Authority,the power vested in the manager to make
decisions and use resources,
? Hierarchy of authority,describes the relative
authority each manager has from top to bottom,
? Span of Control,refers to the number of workers a
manager manages,
? Line authority,managers in the direct chain of
command for production of goods or services,Example,
Sales
? Staff authority,managers in positions that give advice
to line managers,Example,Legal
8-23
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Tall & Flat Organizations
? Tall structures have many levels of authority relative to
the organization’s size,
?As levels in the hierarchy increase,communication
gets difficult,
?The extra levels result in more time being taken to
implement decisions,
?Communications can also become garbled as it is
repeated through the firm,
? Flat structures have few levels but wide spans of
control,
?Results in quick communications but can lead to
overworked managers,
8-24
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Minimum Chain of Command
? Managers should carefully evaluate,
?Do they have the right number of middle managers?
?Can the structure be altered to reduce levels?
?Centralized v,Decentralized
? Decentralized operations puts more authority at lower
levels and leads to flat organizations,
?Workers must be able to reach decisions,
?Divisions and functions can begin to lose sight of
organizational goals and focus only on their small area,
8-25
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Integrating Mechanisms
? Direct contact,get managers from different divisions or
functions together to solve mutual problems,
? Liaison Roles,one manager in each area is responsible
for communication with other areas,
? Task Forces,temporary committees formed across
divisions to solve a specific problem,
? Cross-functional teams,works much like a permanent
task force that deals with recurring problems,
? Matrix structure,already contains many integrating
mechanisms,
8-26
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Strategic Alliances
?Strategic alliance,a formal agreement
committing two or more firms to exchange
resources to produce a good,
?Network Structure,a whole series of strategic
alliances,
? Created between suppliers,manufacturers,and
distributors,
?Toyota and Honda use many such alliances,
? Network structures allow firms to bring resources
together in a boundary-less organization,
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Organizational
Structure
8
8-2
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Designing Organizational Structure
?Organizing,the process by which managers
establish working relationships among
employees to achieve goals,
? Organizational Structure,formal system of task &
reporting relationships showing how workers use
resources,
? Organizational design,managers make specific choices
resulting in a given organizational structure,
?Successful organizational design depends on
the organization’s unique situation,
8-3
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Factors Affecting Organizational Design
Environment
Strategy
Human
Resources
Technology Determine design or organizational
structure
Figure 8.1
8-4
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Determinants of Structure
? The environment,The quicker the environment
changes,the more problems face managers,
?Structure must be more flexible when environmental
change is rapid,
? Usually need to decentralize authority,
? Strategy,Different strategies require the use of
different structures,
?A differentiation strategy needs a flexible structure,
low cost may need a more formal structure,
?Increased vertical integration or diversification also
requires a more flexible structure,
8-5
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Determinants of Structure
? Technology,The combination of skills,knowledge,tools,
equipment,computers and machines used in the
organization,
?More complex technology makes it harder for managers to
regulate the organization,Technology can be measured by,
? Task Variety,new problems a manager encounters,
? Task Analyzability,programmed solutions available to a
manager to solve problems,
?High task variety and low analyzability present many
unique problems to managers,
? Flexible structure works best in these conditions,
?Low task variety and high analyzability allow managers
to rely on established procedures,
8-6
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Technology & People
? Small Batch Technology,produces small quantities of
one-of-a-kind products,
?Based on the skills of the workers who need a flexible
structure,
? Mass Production Technology,automated machines make
high volumes of standard products,
?Workers perform repetitive tasks so a formal structure
works well,
? Continuous Process Technology,totally mechanized
systems of automatic machines,
?Workers must watch for unexpected problems and react
quickly,A flexible structure is needed here,
8-7
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Determinants of Structure
? Human Resources,the final factor affecting
organizational structure,
?Higher skilled workers who need to work in teams
usually need a more flexible structure,
?Higher skilled workers often have professional
norms (CPA’s,physicians),
Managers must take into account all four
factors (environment,strategy,technology
and human resources) when designing the
structure of the organization,
8-8
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Job Design
?Job Design,group tasks into specific jobs,
?Results in a division of labor between workers that is
effective and efficient,
? Job simplification,reduction of the tasks each worker
performs,
?Too much and boredom results,
? Job enlargement,increase tasks for a given job to
reduce boredom,
? Job enrichment,increases the degree of responsibility
a worker has over a job,
?can lead to increased worker involvement,
8-9
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Job Characteristics Model
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Meaningfulness
of work
Responsibility
for Work
Outcomes
Knowledge of
results of
work
High,
Motivation
Performance
Satisfaction
Figure 8.2
8-10
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Job Characteristics Model
? Jobs have five characteristics describing extent of,
– Skill variety,employee uses a wide range of skills
– Task identity,worker involved in all tasks of job from
beginning to end of the production process
– Task significance,worker feels the task is meaningful to
organization,
– Autonomy,employee has freedom to schedule tasks and
carry them out,
– Feedback,worker gets direct information about how well
the job is done,
? These affect the motivation,satisfaction and performance of
employees,
8-11
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Grouping Jobs into Functions
?Once tasks are grouped into jobs,
managers must decide how to group jobs
together,
? Function,people working together with similar
skills,tools or techniques to perform their jobs,
?Functional structure consists of departments such
as marketing,production,and finance,
? Workers can learn from others doing similar tasks,
? Easy for managers to monitor and evaluate workers,
? Hard for one department to communicate with others,
? Managers can become preoccupied with their department
and forget the firm
Pros
Cons
8-12
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
A Sample of Pier 1’s Functional Structure
V, P, T a x V, P, C o n t r o l l e r
V, P, M I S D i r e ct o r
C o r p, P l a n n i n g
E x e c,V, P,
F i n a n ce & A d m i n,
S e n i o r V, P,
S t o r e s
D i r e ct o r
T r a n sp o r t a t i o n
V, P,
D i st r i b u t i o n
S e n i o r V, P,
L o g i st i cs
C l a r k Jo h n so n
C E O
Figure 8.3
8-13
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Divisional Structures
?A division is a collection of functions working together to produce a product,
?Divisions create smaller,manageable parts of a firm,
Divisions develop a business-level strategy to compete,
A division has marketing,finance,and other functions,
Functional managers report to divisional managers who then report to
corporate management,
? Product structure,divisions created according to the type
of product or service,
? Geographic structure,divisions based on the area of a
country or world served,
? Market structure,divisions based on the types of
customers served,
8-14
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Product Structure
W a s hi ng M a c hi ne
D i v i s i on
Li gh t i ng
D i v i s i on
T e l e v i s i on
D i v i s i on
C orpo r a t e
M a na ge r s
C E O
C orpo r a t i on
Figure 8.4a
8-15
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Geographic Structure
N o r t h e r n
R e g i o n
W e s t e r n
R e g i o n
S o u t h e r n
R e g i o n
E a s t e r n
R e g i o n
C o r p o r a t e
M a n a g e r s
C E O
C orpor a t i on
Figure 8.4 b
8-16
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Market Structure L a rg e B u s i n e s s
C u s t o m e rs
S m a l l B u s i n e s s
C u s t o m e rs
E d u c a t i o n a l
I n s t i t u t i o n s
I n d i v i d u a l
C u s t o m e rs
C o rp o ra t e
M a n a g e rs
C E O
C o rp o ra t i o n
Figure 8.4c
8-17
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Global Structures
?When managers find different problems or
demands across the globe,global solutions are
needed,
? Global geographic structure,different divisions serve
each world region,
?For customer needs that vary between regions,
? Global product structure,Customers in different regions
buy similar products so firms keep most functional work
at home and set up a division to market product abroad,
8-18
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Matrix & Product Teams
? Matrix structure,managers group people by function
and product teams simultaneously,
?Results in a complex network of reporting relationships,
?Very flexible and can respond rapidly to change,
?Each employee has two bosses which can cause
problems,
? Functional manager gives different directions than
product manager and employee cannot satisfy both,
? Product Team Structure,no 2-way reporting and the
members are permanently assigned to the team and
empowered to bring a product to market,
8-19
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Matrix Structure
Figure 8.7a
CEO
Func,
Managers
Sales Design Production
Product
team A
Product
team B
Product
team C
Product Team
= two boss employee
Tea
m
M
ana
ger
s
8-20
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Product Team Structure
CEO
Func,
Managers
Sales Design Production
Manufacturing Manufacturing Manufacturing
= Product Team Manager = Team member
Figure 8.7b
8-21
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Hybrid Structures
?Many large organizations have divisional
structures where each manager can select the
best structure for that particular division,
? One division may use a functional structure,one
geographic,and so on,
?This ability to break a large organization into
many smaller ones makes it much easier to
manage,
8-22
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Coordinating Functions
?To ensure sufficient coordination between
functions,managers delegate authority,
? Authority,the power vested in the manager to make
decisions and use resources,
? Hierarchy of authority,describes the relative
authority each manager has from top to bottom,
? Span of Control,refers to the number of workers a
manager manages,
? Line authority,managers in the direct chain of
command for production of goods or services,Example,
Sales
? Staff authority,managers in positions that give advice
to line managers,Example,Legal
8-23
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Tall & Flat Organizations
? Tall structures have many levels of authority relative to
the organization’s size,
?As levels in the hierarchy increase,communication
gets difficult,
?The extra levels result in more time being taken to
implement decisions,
?Communications can also become garbled as it is
repeated through the firm,
? Flat structures have few levels but wide spans of
control,
?Results in quick communications but can lead to
overworked managers,
8-24
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Minimum Chain of Command
? Managers should carefully evaluate,
?Do they have the right number of middle managers?
?Can the structure be altered to reduce levels?
?Centralized v,Decentralized
? Decentralized operations puts more authority at lower
levels and leads to flat organizations,
?Workers must be able to reach decisions,
?Divisions and functions can begin to lose sight of
organizational goals and focus only on their small area,
8-25
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Integrating Mechanisms
? Direct contact,get managers from different divisions or
functions together to solve mutual problems,
? Liaison Roles,one manager in each area is responsible
for communication with other areas,
? Task Forces,temporary committees formed across
divisions to solve a specific problem,
? Cross-functional teams,works much like a permanent
task force that deals with recurring problems,
? Matrix structure,already contains many integrating
mechanisms,
8-26
Irwin/McGraw-Hill ?The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.,2000
Strategic Alliances
?Strategic alliance,a formal agreement
committing two or more firms to exchange
resources to produce a good,
?Network Structure,a whole series of strategic
alliances,
? Created between suppliers,manufacturers,and
distributors,
?Toyota and Honda use many such alliances,
? Network structures allow firms to bring resources
together in a boundary-less organization,
