ISSN: 1524-4539
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DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.166554
2005;112;35-46; originally published online Nov 28, 2005; Circulation
Cardioversion, and Pacing
Part 5: Electrical Therapies: Automated External Defibrillators, Defibrillation,
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Part 5: Electrical Therapies
Automated External Defibrillators, Defibrillation,
Cardioversion, and Pacing
T
his chapter presents guidelines for defibrillation with
automated external defibrillators (AEDs) and manual
defibrillators, synchronized cardioversion, and pacing. AEDs
may be used by lay rescuers and healthcare providers as part
of basic life support. Manual defibrillation, cardioversion,
and pacing are advanced life support therapies.
Defibrillation Plus CPR:
A Critical Combination
Early defibrillation is critical to survival from sudden cardiac
arrest (SCA) for several reasons: (1) the most frequent initial
rhythm in witnessed SCA is ventricular fibrillation (VF), (2)
the treatment for VF is electrical defibrillation, (3) the
probability of successful defibrillation diminishes rapidly
over time, and (4) VF tends to deteriorate to asystole within
a few minutes.
1
Several studies have documented the effects of time to
defibrillation and the effects of bystander CPR on survival
from SCA. For every minute that passes between collapse and
defibrillation, survival rates from witnessed VF SCA de-
crease 7% to 10% if no CPR is provided.
1
When bystander
CPR is provided, the decrease in survival rates is more
gradual and averages 3% to 4% per minute from collapse to
defibrillation.
1,2
CPR can double
1–3
or triple
4
survival from
witnessed SCA at most intervals to defibrillation.
If bystanders provide immediate CPR, many adults in VF
can survive with intact neurologic function, especially if
defibrillation is performed within about 5 minutes after
SCA.
5,6
CPR prolongs VF
7–9
(ie, the window of time during
which defibrillation can occur) and provides a small amount
of blood flow that may maintain some oxygen and substrate
delivery to the heart and brain.
10
Basic CPR alone, however,
is unlikely to eliminate VF and restore a perfusing rhythm.
New Recommendations to Integrate CPR and
AED Use
To treat VF SCA, rescuers must be able to rapidly integrate
CPR with use of the AED. To give the victim the best chance
of survival, 3 actions must occur within the first moments of
a cardiac arrest: (1) activation of the emergency medical
services (EMS) system or emergency medical response sys-
tem, (2) provision of CPR, and (3) operation of an AED.
When 2 or more rescuers are present, activation of EMS and
initiation of CPR can occur simultaneously.
Delays to either start of CPR or defibrillation can reduce
survival from SCA. In the 1990s some predicted that CPR
could be rendered obsolete by the widespread development of
community AED programs. Cobb
6
noted, however, that as
more Seattle first responders were equipped with AEDs,
survival rates from SCA unexpectedly fell. He attributed this
decline to reduced emphasis on CPR, and there is growing
evidence to support this view. Part 4: “Adult Basic Life
Support” summarizes the evidence on the importance of
effective chest compressions and minimizing interruptions in
providing compressions.
Two critical questions about integration of CPR with
defibrillation were evaluated during the 2005 Consensus
Conference.
11
The first question concerns whether CPR
should be provided before defibrillation is attempted. The
second question concerns the number of shocks to be deliv-
ered in a sequence before the rescuer resumes CPR.
Shock First Versus CPR First
When any rescuer witnesses an out-of-hospital arrest and an
AED is immediately available on-site, the rescuer should use
the AED as soon as possible. Healthcare providers who treat
cardiac arrest in hospitals and other facilities with AEDs
on-site should provide immediate CPR and should use the
AED/defibrillator as soon as it is available. These recommen-
dations are designed to support early CPR and early defibril-
lation, particularly when an AED is available within moments
of the onset of SCA.
When an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest is not witnessed by
EMS personnel, they may give about 5 cycles of CPR before
checking the ECG rhythm and attempting defibrillation
(Class IIb). One cycle of CPR consists of 30 compressions
and 2 breaths. When compressions are delivered at a rate of
about 100 per minute, 5 cycles of CPR should take roughly 2
minutes (range: about 1
1
?2 to 3 minutes). This recommenda-
tion regarding CPR prior to attempted defibrillation is sup-
ported by 2 clinical studies (LOE 2
5
; LOE 3
6
) of adult
out-of-hospital VF SCA. In those studies when EMS call-to-
arrival intervals were 4
6
to 5
5
minutes or longer, victims who
received 1
1
?2 to 3 minutes of CPR before defibrillation
showed an increased rate of initial resuscitation, survival to
hospital discharge,
5,6
and 1-year survival
5
when compared
with those who received immediate defibrillation for VF
SCA. One randomized study,
12
however, found no benefit to
CPR before defibrillation for non–paramedic-witnessed SCA.
EMS system medical directors may consider implementing
a protocol that would allow EMS responders to provide about
5 cycles (about 2 minutes) of CPR before defibrillation of
patients found by EMS personnel to be in VF, particularly
when the EMS system call-to-response interval is H110224to5
(Circulation. 2005;112:IV-35-IV-46.)
? 2005 American Heart Association.
This special supplement to Circulation is freely available at
http://www.circulationaha.org
DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.166554
IV-35
minutes. There is insufficient evidence to support or refute
CPR before defibrillation for in-hospital cardiac arrest.
1-Shock Protocol Versus 3-Shock Sequence
At the time of the 2005 Consensus Conference, no published
human or animal studies were found that compared a 1-shock
protocol with a 3-stacked shock protocol for treatment of VF
cardiac arrest. In animal studies, however, frequent or long
interruptions in precordial chest compressions for rhythm
analysis
13
or rescue breathing
14,15
were associated with post-
resuscitation myocardial dysfunction and reduced survival
rates. Secondary analyses of 2 randomized trials
16,17
showed
that interruption in chest compressions is associated with a
decreased probability of conversion of VF to another rhythm.
In 2 recent clinical observational studies (LOE 4) of out-of-
hospital
18
and in-hospital
19
CPR by healthcare providers,
chest compressions were performed only 51%
18
to 76%
19
of
total CPR time.
In 2005 the rhythm analysis for a 3-shock sequence
performed by commercially available AEDs resulted in de-
lays of up to 37 seconds between delivery of the first shock
and delivery of the first post-shock compression.
13
This delay
is difficult to justify in light of the first-shock efficacy of
H1102290% reported by current biphasic defibrillators.
20–25
If 1
shock fails to eliminate VF, the incremental benefit of another
shock is low, and resumption of CPR is likely to confer a
greater value than another shock. This fact, combined with
the data from animal studies documenting harmful effects
from interruptions to chest compressions, suggests that a
1-shock scenario plus immediate CPR is reasonable.
When VF/pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT) is present,
the rescuer should deliver 1 shock and should then immedi-
ately resume CPR, beginning with chest compressions (Class
IIa). The rescuer should not delay resumption of chest
compressions to recheck the rhythm or pulse. After 5 cycles
(about 2 minutes) of CPR, the AED should then analyze the
cardiac rhythm and deliver another shock if indicated (Class
IIb). If a nonshockable rhythm is detected, the AED should
instruct the rescuer to resume CPR immediately, beginning
with chest compressions (Class IIb). Concern that chest
compressions might provoke recurrent VF in the presence of
a post-shock organized rhythm does not appear to be
warranted.
25
AED voice prompts should not instruct the lay user to
reassess the patient at any time. AED manufacturers should
seek innovative methods to decrease the amount of time chest
compressions are withheld for AED operation. Training
materials for lay rescuers should emphasize the importance of
continued CPR until basic or advanced life support personnel
take over CPR or the victim begins to move.
First-shock efficacy for monophasic shocks is lower than
first-shock efficacy for biphasic shocks.
17,26,27
Although the
optimal energy level for defibrillation using any of the
monophasic or biphasic waveforms has not been determined,
a recommendation for higher initial energy when using a
monophasic waveform was weighed by expert consensus
with consideration of the potential negative effects of a high
first-shock energy versus the negative effects of prolonged
VF. The consensus was that rescuers using monophasic
AEDs should give an initial shock of 360 J; if VF persists
after the first shock, second and subsequent shocks of 360 J
should be given. This single dose for monophasic shocks is
designed to simplify instructions to rescuers but is not a
mandate to recall monophasic AEDs for reprogramming. If
the monophasic AED being used is programmed to deliver a
different first or subsequent dose, that dose is acceptable.
One study compared the effectiveness of 175 J versus 320 J
monophasic waveform shocks for out-of-hospital VF cardiac
arrest.
28
Approximately 61% of patients who received shocks
with either 175 J or 320 J monophasic damped sine waveform
were defibrillated with the first shock, which was delivered an
average of 10.6 minutes after the call to EMS. There was no
significant difference in the percentage of patients who devel-
oped advanced atrioventricular (AV) block after 1 shock. AV
block was more likely to develop after 2 or 3 shocks of 320 J
than after 2 or 3 shocks of 175 J, but the block was transient and
did not affect survival to hospital discharge.
28
Healthcare providers must practice efficient coordination
between CPR and defibrillation. When VF is present for more
than a few minutes, the myocardium is depleted of oxygen
and metabolic substrates. A brief period of chest compres-
sions can deliver oxygen and energy substrates, increasing the
likelihood that a perfusing rhythm will return after defibril-
lation (elimination of VF).
29
Analyses of VF waveform
characteristics predictive of shock success have documented
that the shorter the time between a chest compression and
delivery of a shock, the more likely the shock will be
successful.
29,30
Reduction in the interval from compression to
shock delivery by even a few seconds can increase the
probability of shock success.
16
The rescuer providing chest compressions should minimize
interruptions in chest compressions for rhythm analysis and
shock delivery and should be prepared to resume CPR,
beginning with chest compressions, as soon as a shock is
delivered. When 2 rescuers are present, the rescuer operating
the AED should be prepared to deliver a shock as soon as the
compressor removes his or her hands from the victim’s chest
and all rescuers are “clear” of contact with the victim. The
lone rescuer should practice coordination of CPR with effi-
cient AED operation.
Defibrillation Waveforms and Energy Levels
Defibrillation involves delivery of current through the chest
and to the heart to depolarize myocardial cells and eliminate
VF. The energy settings for defibrillators are designed to
provide the lowest effective energy needed to terminate VF.
Because defibrillation is an electrophysiologic event that
occurs in 300 to 500 milliseconds after shock delivery, the
term defibrillation (shock success) is typically defined as
termination of VF for at least 5 seconds following the
shock.
31,32
VF frequently recurs after successful shocks, but
this recurrence should not be equated with shock failure.
17,25
Shock success using the typical definition of defibrillation
should not be confused with resuscitation outcomes such as
restoration of a perfusing rhythm, survival to hospital admis-
sion, or survival to hospital discharge.
31,33
Although resusci-
tation outcomes including survival may be affected by many
variables in addition to shock delivery, defibrillation pro-
IV-36 Circulation December 13, 2005
grams must strive to improve patient survival, not just shock
success.
Modern defibrillators are classified according to 2 types of
waveforms: monophasic and biphasic. Monophasic wave-
form defibrillators were introduced first, but biphasic wave-
forms are used in almost all AEDs and manual defibrillators
sold today. Energy levels vary by type of device. No specific
waveform (either monophasic or biphasic) is consistently
associated with a higher rate of return of spontaneous
circulation (ROSC) or rates of survival to hospital discharge
after cardiac arrest.
Monophasic Waveform Defibrillators
Monophasic waveforms deliver current of one polarity (ie,
direction of current flow). Monophasic waveforms can be
further categorized by the rate at which the current pulse
decreases to zero. The monophasic damped sinusoidal wave-
form (MDS) returns to zero gradually, whereas the monopha-
sic truncated exponential waveform (MTE) current is
abruptly returned to baseline (truncated) to zero current flow.
Few monophasic waveform defibrillators are being manu-
factured but many are still in use. Most of these use MDS
waveforms. As noted above, no specific waveform (either
monophasic or biphasic) is consistently associated with a
greater incidence of ROSC or survival to hospital discharge
rates after cardiac arrest than any other specific waveform.
Research indicates, however, that when doses equivalent to or
lower than monophasic doses are used, biphasic waveform
shocks are safe and effective for termination of VF.
Biphasic Waveform Defibrillators
Researchers have collected data from both out-of-hospi-
tal
34–36
and in-hospital studies (electrophysiologic studies and
implantable cardioverter-defibrillator [ICD] testing and eval-
uation).
37
Overall this research indicates that lower-energy
biphasic waveform shocks have equivalent or higher success
for termination of VF than either damped sinusoidal or
truncated exponential monophasic waveform shocks deliver-
ing escalating energy (200 J, 300 J, 360 J) with successive
shocks. No direct comparison of the different biphasic wave-
forms has been made.
The optimal energy for first-shock biphasic waveform
defibrillation yielding the highest termination rate for VF has
not been determined. Several randomized (LOE 2)
17,24,27
and
observational studies (LOE 5)
26,38
have shown that defibril-
lation with biphasic waveforms of relatively low energy
(H11349200 J) is safe and has equivalent or higher efficacy for
termination of VF than monophasic waveform shocks of
equivalent or higher energy (Class IIa).
32,39–41
Compensation for patient-to-patient differences in imped-
ance may be achieved by changes in duration and voltage of
shocks or by releasing the residual membrane charge (called
burping). Whether there is an optimal ratio of first-phase to
second-phase duration and leading-edge amplitude is unclear.
It is unknown whether a waveform more effective for
immediate outcomes (defibrillation) and short-term outcomes
(ROSC, survival to hospital admission) results in better
long-term outcomes (survival to hospital discharge, survival
for 1 year). Given the high efficacy of all biphasic wave-
forms, other determinants of survival (eg, interval from
collapse to CPR or defibrillation) are likely to supersede the
impact of specific biphasic waveforms or energies.
Fixed and Escalating Energy
Commercially available biphasic AEDs provide either fixed
or escalating energy levels.
Multiple prospective human clinical studies (LOE 2)
27,42
and retrospective
17,24,26,38,43,44
studies have failed to identify
an optimal biphasic energy level for first or subsequent
shocks. Therefore, it is not possible to make a definitive
recommendation for the selected energy for the first or
subsequent biphasic defibrillation attempts.
Biphasic defibrillators use one of two waveforms, and each
waveform has been shown to be effective in terminating VF
over a specific dose range. The ideal shock dose for a
biphasic device is one that falls within the range that has been
documented to be effective using that specific device. Current
research confirms that it is reasonable to use selected energies
of 150 J to 200 J with a biphasic truncated exponential
waveform or 120 J with a rectilinear biphasic waveform for
the initial shock. For second and subsequent biphasic shocks,
use the same or higher energy (Class IIa). In this context
“selected” refers to the energy dose selected by the operator
(or programmed by the AED manufacturer). With the recti-
linear biphasic waveform device, selected and delivered
energies usually differ; delivered energy is typically higher in
the usual range of impedance. For example, in a patient with
80 H9024 impedance, a selected energy of 120 J will deliver
150 J.
None of the available evidence has shown superiority of
either nonescalating or escalating energy biphasic waveform
defibrillation for termination of VF. Nonescalating and esca-
lating energy biphasic waveform shocks can be used safely
and effectively to terminate short-duration and long-duration
VF (Class IIa). The safety and efficacy data related to specific
biphasic waveforms, the most effective initial shock, and
whether to use escalating sequences require additional studies
in both the in-hospital and out-of-hospital settings.
Automated External Defibrillators
AEDs are sophisticated, reliable computerized devices that
use voice and visual prompts to guide lay rescuers and health-
care providers to safely defibrillate VF SCA.
34,36,45,46
In recent
clinical trials,
18,19
modified prototype AEDs recorded informa-
tion about frequency and depth of chest compressions during
CPR. If such devices become commercially available, AEDs
may one day prompt rescuers to improve CPR performance.
Lay Rescuer AED Programs
Since 1995 the American Heart Association (AHA) has
recommended the development of lay rescuer AED programs
to improve survival rates from out-of-hospital SCA.
47–49
These programs are also known as public access defibrilla-
tion, or PAD, programs. The goal of these programs is to
shorten the time from onset of VF until CPR and shock
delivery by ensuring that AEDs and trained lay rescuers are
available in public areas where SCA is likely to occur. To
maximize the effectiveness of these programs, the AHA has
Part 5: Electrical Therapies IV-37
emphasized the importance of organization, planning, train-
ing, linking with the EMS system, and establishing a process
of continuous quality improvement.
50,51
Studies of lay rescuer AED programs in airports
52
and
casinos
53,54
and first-responder programs with police offi-
cers
26,34,36,44,55–57
have shown a survival rate of 41% to 74%
from out-of-hospital witnessed VF SCA when immediate
bystander CPR is provided and defibrillation occurs within
about 3 to 5 minutes of collapse. These high survival rates,
however, are not attained in programs that fail to reduce time
to defibrillation.
58–60
In a large prospective randomized trial (LOE 1)
61
funded
by the AHA, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
(NHLBI), and several AED manufacturers, lay rescuer CPR
H11001 AED programs in targeted public settings doubled the
number of survivors from out-of-hospital VF SCA when
compared with programs that provided early EMS call and
early CPR. The programs included a planned response, lay
rescuer training, and frequent retraining/practice. The follow-
ing elements are recommended for community lay rescuer
AED programs
50,51
:
●
A planned and practiced response; typically this requires
oversight by a healthcare provider
●
Training of anticipated rescuers in CPR and use of the AED
●
Link with the local EMS system
●
Process of ongoing quality improvement
More information is available on the AHA website: www.
americanheart.org/cpr. Under the topic “Links on this site,”
select “Have a question?” and then select “AED.”
Lay rescuer AED programs will have the greatest potential
impact on survival from SCA if the programs are created in
locations where SCA is likely to occur. In the NHLBI trial,
programs were established at sites with a history of at least 1
out-of-hospital cardiac arrest every 2 years or where at least
1 out-of-hospital SCA was predicted during the study period
(ie, sites having H11022250 adults over 50 years of age present for
H1102216 h/d).
61
To be effective, AED programs should be integrated into
an overall EMS strategy for treating patients in cardiac arrest.
CPR and AED use by public safety first responders (tradi-
tional and nontraditional) are recommended to increase sur-
vival rates for SCA (Class I). AED programs in public
locations where there is a relatively high likelihood of
witnessed cardiac arrest (eg, airports, casinos, sports facili-
ties) are recommended (Class I). Because the improvement in
survival rates in AED programs is affected by the time to
CPR and to defibrillation, sites that deploy AEDs should
establish a response plan, train likely responders in CPR and
AED use, maintain equipment, and coordinate with local
EMS systems.
50,51
Approximately 80% of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests oc-
cur in private or residential settings (LOE 4).
62
Reviewers
found no studies that documented the effectiveness of home
AED deployment, so there is no recommendation for or
against personal or home deployment of AEDs (Class
Indeterminate).
AEDs are of no value for arrest not caused by VF/pulseless
VT, and they are not effective for treatment of nonshockable
rhythms that may develop after termination of VF. Nonper-
fusing rhythms are present in most patients after shock
delivery,
25,26,28,44
and CPR is required until a perfusing
rhythm returns. Therefore, the AED rescuer should be trained
not only to recognize emergencies and use the AED but also
to support ventilation and circulation with CPR as needed.
The mere presence of an AED does not ensure that it will
be used when SCA occurs. Even in the NHLBI trial, in which
almost 20 000 rescuers were trained to respond to SCA, lay
rescuers attempted resuscitation before EMS arrival for only
half of the victims of witnessed SCA, and the on-site AED
was used for only 34% of the victims who experienced an
arrest at locations with AED programs.
61
These findings
suggest that lay rescuers need frequent practice to optimize
response to emergencies.
It is reasonable for lay rescuer AED programs to imple-
ment processes of continuous quality improvement (Class
IIa). These quality improvement efforts should use both
routine inspections and postevent data (from AED recordings
and responder reports) to evaluate the following
50,51
:
●
Performance of the emergency response plan, including
accurate time intervals for key interventions (such as
collapse to shock or no shock advisory to initiation of
CPR), and patient outcome
●
Responder performance
●
AED function, including accuracy of the ECG rhythm
analysis
●
Battery status and function
●
Electrode pad function and readiness, including expiration
date
Automated Rhythm Analysis
AEDs have microprocessors that analyze multiple features of
the surface ECG signal, including frequency, amplitude, and
some integration of frequency and amplitude, such as slope or
wave morphology. Filters check for QRS-like signals, radio
transmission, or 50- or 60-cycle interference as well as loose
electrodes and poor electrode contact. Some devices are
programmed to detect spontaneous movement by the patient
or others. Prototype defibrillators were used in 2 recent
clinical trials evaluating quality of CPR in the out-of-hospital
and hospital settings, and they hold promise for future AEDs
that may prompt rescuers to improve the quality of CPR
provided.
18,19
AEDs have been tested extensively, both in vitro against
libraries of recorded cardiac rhythms and clinically in many
field trials in adults
63,64
and children.
65,66
They are extremely
accurate in rhythm analysis. Although AEDs are not designed
to deliver synchronized shocks (ie, cardioversion for VT with
pulses), AEDs will recommend a (nonsynchronized) shock
for monomorphic and polymorphic VT if the rate and R-wave
morphology exceed preset values.
Electrode Placement
Rescuers should place AED electrode pads on the victim’s
bare chest in the conventional sternal-apical (anterolateral)
position (Class IIa). The right (sternal) chest pad is placed on
IV-38 Circulation December 13, 2005
the victim’s right superior-anterior (infraclavicular) chest and
the apical (left) pad is placed on the victim’s inferior-lateral
left chest, lateral to the left breast (Class IIa). Other accept-
able pad positions are placement on the lateral chest wall on
the right and left sides (biaxillary) or the left pad in the
standard apical position and the other pad on the right or left
upper back (Class IIa).
When an implantable medical device is located in an area
where a pad would normally be placed, position the pad at
least 1 inch (2.5 cm) away from the device (Class Indetermi-
nate). If the victim has an ICD that is delivering shocks (ie,
the patient’s muscles contract in a manner similar to that
observed during external defibrillation), allow 30 to 60
seconds for the ICD to complete the treatment cycle before
attaching an AED. Occasionally the analysis and shock cycles
of automatic ICDs and AEDs will conflict.
67
Do not place AED electrode pads directly on top of a
transdermal medication patch (eg, patch containing nitroglyc-
erin, nicotine, analgesics, hormone replacements, antihyper-
tensives) because the patch may block delivery of energy
from the electrode pad to the heart and may cause small burns
to the skin.
68
Remove medication patches and wipe the area
before attaching the electrode pad.
If an unresponsive victim is lying in water or if the victim’s
chest is covered with water or the victim is extremely
diaphoretic, remove the victim from water and briskly wipe
the chest before attaching electrode pads and attempting
defibrillation. AEDs can be used when the victim is lying on
snow or ice. Most victims do not need any special preparation
of the chest other than removal of the clothes from the chest.
If the victim has a very hairy chest, it may be necessary to
remove some hair so that the electrode pads will adhere to the
chest. This may be accomplished by briskly removing an
electrode pad (which will remove some hair), or it may be
necessary to shave the chest in that area.
AED Use in Children
Cardiac arrest is less common in children than adults, and its
causes are more diverse.
69–71
Although VF is not a common
arrhythmia in children, it is observed in 5% to 15% of
pediatric and adolescent arrests.
71–75
In these patients rapid
defibrillation may improve outcomes.
75,76
The lowest energy dose for effective defibrillation in
infants and children is not known. The upper limit for safe
defibrillation is also not known, but doses H110224 J/kg (as high as
9 J/kg) have effectively defibrillated children
77,78
and pediat-
ric animal models
79
with no significant adverse effects. Based
on adult clinical data
17,24
and pediatric animal models,
79–81
biphasic shocks appear to be at least as effective as monopha-
sic shocks and less harmful. Recommended manual defibril-
lation (monophasic or biphasic) doses are 2 J/kg for the first
attempt (Class IIa; LOE 5
82
and 6
79
) and 4 J/kg for subsequent
attempts (Class Indeterminate).
Many AEDs can accurately detect VF in children of all
ages
65,66
and differentiate shockable from nonshockable
rhythms with a high degree of sensitivity and specificity.
65,66
Some are equipped with pediatric attenuator systems (eg,
pad-cable systems or a key), to reduce the delivered energy to
a dose suitable for children.
For children 1 to 8 years of age the rescuer should use a
pediatric dose-attenuator system if one is available.
78,83,84
If
the rescuer provides CPR to a child in cardiac arrest and does
not have an AED with a pediatric attenuator system, the
rescuer should use a standard AED.
There is insufficient data to make a recommendation for or
against the use of AEDs for infants H110211 year of age (Class
Indeterminate). During infancy the risk of VF SCA is
unknown, and most cardiac arrest is thought to be related to
progression of respiratory failure or shock. As a result there is
concern that repeated interruption of CPR to try to detect and
treat a rhythm uncommon in that age group may introduce
more risk than benefit.
83
If an AED program is established in systems or institutions
that routinely provide care to children, the program should be
equipped with AEDs with a high specificity for pediatric
shockable rhythms and with a pediatric attenuator system (eg,
pediatric pad-cable system or other method of attenuating the
shock dose). This statement, however, should not be inter-
preted as a recommendation for or against AED placement in
specific locations where children are present. Ideally health-
care systems that routinely provide care to children at risk for
cardiac arrest should have available manual defibrillators
capable of dose adjustment.
83
In-Hospital Use of AEDs
At the time of the 2005 Consensus Conference, there were no
published in-hospital randomized trials of AEDs versus
manual defibrillators. Evidence from 1 study of fair quality
(LOE 4)
85
and a case series (LOE 5)
86
indicated higher rates
of survival to hospital discharge when AEDs were used to
treat adult VF or pulseless VT in the hospital.
Defibrillation may be delayed when patients develop SCA
in unmonitored hospital beds and in outpatient and diagnostic
facilities. In such areas several minutes may elapse before
centralized response teams arrive with the defibrillator, attach
it, and deliver shocks.
87
Despite limited evidence, AEDs
should be considered for the hospital setting as a way to
facilitate early defibrillation (a goal of H113493 minutes from
collapse), especially in areas where staff have no rhythm
recognition skills or defibrillators are used infrequently. An
effective system for training and retraining should be in place.
When hospitals deploy AEDs, first-responding personnel
should also receive authorization and training to use an AED,
with the goal of providing the first shock for any SCA within
3 minutes of collapse. The objective is to make goals for
in-hospital use of AEDs consistent with goals established in
the out-of-hospital setting.
88
Early defibrillation capability
should be available in ambulatory care facilities as well as
throughout hospital inpatient areas. Hospitals should monitor
collapse-to–first shock intervals and resuscitation outcomes
(see Part 3: “Overview of CPR”).
Manual Defibrillation
Shock Energies
At present it is clear that both low-energy and high-energy
biphasic waveform shocks are effective, but definitive rec-
ommendations for the first and subsequent energy levels for
all devices cannot be made because devices vary in waveform
Part 5: Electrical Therapies IV-39
and reported shock success. Although both escalating-energy
and nonescalating-energy defibrillators are available, there is
insufficient data to recommend one approach over another.
Any claim of superiority at this time is unsupported.
As noted, biphasic defibrillators use one of two wave-
forms, and each waveform has been shown to be effective in
terminating VF over a specific dose range. The ideal shock
dose with a biphasic device is one that falls within the range
that has been documented to be effective using that specific
device. Manufacturers should display the device-specific
effective waveform dose range on the face of the device, and
providers should use that dose range when attempting defi-
brillation with that device. Providers should be aware of the
range of energy levels at which the specific waveform they
use has been shown to be effective for terminating VF, and
they should use that device-specific dose for attempted
defibrillation. At this time there is no evidence that one
biphasic waveform is more effective than another.
With a biphasic defibrillator it is reasonable to use selected
energies of 150 J to 200 J with a biphasic truncated expo-
nential waveform or 120 J with a rectilinear biphasic wave-
form for the initial shock. For second and subsequent shocks,
use the same or higher energy (Class IIa). In this context
“selected” refers to the energy dose selected by the operator
(or programmed by the AED manufacturer). With the rectilinear
biphasic waveform device, selected and delivered energies
usually differ; delivered energy is typically higher in the usual
range of impedance. For example, in a patient with 80 H9024
impedance, a selected energy of 120 J will deliver 150 J.
If a provider is operating a manual biphasic defibrillator
and is unaware of the effective dose range for that device to
terminate VF, the rescuer may use a selected dose of 200 J for
the first shock and an equal or higher dose for the second and
subsequent shocks. The 200-J “default” energy level is not
necessarily an optimal dose, but it was selected because it
falls within the reported range of doses effective for first and
subsequent biphasic shocks. In addition, this dose can be
provided by every biphasic manual defibrillator available in
2005. Thus, it is a consensus default dose and not a recom-
mended ideal dose. If devices are clearly labeled and provid-
ers are familiar with the devices they will use for clinical care,
the device-specific dose will be used and there will be no
need for the “default” 200-J dose.
If a monophasic defibrillator is used, select a dose of 360
J for all shocks. If VF is initially terminated by a shock but
then recurs later in the arrest, deliver subsequent shocks at the
previously successful energy level.
Defibrillation is achieved by generating amplitude of
current flow and sustaining that flow for a time interval.
Although the defibrillator operator selects the shock energy
(in joules), it is the current flow (in amperes) that actually
depolarizes the myocardium. Current depends in part on the
selected shock dose and is affected by the thoracic pathway
between the 2 defibrillator electrodes and the position of the
heart in that pathway and impedance to current flow between
the electrodes. The complexity of thoracic current flow has
been observed experimentally.
89
The most important determinant of survival in adult VF
SCA is rapid defibrillation by either a monophasic or biphasic
device. Thus, in the hospital it is acceptable to deliver 1 shock
with a monophasic or biphasic defibrillator followed by
immediate initiation of CPR, beginning with compressions.
The goal is to minimize the time between chest compressions
and shock delivery and between shock delivery and resump-
tion of chest compressions. In specific settings (eg, critical
care units with hemodynamic monitoring in place), this
sequence may be modified at the physician’s discretion (see
Part 7.2: “Management of Cardiac Arrest” and Part 12:
“Pediatric Advanced Life Support”).
Transthoracic Impedance
The average adult human impedance is H1101570 to 80 H9024.
90–92
When transthoracic impedance is too high, a low-energy
shock will not generate sufficient current to achieve defibril-
lation.
91,93,94
To reduce transthoracic impedance, the defibril-
lator operator should use conductive materials. This is ac-
complished with the use of gel pads or electrode paste with
paddles or through the use of self-adhesive pads. No existing
data suggests that one of these modalities is better than the
others in decreasing impedance (Class Indeterminate).
In a male patient with a hairy chest, electrode-to-chest
contact may be poor, and the hair may cause air trapping
between the electrode and skin. This, as well as improper use
of paddles, may result in high impedance, with occasional
current arcing. Although extremely rare, in oxygen-rich
environments such as critical care units, this arcing has been
known to cause fires if an accelerant is present (see below).
When using paddles, rescuers should apply them firmly to gel
pads on the chest wall, avoiding contact with ECG leads. Use
of self-adhesive pads will reduce the risk of arcing. It may be
necessary to shave the area of intended pad placement.
Electrode Position
An overview of adhesive pad placement was provided in the
AED section above. If electrode paddles are used instead of
pads, the paddles should be well separated, and the paste or
gel used to create the interface between the paddles and the
skin should not be smeared on the chest between the paddles.
Smearing of the paste or gel may allow current to follow a
superficial pathway (arc) along the chest wall, “missing” the
heart. Self-adhesive monitor/defibrillator electrode pads are
as effective as gel pads or paste (LOE 3
95–97
), and they can be
placed before cardiac arrest to allow for monitoring and then
rapid administration of a shock when necessary.
98
Conse-
quently, self-adhesive pads should be used routinely instead
of standard paddles (Class IIa; LOE 2, 4).
When providing cardioversion or defibrillation for patients
with permanent pacemakers or ICDs, do not place the
electrodes over or close to the device generator, because
defibrillation can cause the pacemaker to malfunction. A
pacemaker or ICD also may block some current to the
myocardium during defibrillation attempts, resulting in sub-
optimal energy delivery to the heart. Because some of the
defibrillation current flows down the pacemaker leads, per-
manent pacemakers and ICDs should be reevaluated after the
patient receives a shock.
99
IV-40 Circulation December 13, 2005
Electrode Size
In 1993 the Association for the Advancement of Medical
Instrumentation recommended a minimum electrode size of
50 cm
2
for individual electrodes.
100
However, advances in
electrode design and chemical composition may soon require
modification of this recommendation.
For adult defibrillation, both handheld paddle electrodes
and self-adhesive pad electrodes 8 to 12 cm in diameter
perform well, although defibrillation success may be higher
with electrodes 12 cm in diameter rather than with those 8 cm
in diameter.
90,95
Small electrodes (4.3 cm) may be harmful
and may cause myocardial necrosis.
101
When using handheld
paddles and gel or pads, rescuers must ensure that the paddle
is in full contact with the skin. Even smaller pads have been
found to be effective
102
in VF of brief duration. Use of the
smallest (pediatric) pads, however, can result in unacceptably
high transthoracic impedance in larger children.
103
It is best to
use the largest pads that can fit on the chest without overlap.
Fibrillation Waveform Analysis
Several retrospective case series, animal studies, and theoret-
ical models (LOE 4
29,30,104–110
and LOE 6
111–121
) suggest that
it is possible to predict, with varying reliability, the success of
attempted defibrillation by analyzing the VF waveform. If
prospective studies can select optimal defibrillation wave-
forms and optimal timing of shock delivery (eg, before or
after a period of CPR), shock delivery may be more likely to
result in return of spontaneous perfusion, and the delivery of
unsuccessful high-energy shocks may be prevented. At pres-
ent there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against
analysis of VF ECG characteristics (Class Indeterminate).
At issue is whether analysis of the VF waveform is useful
in predicting therapeutic outcome and modifying therapy
prospectively. Potential applications include prediction of
success of cardioversion, selection of appropriate waveform
type, and optimization of timing of defibrillation relative to
CPR and medication delivery.
Current-Based Defibrillation
Because it is accepted that defibrillation is accomplished by
the passage of sufficient current through the heart, the
concept of current-based defibrillation is appealing. Energy is
a nonphysiologic descriptor of defibrillation despite its en-
trenchment in traditional jargon. Current-based defibrillation
has been assessed
92,122
but has not yet been used clinically as
a better physiologic descriptor of defibrillation dose. This
concept merits exploration in light of the variety of biphasic
waveforms available that deliver current in different ways.
Peak current amplitude, average current, phasic duration, and
phasic current flow need to be examined as determinants of
shock efficacy. Another difficulty with using energy as a
descriptor was described earlier with regard to differences
between operator-selected energy and that delivered with the
rectilinear biphasic waveform. Transition to current-based
description is timely and should be encouraged.
Clinical studies using MDS waveform shocks have tried to
identify the range of current necessary to achieve defibrilla-
tion and cardioversion. The optimal current for ventricular
defibrillation appears to be 30 to 40 A MDS.
92
Comparable
information on current dosage for biphasic waveform shocks
is under investigation.
“Occult” Versus “False” Asystole
There is no evidence that attempting to “defibrillate” asystole
is beneficial. In 1989 Losek
123
published a retrospective
review of initial shock delivery for 49 children (infants
through 19 years of age) in asystole compared with no shock
delivery for 41 children in asystole and found no improve-
ment in rhythm change, ROSC, or survival in the group that
received the shocks. In 1993 the Nine City High-Dose
Epinephrine Study Group published an analysis of 77 asys-
tolic patients who received initial shock compared with 117
who received standard therapy.
124
There was no benefit from
shock delivery for asystole. In fact, in all outcomes studied,
including ROSC and survival, the group that received shocks
showed a trend toward a worse outcome than the group that
did not receive shocks. With recent recognition of the
importance of minimizing interruptions in chest compres-
sions, it is difficult to justify any interruption in chest
compressions to attempt shock delivery for asystole.
Fire Hazard
Several case reports have described fires ignited by sparks
from poorly applied defibrillator paddles in the presence of an
oxygen-enriched atmosphere (LOE 5).
125–130
Severe fires
have been reported when ventilator tubing is disconnected
from the tracheal tube and then left adjacent to the patient’s
head, blowing oxygen across the chest during attempted
defibrillation (LOE 5).
126,128,130
The use of self-adhesive defibrillation pads is probably the
best way to minimize the risk of sparks igniting during
defibrillation. If manual paddles are used, gel pads are
preferable to electrode pastes and gels because the pastes and
gels can spread between the 2 paddles, creating the potential
for a spark (Class IIb). Do not use medical gels or pastes with
poor electrical conductivity, such as ultrasound gel.
Rescuers should take precautions to minimize sparking
during attempted defibrillation; try to ensure that defibrilla-
tion is not attempted in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere
(Class IIa). When ventilation is interrupted for shock deliv-
ery, rescuers should try to ensure that oxygen does not flow
across the patient’s chest during defibrillation attempts.
Synchronized Cardioversion
Synchronized cardioversion is shock delivery that is timed
(synchronized) with the QRS complex. This synchronization
avoids shock delivery during the relative refractory portion of
the cardiac cycle, when a shock could produce VF.
131
The
energy (shock dose) used for a synchronized shock is lower
than that used for unsynchronized shocks (defibrillation).
These low-energy shocks should always be delivered as
synchronized shocks because if they are delivered as unsyn-
chronized shocks they are likely to induce VF. If cardiover-
sion is needed and it is impossible to synchronize a shock (eg,
the patient’s rhythm is irregular), use high-energy unsynchro-
nized shocks.
Delivery of synchronized shocks (cardioversion) is indi-
cated to treat unstable tachyarrhythmias associated with an
Part 5: Electrical Therapies IV-41
organized QRS complex and a perfusing rhythm (pulses). The
unstable patient demonstrates signs of poor perfusion, includ-
ing altered mental status, ongoing chest pain, hypotension, or
other signs of shock (eg, pulmonary edema).
Synchronized cardioversion is recommended to treat un-
stable supraventricular tachycardia due to reentry, atrial
fibrillation, and atrial flutter. These arrhythmias are all caused
by reentry, an abnormal rhythm circuit that allows a wave of
depolarization to travel in a circle. The delivery of a shock
can stop these rhythms because it interrupts the circulating
(reentry) pattern. Synchronized cardioversion is also recom-
mended to treat unstable monomorphic VT. For additional
information see Part 7.3: “Management of Symptomatic
Bradycardia and Tachycardia.”
Cardioversion will not be effective for treatment of junc-
tional tachycardia or ectopic or multifocal atrial tachycardia
because these rhythms have an automatic focus. Automatic
rhythms are created when local cells are stimulated to
spontaneously depolarize at a rapid rate. Sinus tachycardia is
a good example of an automatic rhythm. It results when the
cells in the sinus node are stimulated (eg, by catecholamines)
to depolarize at a rapid rate. Junctional tachycardia and
ectopic or multifocal atrial tachycardia also result when cells
are stimulated to depolarize at a rapid rate. Delivery of a
shock cannot stop these rhythms. In fact, shock delivery to a
heart with a rapid automatic focus may increase the rate of the
tachyarrhythmia.
Synchronized cardioversion is not used for treatment of
VF, pulseless VT, or unstable polymorphic (irregular) VT.
These rhythms require delivery of high-energy unsynchro-
nized shocks (ie, defibrillation doses). Electrical therapy for
VT is discussed further below. For additional information see
Part 7.2: “Management of Cardiac Arrest.”
Supraventricular Tachycardias (Reentry SVT)
The recommended initial monophasic energy dose for car-
dioversion of atrial fibrillation is 100 J to 200 J. Cardiover-
sion of atrial flutter and other supraventricular tachycardias
generally requires less energy; an initial energy of 50 J to 100 J
MDS waveform is often sufficient. If the initial 50-J shock
fails, providers should increase the dose in a stepwise
fashion.
93
These recommendations are consistent with those
contained in the ECC Guidelines 2000.
50
Cardioversion with
biphasic waveforms is now available,
132
but the optimal doses
for cardioversion with biphasic waveforms have not been
established with certainty. Extrapolation from published ex-
perience with elective cardioversion of atrial fibrillation using
rectilinear and truncated exponential waveforms supports an
initial dose of 100 J to 120 J with escalation as needed.
133,134
This initial dose has been shown to be 80% to 85% effective
in terminating atrial fibrillation. Until further evidence be-
comes available, this information can be used to extrapolate
biphasic cardioversion doses to other tachyarrhythmias.
135–138
A recent prospective randomized study that compared the
rectilinear biphasic waveform (200 J maximum selected energy)
with a biphasic truncated exponential waveform (360 J maxi-
mum energy) for elective cardioversion found no significant
differences in efficacy between the 2 waveforms.
134
Ventricular Tachycardia
The amount of energy and timing of shocks for treatment of
VT with pulses are determined by the patient’s condition and
the morphologic characteristics of the VT.
139
Pulseless VT is
treated as VF (see Part 7.2: “Management of Cardiac Ar-
rest”). Management of stable VT is summarized in Part 7.3:
“Management of Symptomatic Bradycardia and
Tachycardia.” Unstable monomorphic (regular) VT with
pulses is treated with synchronized cardioversion. Unstable
polymorphic (irregular) VT with or without pulses is treated
as VF using unsynchronized high-energy shocks (ie, defibril-
lation doses).
Monomorphic VT (regular form and rate) with a pulse
responds well to monophasic waveform cardioversion (syn-
chronized) shocks at initial energies of 100 J. If there is no
response to the first shock, increase the dose in a stepwise
fashion (eg, 100 J, 200 J, 300 J, 360 J). These recommenda-
tions are consistent with the recommendations in the ECC
Guidelines 2000.
50
Although synchronized cardioversion is preferred for treat-
ment of an organized ventricular rhythm, for some arrhyth-
mias synchronization is not possible. The many QRS config-
urations and irregular rates that comprise polymorphic
ventricular tachycardia make it difficult or impossible to
reliably synchronize to a QRS complex. In addition, the
patient with persistent polymorphic VT will probably not
maintain perfusion/pulses for very long, so any attempt to
distinguish between polymorphic VT with or without pulses
quickly becomes moot. A good rule of thumb is that if your
eye cannot synchronize to each QRS complex, neither can the
defibrillator/cardioverter. If there is any doubt whether mono-
morphic or polymorphic VT is present in the unstable patient,
do not delay shock delivery to perform detailed rhythm
analysis—provide high energy unsynchronized shocks (ie,
defibrillation doses).
The recommended shock doses for high-energy, unsyn-
chronized shocks (defibrillation) with a biphasic or monopha-
sic device are those presented earlier in this section (see
“Manual Defibrillation, Shock Energies”). After shock deliv-
ery the healthcare provider should be prepared to provide
immediate CPR (beginning with chest compressions) and
follow the ACLS Pulseless Arrest Algorithm if pulseless
arrest develops (for further information see Part 7.2: “Man-
agement of Cardiac Arrest”).
There is limited data about the treatment of polymorphic
(irregular) VT. Providers should consider consultation with
an expert in arrhythmia management. Treatment of the patient
with polymorphic VT is presented in section 7.3: “Manage-
ment of Symptomatic Bradycardia and Tachycardia.”
Pacing
Pacing is not recommended for patients in asystolic cardiac
arrest. Pacing can be considered in patients with symptomatic
bradycardia.
Three randomized controlled trials (LOE 2)
140–142
of fair
quality and additional studies (LOE 3 to 7)
143–149
indicate no
improvement in the rate of admission to hospital or survival
to hospital discharge when paramedics or physicians at-
tempted to provide pacing in asystolic patients in the prehos-
IV-42 Circulation December 13, 2005
pital or hospital (emergency department) setting. Given the
recent recognition of the importance of maximizing chest
compressions as well as the lack of demonstrated benefit of
pacing for asystole, withholding chest compressions to at-
tempt pacing for patients with asystole is not recommended
(Class III).
Transcutaneous pacing is recommended for treatment of
symptomatic bradycardia when a pulse is present. Healthcare
providers should be prepared to initiate pacing in patients
who do not respond to atropine (or second-line drugs if these
do not delay definitive management). Immediate pacing is
indicated if the patient is severely symptomatic, especially
when the block is at or below the His Purkinje level. If the
patient does not respond to transcutaneous pacing, transvenous
pacing is needed. For further information see Part 7.3: “Man-
agement of Symptomatic Bradycardia and Tachycardia.”
Maintaining Devices in a State of Readiness
User checklists have been developed to reduce equipment
malfunction and operator errors. Failure to properly maintain
the defibrillator or power supply is responsible for the
majority of reported malfunctions. Checklists are useful when
designed to identify and prevent such deficiencies.
Summary
The new recommendations for electrical therapies described
in this section are designed to improve survival from SCA
and life-threatening arrhythmias. For any victim of cardiac
arrest, good CPR—push hard, push fast, allow complete chest
recoil, and minimize interruptions in chest compressions—is
essential. Some victims of VF SCA may benefit from a short
period of CPR before attempted defibrillation. Whenever
defibrillation is attempted, rescuers must coordinate good
CPR with defibrillation to minimize interruptions in chest
compressions and to ensure immediate resumption of chest
compressions after shock delivery. The high first-shock
efficacy of newer biphasic defibrillators led to the recommen-
dation of single shocks plus immediate CPR instead of
3-shock sequences that were formerly recommended to treat
VF. Further data is needed to refine recommendations for use
of electrical therapies, particularly for the use of biphasic
waveforms.
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