‘All engineering, manufacturing, quality and sales efforts are wasted if
your transport packaging fails and your customer receives a damaged
product’ (ISTA).
1
25.1 Introduction: the supply chain for perishable foods
Food is a perishable product. It is temperature-, moisture-, and time-sensitive,
compared to books, automobile parts, and clothes, however they are shipped
globally. The present systems for improving logistics, ordering and networks
may cause the special nature of food to be ignored. The new IT systems are first
applied to expensive, valuable products, not to commodity products, such as
food. Then the commodity products must adapt to the systems, which exist even
if the producers have not taken part in the development work.
25.1.1 Growth seasons and specialities in different areas of the world
In many parts of the world there is only one yearly growing season yielding only
one or two crops in a year. However, consumers prefer to eat both fresh produce
and the specialities of specific areas the year round. This means that foodstuffs
may be transported to the other side of the world.
Some foodstuffs (canned food, aseptic packages, dried food) can be stored at
room temperature. They are not sensitive to small temperature changes if they
have been correctly packed. The quality and safety of frozen, chilled, and fresh
food tolerates only a very narrow temperature range. Also chilled and fresh food
has a limited shelf-life. An average employee in the food industry knows these
25
Integrating intelligent packaging, storage
and distribution
T. Ja¨rvi-Ka¨a¨ria¨inen, Association of Packaging Technology and
Research, Finland
facts very well, but there are several steps during transportation where one has
no or very limited knowledge of the special requirements or needs of perishable
products (harbours, airports, transport terminals). Also, a consumer may
purchase products and expose them to too high temperatures or otherwise
wrong storage conditions before they are eaten.
As an example, let us look at the shipment of bananas to Finland where they
are everyday commodities throughout the year. What follows are the stages on
the route of bananas from tree to table.
? A half-ripe banana cluster is cut from a banana tree.
? It is lifted to a hook of a cableway.
? The cableway transports the banana cluster to the packaging area.
? The banana cluster is rinsed.
? The washed cluster is cut into smaller bunches, usually of about five bananas
each.
? Cut bananas are washed.
? Bananas are lifted into a plastic tray, each tray containing about 18kg of
bananas.
? The plastic tray is transported to the weighing station.
? Weighed bananas are sprayed with a biocide.
? Banana groups are brand labelled.
? Bananas are moved from the trays into transportation boxes.
? Boxes are stamped with packing date and location.
? Boxes are lifted on a pallet.
? Pallet loads are transferred to containers.
? Containers are transported to the harbour.
? Containers are lifted to a ship.
? Banana containers are monitored for temperature during the sea trip, which
takes about two weeks.
? Containers are unloaded from the ship in Sweden.
? Banana pallet loads are transported to the ship terminal.
? The temperature of the bananas is checked.
? Banana pallet loads are loaded onto a lorry.
? The lorry drives onboard a ship sailing to Finland.
? Second sea voyage.
? The lorry drives the bananas to a building where the bananas are allowed to
ripen.
? Bananas and their temperature are checked on arrival.
? Bananas are moved into a maturing room in order to ripen.
? During the ripening process, which takes about six days, the bananas are
checked daily for their temperature and degree of ripeness.
? After ripening the bananas are transferred to a collection point.
? There the banana boxes are lifted either onto a trolley or onto a pallet.
? The full trolley or the pallet load is transported to the right gate on the
shipping area.
536 Novel food packaging techniques
? The driver brings the trolley or the pallet to his truck.
? Bananas are transported to the shop.
? The driver moves the trolley to the inspection area of the shop.
? The shopkeeper checks and accepts the product.
? Bananas are moved to the storage area of the shop.
? Depending on sales the products are put on sale.
? The boxes are opened and the bananas are put on display.
? A consumer chooses some bananas and packs them into a bag
? The bananas are weighed.
? A price label is attached to the bag.
? The customer goes to the till.
? Customer puts the product on the cashier line.
? The scanner reads the price and gives the storekeeper information on the
amount of bananas sold.
? The customer packs the products into a carrier bag and takes them home
(Leppa¨aho, 2002).
2
The above list shows that bananas were exposed to several different temperature
and moisture conditions. They were handled frequently and moved from place to
place using a wide variety of transporting media.
25.1.2 Effect of distance, time, shock, vibration, air pressure, temperature
and moisture to the products
Transportation can be a long and time consuming process involving several
handling steps, as the banana case illustrates. Transportation of goods exposures
them to shock, vibration, air pressure, and moisture variations in addition to time
and temperature. There are several studies on the vulnerability of foods, and how
different packaging can improve or destroy the quality of a specific product
(such as Chonhenchob et al. on mangoes, 2002).
3
Distribution packaging is generally tested by integrity and general simulation
tests before shipment. The first step in the focused simulation test is to quantify,
by actual field measurement, the distribution hazards on the packaged products in
terms of their intensities and other conditions. For example, drops and impacts are
measured, and the data is analysed according to the height or velocity, package
orientation at impact, and frequency of occurrence. Vehicle vibrations are
measured, with the data typically analysed as power spectral density plots
according to the vehicle type and lading conditions, and time durations (or with a
given relationship of time to trip length). Compression is measured in vehicles
and warehouses, and data analysed to time and superimposed conditions. Atmos-
pheric profiles are measured, and data analysed in terms of extremes, rates of
change, and combinations. The measurements have become possible with the help
of the currently available small, self-contained electronic field data recorders.
(Kipp, 2002).
4
These instruments can record both static and dynamic information
in order to get the required analyses. They are often smaller in size than a brick.
Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 537
Unique systems must be designed, if temperature and humidity sensitive
products are ordered by e-mail and shipped to other places (Singh, 2000).
5
Since
fresh produce continues to respire after being harvested, this causes an intake of
oxygen and release of carbon dioxide. The respiration rate of fruits, vegetables
and flowers is dependent on temperature. An increase of package storage
temperature results in an exponential increase in respiration rate that shortens
the shelf-life of the produce, resulting in eventual decay. The United States
Department of Agriculture has documented this information on recommended
storage temperature, relative humidity and approximate shelf-life for various
fresh produce (Welby et al., 1997).
6
Most fresh produce has a high moisture
content, so it is important to maintain a high humidity environment during
transportation in order to prevent moisture loss that would result in drying of the
produce. USDA recommends a high humidity environment (80–95% relative
humidity) for most fresh produce. Possible solutions include cooling aids and
specially insulated packaging materials (Singh, 2002a).
7
A company in the USA selling expensive meat parts by e-mail has found an
interesting method for chilling their goods. Instead of shipping meat pieces with
cooling aids and fillers, frozen hamburgers are packed into the boxes serving as
coolers and fillers. The customer gets a usable give-away and the extras increase
the incentive for a further purchase (Singh, 2002b).
8
25.2 The role of packaging in the supply chain
The main duties of packaging are to protect, contain, inform, and sell. The right
packaging also preserves, as the products are received in a good and usable
condition. The package needed for protection is a combination of product
characteristics and logistical hazards. Well chosen packaging can reduce the cost
of every logistical activity: transport, storage, handling, inventory control, and
customer service. It can reduce the cost of damage, safety, and disposal.
Integrated management of packaging and logistics is required, if a firm is to
realise such opportunities to reduce costs (Twede, 1997).
9
25.2.1 Interviewing the food industry and trade
Tekes, the National Agency of Finland, finances the ‘Safety and Information in
Packaging’ program in Finland. There have been studies on the needs and wishes
of industry and trade in order to gather information for directing the research
program. During the summer of 2001 Pakkausteknologia – PTR (Association of
Packaging Technology and Research) asked for the opinions of the Finnish food
industry with a questionnaire of 93 questions (Pikkarainen et al., 2002).
10
Answers were received from producers of dry foods (sugar, flour), beverages, and
ready-to eat foods, dairy products, and so on, covering the different sectors of
food industry. Shocks, compression, changes in temperature and packaging
closing methods all cause packaging problems for the food industry (Fig. 25.1).
538 Novel food packaging techniques
The interviewees wished to gather more information on the following
aspects: circumstances during the storage and transport, temperature changes,
breakage of cold chain, and leak detection. They preferred additional properties
to be within the packaging material, and also that the new properties would be in
transport packages instead of consumer packages. They particularly wanted an
active tag or a smart card containing memory to be developed for the
distribution package rather than for the consumer package. The main reason is
probably the price of the tags. If it were only a few cents then the tags would be
accepted also for consumer packages. The profit margin in the food sector is low
and therefore all additional costs must be carefully considered.
Different information is required in consumer packages than in transport and
distribution packages. The information in a consumer package is aimed at the
consumers; retailers and other parties in the trade need information on
distribution and storage conditions. All who replied wished to know about the
cold chain, especially if it had been interrupted. Monitoring the temperature
during distribution was an important aspect (Fig. 25.2). Only those whose
products were not sensitive to temperature did not consider it very important.
The majority (70%) also preferred the indicator to record information during
distribution.
In the ‘Safety and Information in Packaging’ program the storekeepers in
Finland were also interviewed by Pakkausteknologia – PTR (Association of
Packaging Technology and Research). All who were interviewed, mentioned
that the most important aspects were the retail packages (the size should be right
for the size of the store), environmental aspects, economics, alarm systems, and
Fig. 25.1 Possible causes of trouble in packaging in food industry. Presented as an
average of all answers. No problems at all is indicated by number 1, and 7 is given if
major problems (Pikkarainen et al., 2002).
Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 539
consumer packages. The consumer packages should be appealing to the
consumer and contain information that the customer needs (Leppa¨nen-Turkula,
2002).
11
Ergonomics and ease of opening the packages at the retail level are
important aspects of packaging design and are valued by the retailers.
25.3 Creating integrated packaging, storage and distribution:
alarm systems and TTIs
The current logistic systems use EAN-codes, shipment labels and codes, alarm
systems, separate in-house control systems, and manual check-ups. Sometimes
Fig. 25.2 Properties that increase information or safety on consumer or distribution
packages. Presented as an average of all answers (Pikkarainen et al., 2002).
540 Novel food packaging techniques
the distribution conditions are also checked with shock and vibration devices or
continuous expensive devices, which monitor the time and temperature and
moisture conditions during distribution. There is a need to develop an economic
integrated system that would serve the different aspects of the whole chain. A
producer wants traceability and an easy way to recall a product from the market.
Low inventories and feed-back systems are also desirable.
There is also a desire to check every actual shipment for environmental
effects, and for shocks and vibrations. The main reason is to get information
about where and when possible mishandlings occur so that responsibilities,
liabilities, and improvements can be determined. Presently the price of the
recorders and the difficulty of returning used recorders exert a pressure to
develop cheaper systems that could even be added to each shipment. However,
the achieved savings must be bigger than the costs.
25.3.1 Alarm systems
It is estimated that shoplifters account for a $10 billion annual loss in the
American retail trade. Retailers have struggled to reduce these losses by various
means. Early electronic devices were cumbersome, and their cost meant that
they had to be removed at the checkout counter and used again. A modern EAS
(electronic article surveillance) device is paper-thin and the size of a postage
stamp. The EAS is attached to the package or product. As more and more
retailers are asking their suppliers to include EAS tags on their products, the
problem of tagging merchandise is shifting from the retailer to the package
supplier. The two systems, which are currently much in use, are
acoustomagnetic and radio frequency technology. EAS will set off an alarm
when the active device is passed though an EAS detection system.
Acoustomagnetic uses 58 kilohertz. Demagnetising the strip or altering its
magnetic properties so that it resonates at different frequency inactivates the
alarm (Soroka, 1999).
12
25.3.2 In-house control
At the moment all different stages of the food chain do their own in-house
control tests. The storage facilities usually have temperature recorders, but how
well the right temperature is maintained near doors and walkways is open to
question. Is the capacity enough to cool a warmed product fast enough? The
most common tests are plain visual checks, but the lorries usually have
temperature recorders if they transport frozen or chilled foods. The store checks
product temperatures at arrival. These sporadic tests, however, do not give
continuous information. By using TTI indicators the time and temperature
combined effects could be better monitored. When used in distribution packages
the cost of the indicator is divided between several consumer packages.
Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 541
25.4 Traceability: radio frequency identification
25.4.1 Automatic identification
Automatic identification is a generic term describing various methods of data
collection and entry. Automatic data collection reduces human error and speeds
up the work. There are varying types of Auto ID operating in the world, many
encountered on a daily basis without the users truly being aware of them.
Examples of these are: card technologies, scanning devices, machine vision,
optical character recognition, speech/voice recognition, radio frequency
identification. Associated with an increase in entry accuracy is an overall
reduction of costs as well as time savings. There are additional benefits that can
be derived as well including, where appropriate, increased product or service
quality, increased productivity and a reduction in inventory.
25.4.2 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
RFID is a non-contact, wireless, data communication form where tags of some
material, usually embedded with an IC chip, are programmed with unique
information and attached to objects for identification and tracking. The
information can be location, product name or code, expiration/product date,
etc., depending on what is required. As tagged items pass by readers, the data
from the tags is decoded and transferred to a host computer for processing. RFID
offers practical benefits over other automatic data capture systems: a line-of-
sight is not needed, it has the ability to read multiple tags simultaneously even
on the move, and it is possible to write information to the tag, and so on (Clarke,
2002).
13
The main difference with EAS is that EAS gives only an alarm, but a
RFID tag also identifies the article as a unique product. This increases the
possibility of using the technique for recall and tracing.
There are several recent articles on RFID. Articles portray a world where the
items give detailed information and can communicate with each other without
human intervention (Chips, 2002, Covell, 2002).
14, 15
There are also several names
used: RFID tag, smart card, smart label. One of the questions is when should the
RFID tag replace EAN-code in fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG)? Will it be in
the next ten years or will there be only a limited use of RDIF tags? The present guess
is that RFID will come first to returnable systems, such as pallets, crates and so on
and later to distribution packages and to more expensive consumer goods. The main
incentive to pursuing the system will be that some big retail chain such as Wal-Mart,
or a producer, demands it in order to get real-time visibility in their supply chains.
Actually Wal-Mart and Procter & Gamble are carrying out preliminary tests with
transponders on pallets. Wal-Mart has fitted out two distribution centres as well as
one Sam’s Club and one Wal-Mart store with the technology in the supply chain.
The software provider is SAP (LebensmittelZeitung.com, 2002).
16
Actually, simple RFID tags are already are in use, library systems, bus and
ski tickets, garment tracking, product handshaking (embedded systems). In
warehouses and distribution centres some applications are in development. To
542 Novel food packaging techniques
read a pallet load manually with bar codes can take up to 30 minutes, but smart
labels can be read up to 1000 + tags per second automatically. The ultimate goal
is real-time ‘people-free’ visibility throughout the supply chain. Trends and
factors that affect the success of RFID tags, are the need for end-to-end
visibility, the kind of investment that will be necessary, how open the
infrastructure will be and the price level of systems.
RFID technology may need some explanation. It generally uses passive tags
that contain a chip and an antenna. When a host system sends power to the tag, it
responds to the reader giving the information inside the chip. The tag is passive
so that it needs no battery with it. There are also active tags, which have a
battery. Active tags can be used to record information during the shipment or
can be used to give information from a longer distance. Even the passive tags
(transponders) and integrated host systems and readers make wireless data
carrier technology available to manufacturer, supplier, retailer, and consumer.
Transponders can be added to labels, packages, and products.
RFID and standardisation
There are several RFID frequencies in use: 125–134KHz, 13.56MHz, UHF 862–
928MHz, 2.45GHz, and 5.8GHz. In order to get a system that can work globally,
there is a need for RFID standards. The following standards are available:
? ISO/IEC 15693-1:2000 Identification cards – Contactless integrated circuit(s)
cards – Vicinity cards – Part 1: Physical characteristics
? ISO/IEC 15693-2:2000 Identification cards – Contactless integrated circuit(s)
cards – Vicinity cards – Part 2: Air interface and initialisation (available in
English only)
? ISO/IEC 15693-2:2000/Cor 1:2001 (available in English only)
? ISO/IEC 15693-3:2001 Identification cards – Contactless integrated circuit(s)
cards – Vicinity cards – Part 3: Anticollision and transmission protocol
(available in English only)
AIM (Association for Automatic Identification and Data Capture Technologies)
has listed in its web pages all different standards that may affect the usage of
RFID (www.aimglobal.org, 2001):
17
JTC 1/SC 31 Automatic identification and data capture techniques
JTC 1/SC 17 Identification cards and related devices
ISO TC 104 / SC 4 Identification and communication
ISO TC 23 / SC 19 Agricultural electronics
CEN/TC 278 Road transport and traffic telematics
CEN/TC 23/SC 3/WG 3 Transportable gas cylinders – operational
requirements – identification of cylinders and contents
ISO/TC204 Transport information and control systems
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
ERO European Radiocommunications Office
Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 543
ANSI American National Standards Institute
Universal Postal Union
ASTM
RFID now
There was a major decision made in June 2002. EAN UCC (EAN International
and Uniform Code Council) has taken some steps to launch GTAG (EAN
2002).
18
The technical foundation for GTAG-compliant products is aligned with
standards being developed under the auspices of the international Organization
for Standardization (ISO), and specifically the work of JTC1/SC31/WG4, and
SG3. One of the deliverables from this Working Group and Sub-Group is a
standard for the air interface (RF communications link) between reader and tags,
which, through technical due diligence, has been chosen by the GTAG Project
Team as the interface for GTAG-compliant systems. This specification is ISO
18000-6. The present state of this specification is a Committee Draft (CD).
Auto-ID Center is a strong global promoter of wireless identification
technologies. It is founded to develop network solutions and software for RFID
technology and create an infrastructure throughout the entire retail supply chain.
Its message is to get the next wave of the Internet revolution going; ‘all sorts of
objects communicating with each other without people being involved’
(www.autoidcenter.com).
Finnish Rafsec supplies the intelligent tags, which support the Auto-ID
Center′s specifications for the low-cost tags (mass production from roll to roll).
They cost now about 50 cents each. Rafsec produces the RFID transponders, the
antenna and the fixing of the chip to the tag and antenna. The RFID chip
generally contains memory from 512 bits to 2kb. The transponders are thin and
flexible in form, they have read and write capabilities, and each chip is unique!
So every product is unique after it is tagged! The information is coded in, the
transponder is robust and it survives the whole life cycle and operates at
temperatures from 25oC to +70oC. It can for a short time stand even a
temperature of 150oC, which means that it can survive in a car tyre or in an
injection moulding. When using 13.56MHz, the tag can be read from up to a
one metre range at a relatively high data rate. A number of pilot projects are
under way, but the threshold to use the systems is high (Savolainen, 2002a and
b).
19, 20
The possibility of reading simultaneously through material at a distance
provides interesting features. One can get exact information of a pallet load even
though some products are removed. Of course there are also weaknesses in
RFID technology; metal affects the signal so it will not read products in a metal
cage. Also liquid materials can affect readability (Cole, 2002).
21
EAN UCC has been active with RFID. The use of a RFID tag in the supply
chain offers a solution to multiple labelling during logistics. When a product is
produced the only known information is the product identification, the batch
number, and the production date. The logistic, transport and customer
information will be known later on. The unique RFID tag would not replace
544 Novel food packaging techniques
the entire printed label, but it will be the unique support on a logistic unit for
capturing or writing computerised data. The new support could provide
significant improvement in the supply chain, such as
? reduction in the number of labels printed by each party
? reduction in the number of barcode printers and label applicators in plants,
warehouses and plate-form
? simplification of the reading and writing process.
The EAN UCC report specially mention the possibility of tagging the support
pallet. This makes the tag reusable, simplifies the replenishment of tags and
allows the costs to be divided by the number of times it is reused. It also
provides the opportunity to use this tag for the tracking of the pallet support
itself. According to the general EAN UCC specifications, the only mandatory
data that is required on a logistics unit is the serial shipping container code
(SSCC). Additional common information is the batch number, best before date,
net weight, the consignment number and ship to or deliver to postal code. In
addition, one of the advantages of the RFID tag is that it enables the repetition of
a particular piece of information, so that on a mixed pallet all required
information of all components can be found (EAN UCC, 2002).
EU and RFID research
The EU has financed ten projects relating to RFID technology (www.cordis.lu,
2002):
22
1.Laundry application using RFID tags for enhanced logistics.
2.Trial of intelligent tag on industrial environment.
3.Passive long distance multiple access high radio frequency identification
system.
4.Grocery store commerce electronic resource.
5.ParcelCall – an open architecture for intelligent tracing solutions in
transport and logistics.
6.Development of an integration method of low-cost RFID tags in injection
moulded and blow moulded packaging systems.
7.Inductively powered universal telemetry systems.
8.Intuitive physical interfaces to the www.
9.Hardtag – development of an industrial RF tagging technology to enable
automated manufacture of ‘one-off’ and small batch products.
10. Radio frequency identification system I.CODE.
25.5 Future trends
25.5.1 The next wave of the Internet
The next wave of the Internet revolution provides that all sorts of objects
communicate with each other without people being involved. The products
Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 545
come to the warehouse along a line, all codes of pallet loads are read to the
computer and the automatic transport vehicles shift the products to the right
shelves, from where they are then shipped further, on customer demand, without
anyone touching them. With RFID, Bluetooth and Internet technologies it is
already possible to detect when an expensive delivery is coming to a building
site. Systems, of course, shall be first applied to more expensive products and to
products that must be delivered to a site at an exact time. As computers have
changed in 30 years, so these technologies will become cheaper and more
common in the near future.
The RFID technology is already in use in some ‘handshaking’ cases, the main
usage areas now being in assembly lines. There are also some printers, which
accept only the right colour carriage, as there is a microchip and antenna in the
carriage and a reader in the printer to detect this. There are several businesses
and industries that can benefit from the use of RFID tags; package delivery,
consumer product manufacturers third-party logistics, retail, airlines, legal,
medical, insurance, electronics, automotive, government. There are several
places where tags can be read; in yards, on trucks, at sea, rooms, zones, dock
doors, shelves, doors, conveyors, en route. The list of tagged assets is even
longer; items, boxes, totes, pallets, trays, tubs, sacks, cartons, books, documents,
files, handling equipment, containers, rail cars, trucks, forklifts, trailers, capital
equipment (d’Hont, 2001).
23
How can the food industry use tags and their capabilities effectively for its
own special needs? It must actively take part in research in this field or the
systems and standards will be developed by others. The present development of
RFID tags solves the problems of traceability, and information banks can be of
great help. Maybe in the future the consumers also will get the required
information easily, entertainingly and accurately. What intelligent and active
features can be added to the new technology? Can techniques such as TTI or
product freshness indicators be added to this technology? Can the RFID tag tell
that a product is getting close to its best before date? Can it record the time and
temperature? Can it be used also in-house control systems?
25.5.2 Traceability
There are more and more demands for traceablity. The BSC and other incidents,
such as food poisonings, have been the main cause of plans to increase
traceability. We should be able to trace and recall if necessary not only the
product but also all its ingredients and packaging materials. The idea is that
product recall could be made precisely within an in-house control system in the
whole food chain. There would be a pallet with a barcode lot number. The pallet
contains products whose batch identity is known, and all of the ingredients,
premixes and packaging materials can be traced by their own ID numbers. Of
course we would then also know where each pallet is delivered and where the
products are put on sale.
546 Novel food packaging techniques
25.5.3 Information banks
EAN is collecting large information banks, from where typical information on
fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) can be retrieved for the wholesalers,
retailers and in the future maybe also for the customers. Currently the EAN-
number provides information on the product and its package. If the RFID tags in
the future become common as EAN-code is today, all parties will get more
information on the product and its properties in an easy way. The
communicating information banks would be at our doorsteps.
25.5.4 Consumer behaviour
A number of very different segments of consumers already exist. Here are only a
few examples served by the food sector:
Not willing to spend time in mega stores
Some of us are not keen on everyday shopping. Shall we go to the shops or order
only via Internet and expect the products to be delivered to our home? There are
already automats available that heat up the chosen frozen food according to the
instructions on the package and tell the customer when the food is ready. Automats
are replacing daily meal-to-home delivery systems with fortnightly refills.
My diet is this, find suitable new products
There are more and more people who must follow a certain diet. If your mobile
phone communicates with the RFID tags on the products in the store, it could in
future tell you that this or that product is good for your diet. ‘You need more
vegetables in your diet, try those. Get the new instructions at the store
computer.’
I am bored, give me pleasure, enjoyment . . .
Enjoyment, excitement and other psychological aspects are becoming more and
more important. Active systems in packages may give the consumer a new
interest in buying a certain product.
25.6 Sources of further information and advice
In addition to general packaging books and magazines, the following Internet
pages are worth visiting as certain aspects such as the RFID are in rapid
developmental stages.
www.aimglobal.org
www.autoidcenter.com
www.cordis.lu
www.ean-ucc.org
www.pakkausteknologia-ptr.fi
www.rafsec.com
Integrating intelligent packaging, storage and distribution 547
25.7 References
1. ISTA, The Association for Transport Packaging (2002), ‘INSTA and
package performance testing: how they contribute to the quality of life’
Worldpak 2002, Improving the quality of life through packaging
innovation, Proceedings of the 13th IAPRI conference on packaging,
June 23–28, 2002 East Lansing, Michigan, USA, CRC press, ISBN 1-
158716-154-0 p. 179.
2. LEPPA
¨
AHO K (2002) Personal information in Finnish, Kesko 30.10.2002.
3. CHONHENCHOP V and SILAYOI P (2002) ‘Comparison of Various Packages
for Mango Distribution in Thailand’, Worldpak 2002, Improving the
quality of life through packaging innovation, Proceedings of the 13th
IAPRI conference on packaging, June 23–28, 2002 East Lansing,
Michigan, USA, CRC press, ISBN 1-158716-154-0 pp. 3–11.
4. KIPP W (2002) ‘The technology of transport packaging evaluation’,
Worldpak 2002, Improving the quality of life through packaging
innovation, Proceedings of the 13th IAPRI conference on packaging,
June 23-28, 2002 East Lansing, Michigan, USA, CRC press, ISBN1-
158716-154-0 pp. 180–9.
5. SINGH S P (2000) ‘Packaging Requirements for Shipping Fresh Produce
Using E-commerce’, Marcondes J, Advance in Packaging Development
and Research, Proceedings from the 20th International Association of
Packaging Research Institutes Symposium, San Jose State University pp.
500—6.
6. WELBY E and MCGREGOS B (1997) Agricultural Export Transportation
Handbook, USDA.
7. SINGH S P and SINGH J (2002a) ‘E-commerce distribution of fresh produce
and flowers’, Worldpak 2002, Improving the quality of life through
packaging innovation, Proceedings of the 13th IAPRI conference on
packaging, June 23–28, 2002 East Lansing, Michigan, USA, CRC press,
ISBN1-158716-154-0 pp. 446–54.
8. SINGH, S P (2002b) Personal communication during the presentation
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