accuracy of sensors 118–19 acidification 159–60 acids 404 active packaging 145–7 additives 5 adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 235 bioluminescence (testing) 196–9, 417–18 Aeromonas hydrophila 170–1 ageing (conditioning) 70–2, 235–6 agglutination test kits 204–5 agronomic characteristics 20–1 air handling system 303, 322 high-risk area 371–9 air temperature monitoring 103–4 alcohol-based cleaners 406 algal toxins 244–6 alkalis 403 allergens 247 aluminium packaging 137, 138–9 Amnesic Shellfish Poisons (ASP) 244–5 amphoterics 405–6 amylopectin 242 amylose 242 animals, live 65–8 antibodies 203–4, 204–5 antigens 203–4, 204–5 antioxidants 228 appearance 22, 342 argon 142 assembly of product 263 Assured Produce Scheme 30 atmosphere, storage (MAP) 161–2 ATP agreement 84, 97, 457 attitude 350 auditing process 331–2 suppliers 438 TQM 446–8 Australia 461–2 automated enzyme immunoassays 205–6 automated microbiological methods 191–214 Autotrak 199–200 avidin-biotin link system 207–8 Bacillus 314 cereus 171, 306 bacteriophages 198 Bactoscan 199 bakery 10 barrier hygiene 57 barrier technology see high-risk barrier technology BAX kits 212 bearings 390–1 belly burst 236 belts 325 biochemical reactions 231–8 characteristics of 231–3 Index enzymic browning 232–3, 233–4 glycolysis 234–5 lipolysis 54, 236–8 proteolysis 54, 235–6 biofilms 398–9 bioluminescence 196–9, 417–18 birds 358 blanchers 364 blast chillers 85–6, 87 blemishes 29 bread 242–3 breeds 66 briefing 444 British Retail Consortium (BRC) Technical Standard 432–3 Brochothrix thermosphacta 165–6 browning, enzymic 232–3, 233–4 Brussels sprouts 23 BS EN ISO 9000 standards (BS5750) 430, 431, 449 building, factory 359–61 butter 7, 12, 13, 45 cabinet refrigerators 106–8 calibration 328 sensors 119–20 Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association (CCFRA) 176, 177 Campylobacter species 173, 305 Canada 458 capture antibody 205 carbon dioxide 140–1 ceilings 388 central location tests 350 ceramic tiles 382–3 challenge testing 279–83 design of test 280–2 inoculation procedures 282 interpretation of results 282–3 changing room, high-risk 369, 370, 371 characterisation of microorganisms 213–14 chart recorders 122 Cheddar cheese 49, 50 cheese 7, 12, 13, 48–52, 238 mould ripened 48, 51 processed 52 ripened 48, 49–50 unripened 48, 51–2 chemical energy 400–2, 410, 411 chemical reactions 226–31 characteristics 226 lipid oxidation 226–31, 247–8 pink discoloration in meat products 231 chemicals sanitation 402–9, 422 suppliers 421–2 Chemscan RDI solid phase cytometry system 203 Chemunex Chemflow system 202 chill chain 80 chill injury 240–1 Chilled Food Association (CFA) 465 chilled foods: defining 1–3, 291–2, 453–4 chilled storage 302 equipment 87–9 temperature monitoring 105–8, 122–3 see also storage chilled transport see transport chilling see cooling/chilling chlorine-based disinfectants 405–6, 407 chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerants 82–3 choice, food 350 ciguatoxins 245–6 ‘Class System’ 28–9 cleanability 383–4 cleaning 303 and disinfection see sanitation Clostridium botulinum 171–2, 306, 308–9, 313 clothing, high–risk 368–9 Codex Alimentarius Commission 452, 455–7 cold shortening 69–70, 235 cold spots 315 coliform/enteric bacteria 164 colour 22 computational fluid dynamics (CFD) 131, 375–6, 377 computer modelling predictive see predictive microbiological modelling transport 130–1 concentration 212–13 concrete flooring 382 conditioning (ageing) 70–2, 235–6 conformance to specification 447 conjugated antibody 205 construction, hygienic 319–20, 380–8 basic design concepts 380–1 ceilings 388 drainage 384–6 floors 381–4 walls 386–8 construction materials 390 Index 475 consumer acceptibility 341–53 determining 349–51 future trends 351–2 consumer protection 451–2 consumers handling of products 265 and packaging innovation 148 see also customer complaints; customer requirements containers 324 contractual understanding 437 control systems 328–32 instrumentation and calibration 328 lot tracking 330 process auditing 331–2 process monitoring, validation and verification 328–30 process and sample data 330 training 331 controlled atmosphere stores 28 convenience 3–4 conventional microbiological techniques 188–91 qualitative 190–1 quantitative 189–90 cook-chill foods 3, 453–4 cooked meats 10, 226–30 cooked poultry 10 cooked ready-to-eat foods 291, 292 cooking 299 cooking areas 318 cooling/chilling 301–2 chilling equipment 85–7, 312, 322 high-care areas 322 rate of 84–5 see also refrigeration CoolVan 130–1 cost-effectiveness 448 cottage cheese 51 Coulter method 192 cream 9, 12, 13–14, 43–4, 54 cream cheese 51–2 cre`me fra??che 44 critical control points (CCPs) 438–40 monitoring 440 see also Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system crop maturity 24–5 customer complaints 447 customer requirements 436 cutting 323–4 dairy products/ingredients 37–61, 230, 236, 237–8 butter 7, 12, 13, 45 cheese 7, 12, 13, 48–52, 238 cream 9, 12, 13–14, 43–4, 54 desserts 11, 12, 13–14, 52–3 food safety issues 55–7 functional approach 38–9 future trends 57–8 lactose 46–7 market 6–14 maximising quality in processing 53–5 microbiological criteria 41 milk composition 37–8 pasteurised milk 41–3 ready meals 53 sensory properties 39–40 skimmed milk concentrate and skimmed milk powder 45–6 sour cream 44 whey concentrate and whey powder 46 yogurt 10–11, 11–12, 13, 47–8 damage 29 mechanical 54 damping 104, 106–7, 109 dark, firm, dry (DFD) meat 66, 69, 235 data logging systems 122–4 decontaminated materials 291, 323–8 cutting and slicing 323–4 dosing and pumping 325–6 packaging 326–8 transport and transfers 324–5 working surfaces 323 decontamination systems 365–6 delivery 441 vehicles 91, 92–3, 130–1 see also transport delivery areas 317 demographic trends 3–4 descriptive tests 345–6 design of challenge tests 280–2 hygienic see hygienic design desserts 11, 12, 13–14, 52–3 detection time 193–4, 195 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisons (DSP) 244–5 differential procedures 189–90 dips 8 direct epifluorescent filter technique (DEFT) 199, 200–1 discoloration 231 discriminative tests 344–5 diseases, plant 28 resistance to 21 disinfectant efficacy tests 408 476 Index disinfection 303–4 cleaning and see sanitation display cabinets, refrigerated 93–6 temperature monitoring 113–16, 131 distribution 264–5, 435 see also transport documentation 436, 441 doors 360 dosing 325–6 drainage 384–6 dressings 9 drinks 10 drip loss 65, 66, 67, 235 due diligence 100, 454 durability date 129–30 ECFF 460–1 EIAFOSS test system 206 elective procedures 189–90 electrical methods 192–6 electrical stimulation (ES) 70 emissivity 124 energy: and sanitation 400–2, 409–10, 411 environment 82–3, 148 influences on selection of fruits and vegetables 25–7 environmental management 432 environmental sampling 416–17 enzyme immunoassays 205–6, 207 enzymes 231–3 see also biochemical reactions enzymic browning 232–3, 233–4 equipment cleaning equipment 413–14 cooling/chilling 85–7, 312, 322 cutting and slicing 323–4 hygienic design 389–94 installation 393–4 safe process design 308–16 Escherichia coli (E. coli) 172–3, 304–5 ethnic accompaniments 11 ethnic foods 5, 14 ethylene 28 European Union (EU) 100, 266, 356, 408, 409, 452–3, 454–5 legislation 458–61 on equipment 389–91 quality standards for fruit and vegetables 28–9 standard for temperature recorders and thermometers 116–18 evaporation 239–40 external audit system 446–7 extraneous vegetable matter (EVM) 29 extrinsic factors 266–8 F1 hybrids 31 factory 434 building 359–61 site 358 see also high-care areas; high-risk areas; hygienic design; manufacturing areas fasteners 390, 391–2 feedback 438 feeding (animal) 68 filtration of air 372–5 fish 7, 230–1, 236, 245–6 flavour 343 fruits and vegetables 22–4 floors 381–4 flow cytometry 200, 201–3 fluorescence microscopy 199–203 fluorescent labels 204 foams, cleaning 410–12 focus groups 350–1 fogging systems 412–13 Food Code 467 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 465–6 Food Hygiene (Amendment) Regulations 1990 99–100 Food MicroModel system 175, 176 Food Products Intelligence (FPI) 2 food safety see safety Food Safety Act (1990) (FSA) 100, 454 food simulants 104, 107–8 food spoilage microorganisms see spoilage microorganisms Food Standards Agency (FSA) 449 Food Safety Initiative (FSI) 466 Food Safety and Inspection System (FSIS) 465, 466 food temperature monitoring 104, 107–8, 115–16 food type 157–8 footwear, high-risk 369 Forecast models 176, 177 foreign EVM (FEVM) 29 foreign matter (FM) 29 France 462–3 free radical chain reaction 227–8 freezing 72–3 ‘Fresh-Check’ indicator 128, 129, 130 freshness enhancers 146 fromage frais 12, 13, 51 fruit juices 10 Index 477 fruits and vegetables 19–35 criteria for selection 20–8 crop maturity 24–5 growing and environmental influences 25–7 post-harvest handling and storage 27–8 shelf-life 28 variety 20–4 new trends in plant breeding 31–2 new trends in production 30 specifications 28–9 full fat soft cheese 51–2 full production scale shelf-life testing 276–8 functional properties 38–9 fungal toxins 244 gases 140–2 permeability 142–3 gels, cleaning 411, 412 Gen Probe nucleic acid probes 209–10 Gene Trak probe kits 208–9 General Food Hygiene Directive 459 genetic modification (GM) technology 31–2, 58 glass packaging 137, 138 global warming 82–3 glycoalkaloids 243 glycolysis 234–5 good hygiene practice (GHP) 292–4, 297 good manufacturing practice (GMP) 292–4, 297, 362, 431 Gram-negative (oxidase positive) rod- shaped bacteria 163–4 Gram-positive spore-forming bacteria 165 Greek-style yogurt 47–8 growing site 25–6 growing techniques 26–7 haemagglutins 244 hall tests 350 hand hygiene sequence 369–71 handling 441 consumer handling 265 post-harvest handling 27–8 post-slaughter handling 69–72 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system 56, 101, 102, 179, 295–7, 355–6 carrying out a HACCP analysis 439–40 legislation and 455–6, 458, 466 process control 438–40 quality assurance 431–2 verification 329 health concerns 4–5 heat-shock 313 heat treatment 159, 310–13 barrier technology 363–5 control of heating 310–11 equipment performance 311–12 methods 310 microbiology of 312–13 high-care areas (HCAs) 302–3, 321–2, 362 high oxygen MAP 143 high-risk areas (HRAs) 361–3 construction 380–8 Listeria philosophy 362–3 see also high-care areas high-risk barrier technology 363–80 air 371–9 heat-treated product 363–5 other product transfer 366 packaging 366 personnel 367–71 product decontamination 365–6 surfaces 367 transfer 366 utensils 379–80 wastes 366–7 histamine 246–7 home placement tests 349 humidity 379 hybridisation protection assay 209–10 hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants 82–3 hydrocoolers 86, 87 hygiene 264 monitoring 198 see also hygienic design; sanitation hygienic areas (HAs) 302, 319–21 construction 319–20 mixed raw and cooked components 320–1 stock control 320 temperature 319 hygienic design 355–96 equipment 389–94 installation 393–4 high-risk barrier technology see high- risk barrier technology hygienic construction see construction, hygienic segregation of work zones 357–63 factory building 359–61 factory site 358 high-risk production area 361–3 478 Index identification of microorganisms 213–14 immunochromatography 206 immunological methods 203–7 immunomagnetic separation 213 indirect conductance measurement 195–6 infrared temperature measurement 124–6 initial microflora 157 inoculation 282 insects 358 inspection 440–1 instructions, work 444–5 instrumentation 328, 391 integrated crop management (ICM) 30 Integrated Product Policy (IPP) 449–50 intermodal freight containers (ISO containers) 91, 93 internal audit system 446 international trade 452–3 interviews, individual 351 intrinsic factors 266–8 ISO 14001 432 ISO 9000 systems 101, 430, 431, 435, 449 joints 390 kettles 364–5 labelling 460 labels, immunological 204–6 lactic acid bacteria 165 lactose 46–7 latex agglutination test kits 204–5 legislation 96–7, 99–100, 266, 448, 451–73 approaches to 454–5 ATP 84, 97, 457 Australia/New Zealand 461–2 Canada 458 Codex 455–7 EU see European Union France 462–3 international trade and 452–3 Netherlands 463–4 reactive nature of food law 451–2 UK 464–5 US 465–8 legumes 244 Lifelines 128, 129, 130 lighting 388 lipid oxidation 226–31 products 247–8 lipolysis 54, 236–8 liquid wastes 366–7, 384–6 list of approved suppliers 437–8 Listeria monocytogenes 167–9, 202, 304–6, 307, 392 heat processing 312–13 high-risk areas and Listeria philosophy 362–3 load testing 104 localised cooling 376–8 long shelf-life 314 lot tracking 330 luciferase 196 luminescent labels 204 Maillard reaction 55 managers responsibility 421–3, 435–6 training 331 see also senior management manual operations 323 manufacturing areas (MAs) 302, 316–23 high-care areas 321–2 hygienic areas 319–21 raw material and packaging delivery areas 317 raw material preparation and cooking areas 318 storage areas 317–18 thawing of product 319 waste disposal 322–3 see also high-care areas; high-risk areas margarine 12, 13 market 1–16, 260 dairy products 6–14 drivers 3–6 meat products 14 overall market size 6–12 product features 7–11 ready meals, pizzas and prepared salads 14–15 marketing 448 Marks and Spencer 2, 5, 6 maturity, crop 24–5 maximum growth temperature 155 mayonnaise 238 meat 7, 63–76 biochemical reactions 235–6 chemical reactions 226–30 influence of the live animal 65–8 animal to animal variation 66–8 feeding 68 species and breeds 66 variations within an animal 69–72 pre- and post-slaughter handling 69–72 Index 479 meat alternatives 11 meat products 6, 14 chemical reactions 226–30, 231 mechanical damage 54 mechanical energy 400–2, 409–10, 411 mechanical properties 144 mechanical scrubbers 413 Mega-Reg 466 metabolic activity 192–6 metal-based packaging materials 137, 138–9 Microbiological Risk Assessment (MRA) 297–9 microbiological testing 187–224 conventional techniques 188–91 qualitative 190–1 quantitative 189–90 future 214 rapid and automated methods 191–214, 417–19 ATP bioluminescence 196–9, 417–18 electrical methods 192–6 immunological methods 203–7 microscopy methods 199–203 nucleic acid hybridisation 207–14 sampling 188 microbiology/microorganisms 101–2, 153–86 classification of growth 154–6 control systems 328–32 disinfectants and microorganisms 407–8 effect of temperature on growth 154, 155, 167–73 effectiveness of sanitation programmes 419–20 factors affecting microflora of chilled foods 157–62 food type 157–8 initial microflora 157 processing 158–62 hazards and their heat resistance and growth characteristics 304–6 identification and characterisation of microorganisms 213–14 impact of microbial growth 156–7 meat and poultry 64–5, 69 milk products food safety 55–7 microbiological criteria 41–2 proteolysis and lipolysis 54 pathogens see pathogenic microorganisms predictive microbiology see predictive microbiological modelling risk classes 291–2, 307–8, 313–14 sanitation principles 398–9 separation and concentration of microorganisms 212–13 and shelf-life 266–8 spoilage microorganisms see spoilage microorganisms temperature control 173–4 see also microbiological testing; safe process design Micrococcus species 166 microscopy 199–203 microwavability of packaging 144–5 microwaves 314–15 migration 238–9 milk 7, 37–41, 237, 242 composition 37–8 effect of heat on milk proteins 53–4 functional properties 38–9 mechanical damage 54 microbiological criteria for milk products 41–2 milk-based ingredients 41–52 oxidative rancidity of milkfat 54–5 sensory properties 39–40 minimum growth temperature (MGT) 155 misting 410, 411 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 139–45, 264, 266, 279, 327 gases 140–2, 161–2 packaging materials 142–5 modular insulated panels 386–7 modular stores 88–9 monitoring processes 328–30 sanitation programme 417–19 sensory monitoring of quality 347, 348 MonitorMark TM 127–8 monoclonal antibodies 203–4 most probable number (MPN) method 189, 190 mould ripened cheese 48, 51 moulds 166 mozzarella cheese 50 multi-compartment vehicles 93, 109, 111 multi-deck display cabinets 93–4, 95, 113, 114, 115 mushrooms 232–3 mycotoxins 244 myoglobin 231 NASBA (Nucleic Acid Sequence Based Amplification) 210, 211 natural toxicants 243–4 480 Index Netherlands 463–4 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisons (NSP) 244–5 new packaging materials 148–9 New Zealand 461–2 nitrates 26–7 nitrogen 141 nitrous oxide 142 non-conformance 447 non-microbiological factors 225–55 biochemical reactions 231–8 chemical reactions 226–31 physico-chemical reactions 238–43 safety issues of significance 243–8 allergens 247 natural toxicants 243–4 phycotoxins 244–6 products of lipid oxidation 247–8 scombroid fish poisoning 246–7 nucleic acid hybridisation 207–14 amplification techniques 210–12 identification and characterisation of microorganisms 213–14 probes 207–10 separation and concentration of microorganisms 212–13 objective testing 344 odour 69, 70, 342–3 off-flavours 346–7 see also taint on-site trials 349 operatives see personnel optimum growth temperature 155 organic production 5, 30 ovens 364 oxidative rancidity 54–5 see also lipid oxidation ozone depletion 82–3 P-values (pasteurisation values) 300 packaging 135–50 active 145–7 consumer-driven innovation 148 environmental factors 148 future trends 147–9 high-risk barrier technology 366 MAP see modified atmosphere packaging materials 136–9 requirements of 135–6 new materials and technology 148–9 quality management 441 safe process design 326–8 and shelf-life 261, 264 techniques 139–47 Packaging Waste legislation 148 pale, soft, exudative (PSE) meat 66, 69, 235 panels, trained 346–8 paper-based packaging materials 137–8 Paralytic Shellfish Poisons (PSP) 244–5 particle counting 192 pasta 8 pasteurisation 56, 300 for long shelf-life 314 for short shelf-life 313–14 pasteurised milk 41–3 pastry products 8 pa?te′ 8 Pathogen Modeling Program 175, 176 pathogenic microorganisms 64, 81–2, 157, 167–73, 304–6, 308–9 capable of growth below 5oC 167–72 capable of initiating growth at 5–10oC 172–3 capable of initiating growth above 10oC 173 minimum growth conditions 267–8 predictive microbiology 175–6 see also microbiology/microorganisms; and under individual names peanut allergy 247 performance feedback on for suppliers 438 measuring and auditing in quality system 446–8 periodic cleans 401–2, 416 periodic verification 119–20 permeability 142–3 personnel cleaning operatives 422 high-risk barrier technology 367–71 and quality system 434, 447, 448 training 331, 442, 445–6 pH 159–60 phenolases 234 phycotoxins 244–6 physico-chemical reactions 238–43 characteristics of 238 chill injury 240–1 evaporation 239–40 migration 238–9 staling 242–3 syneresis 241–2 pigs 66, 67, 68 pilot scale shelf-life determination 271–3 pink discoloration 231 Index 481 pizzas 6–11, 14–15 planning 443 plant breeding 31–2 plant habit 21 plastic packaging materials 137, 139 plate count method 189–90 platinum resistance sensors 118–19 policies, quality 444–5 polyclonal antibodies 203–4 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) 210, 211 commercial PCR-based kits 212 portable data logging systems 123–4 post-harvest handling 27–8 post-slaughter handling 69–72 potatoes, greening of 243 poultry 7, 63–76 chemical reactions 226–30 pre- and post-slaughter handling 72 Salmonella 64 precautionary principle 299 predictive microbiological modelling 174–8, 283, 289–90 food pathogens 175–6 food spoilage 176 modelling shelf-life 268–70 practical application of models 177–8 premises see factory; high-care areas; high-risk areas; hygienic design; manufacturing areas preparation areas 318 prepared chilled foods 291, 292 prepared salads 6–11, 14–15 pre-production scale 273–6 sampling times 275–6 storage conditions 273–5 preservatives 161, 261 pre-slaughter handling 69–72 pressure washing systems 413, 414 primary packaging 326 Probelia kit 212 probes nucleic acid probes 207–10 temperature monitoring 120–1 procedures quality 444–5 sanitation 414–16 process auditing 331–2 process control 433–4, 438–40 processed cheese 52 processes 299–304 monitoring 328–30 safe process design see safe process design processing dairy ingredients 53–5 and microorganisms 158–62 and shelf-life 263 Produce Safety Initiative (PSI) 466 product assembly of 263 factors affecting shelf–life 260–2 quality system and 434–5 product description 260–1 product development 268 integrated approaches 351–2 product formulation 262–3, 268 changes in 278 production 5 new trends in raw material production 30 sanitation procedures 414–15 products cooked in their primary original packaging 315–16 protein hygiene tests 418–19 proteolysis 54, 235–6 psychotrophic pathogens 305–6 see also under individual names pulses 244 pumping 325–6 purchasing 433 Qualicon RiboPrinter 213–14 qualitative microbiological procedures 190–1 qualitative research 350–1 quality 81–2, 341–53 future trends 351–2 maximising in processing dairy ingredients 53–5 non-microbiological factors see non- microbiological factors sensory 342–4 sensory evaluation techniques 344–8 quality-assurance schemes (fruits and vegetables) 30 quality assurance systems 100–1, 431–3 see also Total Quality Management quality audits 441–2 quality control 434 quality costing 443 quality improvement 445 quality management systems 100–1 quality manager 443 quality manual 445 quality policy 444–5 quantitative microbiological procedures 189–90 482 Index quarg (fromage frais) 12, 13, 51 quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) 405–6 radiolabels 204, 207 rapid microbiological methods 191–214, 417–19 raw materials 290–1 delivery area 317 dairy ingredients 37–61 fruits and vegetables 19–35 meat and poultry 63–76 preparation and cooking areas 318 quality control 433, 436–8 and shelf-life 262–3 read-out systems 121–6 ready meals 6–11, 14–15, 53 ready-to-eat foods 291, 292 recipe dishes 8 recording systems 121–6 records 436, 441 red meat 69–72 see also meat reduced oxygen packages (ROP) 467 see also modified atmosphere packaging; vacuum packaging refrigeration 79–98 chilled foods and 83–4 chilled storage 87–9 chilled transport 90–3 chilling 84–5 chilling equipment 85–7 legislation 96–7 principles of 81 refrigerant fluids and the environment 82–3 refrigerated display cabinets 93–6 safety and quality issues 81–2 regulation see legislation re-heating 300–1 remote sensing devices 124–6 REPFEDs 291–2, 315–16 resin-based seamless floors 383–4 retail display cabinets see display cabinets reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR) 211 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) 208, 209 rice 8–9 rigid-bodied vehicles 91, 92–3 rigor 70, 235, 236 rinsing 408–9, 415 ripened cheese 48, 49–50 risk assessment 100–1, 288–9, 297–9, 456 stages in 298–9 risk classes 291–2, 307–8, 313–14 road vehicles 91, 92–3, 108–13 short-distance 130–1 see also transport rodents 358 routine hygiene testing 416–20 safe process design 287–339 control systems 328–32 equipment and processes 308–16 manufacturing areas 316–23 unit operations for decontaminated products 323–8 safety 81–2 dairy products 55–7 microbiological hazards 304–6 see also microbiology/ microorganisms non-microbiological issues 243–8 allergens 247 natural toxicants 243–4 phycotoxins 244–6 products of lipid oxidation 247–8 scombroid fish poisoning 246–7 and quality control 292–9, 432 risk classes 291–2, 307–8, 313–14 salads 6–11, 14–15 Salmonella 64, 172–3, 304–5, 307 sampling 188, 330 times 275–6 sandwiches 4, 10, 15 sanitation 303–4, 397–428 chemicals 402–9, 422 evaluation of effectiveness of sanitation systems 416–20 management responsibility 421–3 methodology 409–14 principles 398–402 procedures 414–16 sanitation schedule 422 sanitation sequence 416 sauces 9 scombroid fish poisoning 246–7 screening 349 seafood 8, 244–6 see also fish sealing problems 327 reliability 144 season 26 secondary packaging 328 segregation of work zones 357–63 selection criteria (fruits and vegetables) 20–8 selective procedures 189–90 Index 483 semi-trailers 91, 92 senior management commitment and TQM 442 responsibility 421–3, 435–6 sensors 118–21 accuracy 118–19 calibration and periodic verification 119–20 housing and probes 120–1 number of 105, 106, 110 sensory evaluation techniques 344–8, 417 use of a trained panel 346–8 sensory properties 39–40 sensory quality 342–4 separation and concentration 212–13 sequestering agents 404 serve-over display cabinets 94–6, 113–16 shaft seals 390–1 shape 22 shelf-life 259–85, 347–8, 467 challenge testing 279–83 constraints 261–2 determination of 270–8 full production scale 276–8 pilot scale 271–3 pre-production scale 273–6 factors affecting 260–8 assembly of product 263 consumer handling 265 hygiene 264 intrinsic and extrinsic factors 266–8 legislative requirements 266 packaging 261, 264 processing 263 product considerations 260–2 raw materials 262–3 storage and distribution 264–5 fruits and vegetables 28 future trends 283 maximising 278–9 modelling 268–70 pasteurisation and 313–14 shellfish 244–5 short-distance delivery vehicles 130–1 short shelf-life 313–14 single read-out systems 121–2 site factory 358 growing 25–6 size 22, 29 skimmed milk concentrate 45–6 skimmed milk powder 45–6 slaughter 69–72 slicing 323–4 slime 69, 70 small delivery vehicles 112–13 snacking 4 solid phase cytometry 203 solid wastes 366–7 solubility 404 soups 10 sour cream 44 sous-vide products 162, 172, 315–16 species 66 specifications conformance to specification 447 fruits and vegetables 28–9 microbiological 269 spoilage microorganisms 156–7, 162–6 meat and poultry 64–5 minimum growth conditions 267–8 predictive modelling 176 see also microbiology/microorganisms; and under individual names spray washing 72 spreads 7, 8, 12, 13 sprouts, Brussels 23 staling 242–3 standards internal for sanitation 420 quality standards for fruits and vegetables 28–9 for temperature recorders and thermometers 116–18 see also legislation Staphylococcus aureus 172–3, 306 starch 242 steering group 442–3 stock control 320 storage chill storage equipment 87–9 conditions and shelf-life 264–5, 273–5, 279 fruits and vegetables 27–8 microorganism growth 158 and sensory quality 347–8 storage life for meat and poultry 65, 71–2 temperature monitoring 105–8, 122–3 TQM 441 storage areas 317–18 store cooling 86–7 subjective testing 344 sub-typing 213–14 supervisors 331 suppliers 436–8 auditing 438 484 Index list of approved suppliers 437–8 quality policy 437 self-auditing 331–2 surface tests 408 surfaces equipment 390 high-care areas 321–2 high-risk areas 367, 381–4, 386–8 sanitation see sanitation working surfaces for manual operations 323 surfactants 403 suspension tests 408 ‘Swab n’ Check’ hygiene monitoring kit 419 sweetcorn 232–3 SYNAFAP 463 syneresis 241–2 taint 346–7, 409 TaqMan system 212 technology improved and temperature monitoring 101 packaging 148–9 and shelf-life 278–9, 283 temperature and growth of microorganisms 154, 155, 167–73 high-risk areas 376 hygienic areas 319 and sanitation 400–2, 410, 411 storage 279 monitoring 105–8, 122–3 temperature control 99–134, 173–4 choice of system 102–3 choice of temperature to monitor 103 during transport 90–3, 108–13, 123, 130–1 equipment for temperature monitoring 116–26 EU standard 116–18 read-out and recording systems 121–6 sensors 118–21 importance of temperature monitoring 101–2 improvement in technology 101 legislation 99–100, 464–5 principles of temperature monitoring 102–4 risk and quality management systems 100–1 temperature modelling and control 130–1 temperature monitoring in practice 105–16 time–temperate indicators 126–30 temperature recorders 116, 117, 121–6 testing microbiological see microbiological testing quality 440–1 texture 343–4 fruits and vegetables 22–4 thawing 319 thermistor sensors 118–19 thermocouples 118–19 thermometers 116–18 3M MonitorMark TM 127–8 time: and sanitation 400–2, 407, 410, 411 time–temperature indicators (TTIs) 126–30 performance 126–7 practical use 129–30 tomatoes 32 Total Quality Management (TQM) 101, 429–50 benefits 448 defining quality 430–1 developing 435–42 customer requirements 436 documentation 436 handling, storage, packaging, delivery 441 inspection and testing 440–1 management responsibility 435–6 process control 438–40 quality audits 441–2 raw material control and supplier quality assurance 436–8 records 441 training 442 future trends 449–50 implementation 442–6 briefing 444 chief executive commitment 442 initial status 443 launch 446 planning 443 quality improvement 445 quality manual 445 quality policy 444 staff training 445–6 steering group 442–3 structure of the quality system 444–5 performance measuring and auditing 446–8 scope 433–5 Index 485 total viable count (TVC) 419–20 toxicants, natural 243–4 toxicity of disinfectants 409 toxigenic pathogens 304, 306 traceability 30 trade, international 452–3 trained panels 346–8 training 331 quality system and 442, 445–6 transfer systems 324–5, 366 see also transport transparency 144 transport ATP agreement 84, 97, 457 refrigerated 81, 90–3 general requirements 90 intermodal freight containers 91, 93 road vehicles 91, 92–3 temperature monitoring 108–13, 123 safe process design 324–5 short-distance delivery vehicles 130–1 trend analysis 420 undecontaminated materials 290 United Kingdom (UK) 464–5 United States (US) 465–8 unripened cheese 48, 51–2 utensils 379–80 vacuum coolers 86, 87 vacuum packaging (VP) 145, 161–2 vacuum skin packaging (VSP) 145 validation 328–30 vapour compression refrigeration 81, 82 variety 5 fruits and vegetables 20–4 vegetable accompaniments 9 vegetables 9, 19–35 criteria for selection 20–8 crop maturity 24–5 growing and environmental influences 25–7 post-harvest handling and storage 27–8 shelf-life 28 variety 20–4 new trends in plant breeding 31–2 new trends in production 30 specifications 28–9 vehicle temperature logging systems 123 see also transport verification 328–30 performance of sanitation programmes 419–20 periodic 119–20 Vidas ELISA test 206 Vitsab 128–9 walk-in chill stores 88–9, 105–6, 107 walls external 360, 361 hygienic construction 386–8 warmed-over flavour (WOF) 226–30 waste disposal 322–3, 366–7 drainage 384–6 water 403 water activity (a w ) 160–1 water vapour transmission rates 143–4 weight control 326 whey concentrate 46 whey powder 46 whey proteins 53–4 windows 360 work instructions 444–5 work zones segregation of 357–63 see also high-care areas; high-risk areas working surfaces for maual operations 323 World Trade Organisation (WTO) 455 yeasts 166 yellow fats 7, 12, 13 see also butter Yersinia enterocolitica 169–70 yogurt 47–8 market 10–11, 11–12, 13 z-value 300 486 Index