食品包装技术（英文版）：36756_indx

absorbers see scavengers absorption 22, 144–5 see also packaging-flavour interactions absorption-type antimicrobial packaging 51 acetaldehyde scavengers 514 acetate buffer 392 acetic acid 129, 298–9 acid tolerance response (ATR) 250–1 Actipak study 6, 13, 459, 460, 461–8 classification of active and intelligent systems 461–5 inventory 461 microbiological safety and shelf-life extending capacity 465–6 recommendations for legislative amendments 467–8 toxicological, economic and environmental evaluation 466–7 activated carbon scavengers 38, 39, 41 activation energy 347 active packaging 2, 6, 337–8, 459–60 antimicrobial packaging see antimicrobial packaging classification 461–5 and colour control see colour control consumers and see consumers current research 13 current use 12 fish see fish future trends 16–17 integrated active packaging, storage and distribution 5, 18, 204, 535–49 legislation see legislation meat see meat NMBP see non-migratory bioactive polymers scavengers see scavengers scope 469 techniques 6–11 activity locus of 74–5, 77–8 reduced 78 specific activity 60 adsorption 22, 144–5 clay 175, 176 irreversible 179–80 molecular sieves 177–8 silica gel 173, 174, 175 adsorption capacity 184–5 adsorption rate 185 aerobic bacteria 23–5 Aeromonas hydrophila 212–14, 237–8, 250, 290 species 212–14, 235 aflatoxin 24 Ageless absorbers 29, 42, 280, 388, 389–90 agricultural production practices 252, 255 Air Liquide 191–2 air pressure 537–8 Index alarm systems 540–1 alcohol dehydrogenase 93 alcohol oxidase 30 aldehydes 165 absorbers 8, 43, 393–4 algae 320 alginates 393 alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) 44 ambient moisture 181 Ambitemp indicator 108 amines 165 absorbers 8, 43, 393–4 biogenic 130–1, 137 amino-cyclopropane carboxylic acid (ACC) 35 ammonia 130 Amosorb oxygen scavenger 32 amylopectin 522 anaerobiosis 221 ANICO bags 43, 165, 394 anthocyanins 220, 417, 426–7, 429 degradation 422–3 antibiotics 56, 57 anti-browning agents 432 antimicrobial agents 52–8 carbon dioxide 208–10, 387 naturally occurring 244 antimicrobial dipping 245–7, 253 antimicrobial packaging 8–11, 16, 50–70 factors affecting effectiveness 60–4 fish 391–2, 395–6 NMBP 92–4 system construction 58–60 antimicrobial preservative releasers 8, 9 antioxidant releasers 9 antioxidants 57, 392 Apack trays 531 APNEP system 87 apolar polymers 164–5 appearance 366–8 see also colour control applicability of TTIs 111 argon MAP 191–2, 431, 480 testing 193–6 Arrhenius equations 163, 347, 348 Arun Foods Ltd 202–3 ascorbate oxidase 216, 218 ascorbic acid (AA) 30–1, 216–18, 432 Aspergillus parasiticus 23–4 ATP degradation products 131 Australia 12, 14–15 Auto-ID Center 544 automatic identification 542 availability of technology 79 Bacillus cereus 241, 289–90 subtilis 333, 334 bacteria 320 aerobic 23–5 LAB 231, 249–50, 255, 300–1, 370–1, 386 spore-forming 293–4 see also microorganisms bacteriocins 54, 57, 292, 300–1 bananas 536–7 barium oxide 180 barrier layers 26 barrier properties 153–6 barriers, functional 509–12 beef 404–8, 411 Bentonite 174 benzoic acid 297, 393 benzophenone 506–7 ‘best before’ date 558–9 beta-carotene 218 betalains 417 bioactive materials 71 see also non-migratory bioactive polymers biocides 483–4 biodegradable packaging materials 519–34 current applications 529–33 developing novel materials 524–6 future trends 533 legislative issues 526–9 problem of plastic packaging waste 519–20 range of biopolymers 520–4 biogenic amines 130–1, 137 Bioka 30 biological variation 345–6, 350–1, 356, 572–3 biomimetic antimicrobial polymers 83–4 Biopol 523, 531–2 biopolymers see biodegradable packaging materials biosensors 95, 137 biphenyl 484 bone 367 bottle closures 33 bound moisture 182 Brassica vegetables 221–2 Brochothrix thermosphacta 386 bromothymol blue 134 browning 220, 221, 423–4, 425, 428, 430 inhibitors 432 bulk MAP 374–5 Index 577 bulk modification 85–6 bulk transport 483 butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) 392 cadaverine 130–1 calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) 42, 179 calcium oxide (quicklime) 179–80 calcium sulphate 179 calicivirus 239, 247 Campylobacter jejuni 235, 238–9, 241 capillary condensation 184 carbodiimide coupling method 89–90 carbohydrates 151–2 carbon dioxide 94, 190, 279, 480 absorption in meat 403 CAP for meat products 376–7 generation inside package 300, 387 high carbon dioxide and colour stability of fresh produce 426–8, 429–31 and dynamic temperature conditions 567, 569–72 high oxygen MAP 197–8 indicators 11, 282 MAP and food preservation 312, 313 MAP for meat products 372, 373–4 and microbial growth 131, 208–10, 248, 372, 387 pH change indicator 134 pH and solubility of 298 SGS 300, 387 carbon dioxide emitters 9, 387, 388–90 carbon dioxide scavengers 7, 41–2 carbon monoxide 367–8, 372–3, 374, 375–6, 379, 431 carboxymyoglobin 366, 368, 375–6 carotenogenic fruits 420 carotenoids 218–19, 417 casting methods 63 catechol oxygen scavenging sachets 30 catecholases 423 cellular penetration 209 cellulose acetate (CA) 43 certification procedure 474, 475 challenge test 504–5 cheese slices 449–50, 451, 452 chicken balls 454–6 chicken legs, raw 450–4 chitosan 55, 57, 80–2, 393 chlorine 245–7 chlorine dioxide 58 chlorophyll 417, 427–8 degradation 419–22 chloroplasts 417, 420 cholesterol reductase 91–2 cholesterol remover 8 chroma 418, 424 chromoplasts 417, 420 CIELAB colour measurement system 418 citric acid 298–9 clay moisture regulation 172, 174–6 starch-clay nano-composites 524–6, 527 climacteric fruits 420 Clostridium botulinum 240, 250 fish 395–6 measuring pathogen risks 235, 236 microbial safety of MAP 210–11 oxygen scavengers and 24–5 preservation technologies 289–90 coffee 41 collagen sausage casings 533 colorimeters 417–18 colorimetric nose 138 colour control fruit and vegetables 416–38 colour changes and stability 349, 417–18 colour measurement 418–19 colour stability and MAP 424–6 combining low oxygen, high carbon dioxide and other gases 429–32 future trends 423 high carbon dioxide effects 426–8 process of colour change 419–24 meat 401–15 cured meat 409–10, 410, 411–12, 414 factors affecting colour stability 371, 402–3 fresh meat 404–8, 411, 412, 413 future trends 412–14 modelling impact of MAP 403–10 pre- and post-slaughter factors 410–12 colours 480–1 combined preservation techniques 287– 311 combining MAP with other techniques 288–93 consumer attitudes 301–2 future trends 302–3 heat treatment and irradiation 292, 293–6 hygienic conditions 291–3 Na 2 CaEDTA 299–300 578 Index preservatives 292, 297–9 protective microbes and bacteriocins 300–1 soluble gas stabilisation 292, 300 specific groups of microorganisms 289–91 combined UV/ozone systems 317–18, 327–32, 335–6 compostability 526–8 computer simulations see modelling concentration 147–8 condensation 181, 568, 569–72 consumers 15–16, 550–62 attitudes towards combining MAP with other technologies 301–2 attitudes towards novel packaging 555–9 convenience and optimization 443, 447, 448–9, 449–58 and future of novel packaging 559–62 general attitudes 555–6 methods for testing responses 552–5 new packaging technologies and 550–1 problems in testing responses 551–2 segments and behaviour 547 contamination levels, and recycling 500–3 controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP) 365, 378–9 meat products 376–7 controlled release 60–1, 63, 64 corona discharge (CD) 87, 321–2 costs indirect packaging costs 448, 448–9, 449–58 NMBP 79 package optimization 443, 447–8, 448–9, 449–58 TTIs 111 coupling chemistries 88–90 critical temperature indicators (CTIs) 105, 107, 108 critical temperature/time integrators (CTTIs) 105, 107, 108 Cryovac OS1000 32 Cryptosporidium parvum 241, 242, 247 crystallinity 146–7 cured meat 410, 411–12, 414 ham 409–10 Cyclospora cayetanensis 241, 242 cysts, parasitic 241, 242, 247, 320 dairy products 92–3, 449–50, 451, 452, 510–11 dangerous substances 490 Darex oxygen scavenging technology 33 date marks 485, 486, 487, 558–9 dedicated MAP models 351–2 dedicated tests 477 degreening 420, 421 dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) 216–18 demonstrations 560 deoxymyoglobin 366, 367 desiccants see moisture regulation destructive leak test methods 277 destructurised (thermoplastic) starch 522, 526, 527, 530 dew point 181 diacetyl 135 diffusion 77–8, 145, 163 meso-level modelling 340–1, 342, 347–8 micro-level modelling 342–4, 349 diffusion-based TTIs 108–9 dimensioning MAP 352–3 dimethylamine 130 dinitrogen oxide see nitrous oxide MAP dipping, antimicrobial 245–7 discolouration 371 disinfectants 245–7 disintegration test 528–9 distance 537–8 distribution 63 and butchering of meat 377–9 integrating active packaging, storage and 5, 18, 204, 535–49 monitoring shelf-life during 112–16 optimization using TTIs 116–21 package leak indicators during 279–82 reducing pathogen risks 254, 255–6 ‘do not eat’ symbol 489–90 drying 172 recycling processes 505–6 see also moisture regulation dynamic temperature conditions 563–75 future trends 573–4 impact on MAP performance 568–72 maximising MAP performance 572–3 temperature control and risks of MAP 566–8 EAN UCC 544–5 economic evaluation 467 edible coatings 255 antimicrobial packaging and 59–60, 61 chitosan 81–2 fish 392–3 elasticity, modulus of 146, 147 electrochemical sensors 323, 324 electronic article surveillance (EAS) tags 541, 542 Index 579 electronic field date recorders 537 electronic labelling 17, 138, 541, 542 electronic nose 137–8, 513 Enterobacteriaceae 249 environment evaluation in Actipak study 467 green plastics see biodegradable packaging materials packaging waste legislation 491–2 stresses and package optimization 443, 444, 446–7, 448–9, 449–58 enzymatic TTIs 109, 110 enzyme-based oxygen scavengers 30 enzymes 53–4, 71, 209 see also non-migratory bioactive polymers equilibrium modified atmosphere (EMA) 190 Escherichia coli (E. coli) 80, 240 factors affecting survival 242–3, 246, 250 indicator 136 measuring pathogen risks 235, 237 new germicidal techniques 324–5, 332, 333, 334 essential oils 292, 299, 392 ethanol antimicrobial agent 56, 57, 58, 94 indicator of freshness 129–30, 135 ethanol emitters 9, 12, 391 equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) 182 ethylene 344–5, 421–2 ethylene scavengers 7, 12, 34–41, 561 economic aspects 41 measuring ethylene sorption 40 principle of ethylene sorption 37–40 role of 34–7 European Union 12 ILSI document 515 legislation see legislation recycling projects 514 RFID research 545 EVOH (ethylene vinyl alcohol) 25 experimental designs 555 external indicators 11 extrusion 63, 525 exudate losses 369 facultative anaerobes 247–8, 370–1 fat 150–1, 152–3 fermentation threshold 566 Fick’s law 347 films with antimicrobial properties 8–11 choice for MAP 327, 373 developing new films 353 gas impermeable 376 microperforated 190, 567, 571 multilayer PET 511–12 oxygen scavenging 31–3 perforated 347, 567 permeability 347, 353, 356, 402–3 Finland 538–40 First In First Out (FIFO) system 116, 118–20, 121 fish 384–400 active packaging antimicrobial and antioxidant applications 391–2 atmosphere modifiers 387–90 edible coatings and films 392–3 taint removal 393–4 water control 390–1 future trends 395–6 intelligent packaging applications 394–5 microbiology of fish products 385–7 monitoring shelf-life 113–15 flame treatment 87 flavonoids 219, 220 flavour absorbers of off flavours 8 control 368–9 packaging-flavour interactions see packaging-flavour interactions flavour absorption factors affecting 145–9 modelling 160–4 flavour modification 156–8 flavour-releasing materials 9, 44, 482, 561 flavouring substances 482–3 Flory-Huggins theory 160 flow pack machines 198, 325–6 fluorescent dye 281 foamed polymer packaging 530–1 focus group discussions 553 food additives European legislation 478–81, 487 US regulations 75–6 food contact materials (FCM) 460, 470–8, 529 basic rules for migration tests 474–8 Framework Directive 470–1 plastics directives 472–4 symbol for 471–2 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 504, 514–15 580 Index Food Hygiene Directive 485–7 Food Imitation Directive 490–1 food matrix 149–53 food poisoning hazards 314 food safety see safety Food Sentinel System 136 food spoilage see spoilage foodborne infections 232–3, 240–1 form-fill-seal machines 198, 325–7 free volume 146 freezing 294–5 fresh meat 411, 412, 413 beef 404–8 fresh produce 1 colour control see colour control effect of MAP on nutritional quality 215–22 novel MAP applications 189–207 future trends 202–4 high oxygen MAP 196–202 novel MAP gases 191–2 testing 193–6 reducing pathogen risks 231–75 factors affecting pathogen survival 242–51 future trends 254–6 improving MAP 251–4 measuring pathogen risks 232–42 supply chain 535–8 Fresh-Check 109–10 Freshilizer 29 FreshLock 42 FreshMax 33 Freshness Check 108 freshness indicators 11, 17–18, 127–43, 565 biosensors 137 compounds indicating quality 128–32 electronic nose 137–8 future trends 138 pathogen indicators 11, 17–18, 134, 136, 395, 396 types of 132–6 Freshness Monitor 109–10 FreshPad 10 FreshPax 29–30 FreshTag 135, 395 Frisspack 38 frozen foods 115–16 fruit juices 43, 156–8 fruit and vegetables see fresh produce functional barriers 509–12 functionalisation of polymers 79, 85–8 fungi 194, 195 fungicides 54, 57 gas composition colour stability of fresh produce 429–32 colour stability of meat 402–3 high oxygen MAP 197–8 pathogen survival 247–8 gas diffusion meso-level modelling 340–1, 342, 347–8 micro-level modelling 342–4, 349 gas exchange 356, 402–3 meso-level modelling 341, 342 micro-level modelling 341, 348, 349 gas flushing 573 gas indicators 565 carbon dioxide 11, 282 oxygen 11, 280–2 gases absorption in meat 403 antimicrobial agents 56, 58 EU legislation and packaging gases 480 MAP for fish 387–90 novel MAP gases 191–2 SGS 292, 300, 387–8, 388–90 see also under individual gases GEMANOVA model 405–8 general attitude studies 555–6 Germany 515 germicidal techniques 312–36 future trends 332–6 installation of UV/ozone systems 327–32 integration with MAP 325–32 new 314–15 ozone 315, 321–5 ultraviolet radiation 314–15, 315–20 Giardia lamblia 241, 242 glass transition temperature 146, 147 glucalase 30 glucose 129, 136 glucose oxidase 30, 93, 393 glucosinolates 221–2 glutaraldehyde coupling 89 good agricultural practices (GAP) 252, 255 good manufacturing practices (GMP) 252, 252–3 grapefruit juice 43 green plastics see biodegradable packaging materials growth seasons 535–7 GTAG 544 gypsum 179 Index 581 Hafnia alvei 250 ham, cured 409–10 ham pizza 457–8 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system 103, 252, 253, 254, 485 headspace gas composition see gas composition heat stress response 250–1 heat transfer 339, 346–7 heat treatment 292, 293–4, 303 helium 279, 480 hepatitis A viruses (HAV) 239, 241, 291 hexamethylenetetramine 56 high density polyethylene (HDPE) 498–9, 502–3, 530 monolayer bottles 512–13 high impact polystyrene (HIPS) 512 high oxygen MAP 189–90, 191, 192 applying 196–202 fresh produce applications 201–2 future trends 202–4 optimal gas levels 197–8 packaging materials 199–201 produce volume/gas volume ratio 198–9 safety 197 temperature control 201 testing 193–6 histamine 130–1 homeostasis 289 horizontal form-fill-seal (HFFS) machines 198, 325–6 hot-fill conditions 508, 568, 569–72, 573 hue angle 418, 424 humectant salts 178–9 humidity 538 modelling MAP 341, 344, 349, 356 relative 149, 181, 184 temperature control and risks of MAP 567–8 see also moisture regulation; water humidity absorbers see moisture absorbers hurdle technology 51, 52, 289 hydration, water of 179 hydrogen 279 hydrogen sulphide 131–2, 135 hydroxypropyl cellulose 393 hygiene 254 combining MAP with other preservation technologies 291–3 European legislation 485–7 I-Point indicator 108, 109 imitation, food 490–1 immobilisation-type antimicrobial packaging 51–2 immobilised bioactive-type polymers 84–95 antimicrobial packaging/shelf-life extension 92–4 applications 90–5 developing NMBP by immobilisation 85–90 in-package processing 90–2 intelligent packaging 94–5 in-house control 541 in-package processing 90–2 incineration, suitability for 447, 448–9, 449–58 indigenous microflora 244, 249–50 indirect packaging costs 448, 448–9, 449–58 information 560 information banks 547 inherently bioactive synthetic polymers 79–84 chitosan 80–2 UV irradiated nylon 10, 82–3 insect damage 23 insulating materials 10 integrated active packaging, storage and distribution 5, 18, 204, 535–49 alarm systems and TTIs 540–1 future trends 545–7 role of packaging in supply chain 538–40 supply chain for perishable foods 535–8 traceability 18, 542–5, 546 intelligent packaging 2, 6, 459–60 classification 461–5 consumers and see consumers current research 13 current use 12 fish 394–5 freshness indicators see freshness indicators future trends 17–18 integrating active packaging, storage and distribution 5, 18, 204, 535–49 leak detectors see leak detectors legislation see legislation NMBP 94–5 pathogen indicators 11, 17–18, 134, 136, 395, 396 582 Index scope 469 technologies 11–12 TTIs see time-temperature indicators internal indicators 11 Internet 545–6 interviews 553–4 ionising radiation (irradiation) 255, 292, 295–6, 302 invisible oxygen indicators 281 iron-based oxygen scavengers 27–30, 388 irradiation (ionising radiation) 255, 292, 295–6, 302 ISO 9000:2000 quality management standard 103 Japan 12, 14 kimchi 41, 42 kinetic modelling 113–16 labelling 302 European legislation 471, 481, 485, 487–9, 489–90 labels 8 oxygen scavenging 33 lactase-active packaging 8, 77, 90–1 lactic acid 129, 298–9, 521 lactic acid bacteria (LAB) 231, 249–50, 255, 300–1, 370–1, 386 lactoperoxidase system of milk 92–3 lactose-free milk 77, 90–1 lactose remover 8 leak detectors 276–86 detection during processing 277–9 future trends 282–3 indicators during distribution 279–82, 561 leakage, product safety and quality 276–7 Least Shelf-Life First Out (LSFO) system 116–20, 121 legislation 13–15, 200 Australia 14–15 European 15, 75, 459–96 Actipak study 6, 13, 459, 460, 461–8 biocides and pesticides 483–4 biodegradable plastics 526–9 current legislation and recommendations for change 468–70 food additives 478–81, 487 food contact materials 460, 470–8 food flavouring 482–3 food hygiene 485–7 food labelling 471, 481, 485, 487–9, 489–90 initiatives to amend 461–8 Nordic report 460, 468 product safety and waste 489–92 Japan 14 USA 14, 75–6 lettuce, shredded 568–72 lidded trays 375 light bacteria deactivation 332–3, 334 exposure and colour stability of meat 405–7 light-activated oxygen scavenging films 31–2 limonene 157–8, 501–2, 503, 510–11 limonin 43, 165 Lifelines Freshness Monitor 109–10 lipase 424 lipid oxidation 368–9, 392 modelling 162–4 packaging-flavour interactions 159, 162–4 lipoxygenase 424 Listeria monocytogenes 240, 289–90, 395 factors affecting survival 242, 245–6, 248, 249, 251 measuring pathogen risks 233–6 microbial safety of MAP 211–12 LLDPE film 159 locus of activity 74–5, 77–8 logistics optimizing logistic chains 353–4 performance and packaging optimization 442–3 low density polyethylene (LDPE) 154, 155, 157, 158, 498, 530 low-pressure mercury vapour lamp 317 low temperature preservation 292, 294–5, 396 luminescent dyes 281 lycopene 218–19 lysozyme 92 macro-level modelling 339, 346–7 magnesium chloride 178 magnesium oxide 180 malic acid 298–9 marketing 76 properties and packaging optimization 443, 447, 448–9, 449–58 marking/tagging 18 Index 583 mass transfer 144–5, 339, 346–7 meat 1 active packaging 365–83 CAP 376–7 control of appearance 366–8 delaying microbial spoilage 369–71 flavour and texture 368–9 future trends 377–9 MAP technology 372–6 temperature and storage life 371–2 colour control see colour control consumer attitudes towards novel packaging 557, 558 mechanical integrity 63–4 mechanical strength 446, 448–9, 449–58 mechanisms of action 78 mechanistic models 355 membranes, cell 210 melanins 220 mercury lamp, low-pressure 317 meso-level modelling 340–1, 342, 347–8 methyl cellulose 393 metmyoglobin 366, 367, 368 metmyoglobin reduction activity 366–7 Michaelis Menten approach 348 microaerophilic microorganisms 247–8 micro-level modelling 341–6, 348–51 microorganisms 36 Actipak study and safety 465–6 combining MAP with other preservation technologies 287–301 fish 385–7, 395–6 growth kinetics 60–1 integrating MAP with new germicidal techniques see germicidal techniques meat delaying microbial spoilage 369–71 temperature and storage life 371–2 mechanisms of carbon dioxide inhibition 208–10, 387 microbial growth indicators see freshness indicators modelling MAP 345, 350 novel MAP applications for fresh produce 191, 192, 193–5 pathogen risks see pathogen risks safety of MAP 210–14 microperforated films 190, 567, 571 microwave heating modifiers 10 microwave susceptors 10 microwave UV lamps 317–18, 327–32, 335–6 migration 144–5 evaluation and recycling 507–8 from oxygen scavengers and moisture absorbers 461–2, 463 see also packaging-flavour interactions migration limits 460, 472, 529 migration tests, basic rules for 474–8 milk 92–3 milk bottles 512–13 milk products 510–11 minerals, finely dispersed 38–40, 41 minimal processing 252–3 and pathogen survival 244–7 and stress responses 250–1 minimum durability dates 485, 486, 487, 588–9 MINIPAX sachet 44, 394 misuse of plastics 500–3 mixing 77–8 mixtures of flavour compounds 147–8 modelling 337–61 advantages and disadvantages of models 354–5 applying models to improve MAP 352–4 current MAP-related models 346–51 dedicated models 351–2 dynamic changes in headspace gas composition 402–3 flavour absorption 160–4 future trends 356 impact of MAP and colour stability in meat 403–10, 412–13 macro-level 339, 346–7 meso-level 340–1, 342, 347–8 micro-level 341–6, 348–51 migration 507–8 principles and methods 338–46 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 12, 22–3, 365 colour stability in fresh produce 424–32 combining with other preservation techniques 287–311 defining MAP performance 564–6 dimensioning 352–3 and food preservation, food spoilage and shelf-life 312–14 gases see gas composition; gases improving through modelling 337–61 integrating with new germicidal techniques 312–36 leak detection 276–86 novel applications for fresh produce 189–207 packaging optimization 449–58 584 Index performance under dynamic temperature conditions 563–75 product safety and quality 208–30 reducing pathogen risks 231–75 technologies for meat products 372–6 modulus of elasticity 146, 147 moisture 537–8 ingress 182–3 sources in packaging 181–3 see also humidity; moisture regulation; water moisture absorbers 7, 477, 489 fish 390–1 migration from 461–2, 463 moisture regulation 172–85 clay 172, 174–6 fish 390–1 future trends 185 humectant salts 178–9 irreversible adsorption 179–80 molecular sieves 172, 176–8 planning a moisture defence 180–5 selection of desiccant 183–5 silica gel 173–4, 175 moisture vapour transmission rate (MVTR) 182–3 molecular sieves 172, 176–8 molecular size 148 molecular structure 148 Monitor Mark TTI 108–9 monolayer recycled plastics 512–13 monolithic system 62–3, 64 Monte Carlo simulation 118–20, 350–1 Montmorillonite 174, 176 moulds 231, 320 oxygen scavengers and 23–5 multilayer adsorption 184 multilayer PET 511–12 Multivac Rollstock machine 326–7 mycotoxins 23–4 myoglobin 135, 366–8, 404, 411 Na 2 CaEDTA 299–300 nano-composites 524–6, 527 naringin 90, 165 native starch 522 natural extracts 55, 57–8 naturally occurring antimicrobials 244 Nature Works PLA 521, 532 nisin 301 nitric oxide 431–2 nitrite 411–12, 414 nitrogen 190, 313, 373, 374, 376, 480 nitrogen compounds, volatile 130, 135 nitrous oxide MAP 191–2, 480 testing 193–6 noble gases 431 non-climacteric fruits 420 non-destructive package leak testing 276, 277–9 non-migratory bioactive polymers (NMBP) 71–102 benefits 72–7 food processor’s perspective 77 marketing aspects 76 regulatory advantages 75–6 technical 72–5 current limitations 77–9 future trends 95 inherently bioactive polymers 79–84 polymers with immobilised bioactive compounds 84–90 applications 90–5 non-respiring food products 215 Nordic report 460, 468 Norwalk virus 239, 241 nutritional quality see quality nylon, UV irradiated 10, 82–3 odour scavengers 8, 42–4, 393–4 off flavours, absorbers of 8 oil 150–1, 152–3 one-sided contact 476–7 optimization 2, 5, 441–58 examples of 449–58 improving decision-making 458 issues in 442–4 VTT Precision Packaging Concept 444–9 Orega bag 40 oregano essential oil 299 organic acids 53, 57, 129, 298–9 orientated polypropylene (OPP) 199–200 overall migration limit 460, 472, 529 Oxbar 33 oxidation lipid oxidation see lipid oxidation prevention by oxygen scavengers 23 oxygen 312, 313, 480 barrier films 199–200 and growth of Listeria monocytogenes 212 high oxygen MAP see high oxygen MAP indicators 11, 280–2 low oxygen MAP colour stability of fresh produce 424–6, 429–31 Index 585 oxygen (cont.) dynamic temperature conditions 566–7, 569–72 meat appearance 366–7 colour stability 404–8, 409–10 MAP technology 372, 374 permeability 26, 153–6 oxygen emitter/carbon dioxide scavenger dual action sachet 203 oxygen scavengers 7, 12, 22–34, 56, 481 consumer acceptance 556–7 economic aspects 33–4 fish 387, 388–90 meat 377, 378 migration from 461–2, 463 role of 23–5 selection of right type of 25–34 Oxyguard 32 oxymyoglobin 366, 367 Oxysorb 30–1 ozone 315, 321–5 combined UV/ozone systems 317–18, 327–32, 335–6 future trends 332–6 integration with MAP 327–32 PA 530 package integrity 276 see also leak detectors package weight/product weight ratio 446, 448–9, 449–58 packaging: role in supply chain 5–6, 538–40 packaging-flavour interactions 144–71 and active packaging 164–6 factors affecting flavour absorption 145–9 flavour modification and quality 156–8 lipid oxidation 159, 162–4 modelling flavour absorption 160–4 role of differing packaging materials 153–6 role of food matrix 149–53 packaging gases see gas composition; gases packaging materials green plastics see biodegradable packaging materials high oxygen MAP 199–201 improving MAP to reduce pathogen risks 253–4 recycling see recycling role in packaging-flavour interactions 153–6 waste see waste packaging optimization see optimization palletised packs 339, 346–7 palmitates 393 Paperfoam 531 parasites 241, 242, 247, 320 partial freezing 294–5 partition coefficients 161–2 passive MAP 338 pathogen indicators 11, 17–18, 134, 136, 395, 396 pathogen risks 231–75 factors affecting pathogen survival 242–51 future trends 254–6 improving MAP to reduce 251–4 measuring 232–42 see also microorganisms peptides 71 see also non-migratory bioactive polymers perforated films 347, 567 permeability 204 films 347, 353, 356, 402–3 modelling dynamic changes in headspace gas composition 402–3 oxygen 26, 153–6 permeability coefficient 183 permeability rate 183 permeation 144–5 see also packaging-flavour interactions peroxidases 424 pesticide emitters 9 pesticides 484 pH 209, 244, 292, 298 freshness indicators sensitive to pH change 132–4 phenolic compounds 219–21 pheophytin 420–1 Photobacterium phosphoreum 386–7 photodiode 318–19 physical integrity 63–4 pichit film 391 pigment composition 418–19 pizza 457–8, 557 plasma processing 87–8 plaster of paris 179 plastics directives 472–4, 475 packaging-flavour interactions see packaging-flavour interactions recyclability of 498–500 see also recycling 586 Index polarity 148, 161–2 polyalkylene imine (PAI) 43 polycaprolactone 523, 530 polycarbonate (PC) 153, 154, 155, 158 polyesters 148, 165 synthetic 523, 530 polyethylene (PE) 153 polyethylene glycol (PEG) 84, 88 polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) 498–9 polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 530 packaging-flavour interactions 153, 154, 155, 156, 158 recycling 492, 497, 498–9, 500–3, 513 monolayer bottle 512 multilayer PET bottles 511 multilayer PET films 511–12 testing safety and quality 505–8 polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 523, 531–2 polylactic acid (PLA) 84, 520, 521, 530, 532 poly-1–lysine 84 polymer-based TTIs 109–10 polymeric spacers 88 polymers antimicrobial 55, 57 apolar 164–5 NMBP see non-migratory bioactive polymers swelling 86 polyolefins 148 polyphenol oxidase (PPO) 191, 192, 196, 220, 422–3, 423 polypropylene (PP) 153, 154, 155, 498, 530 three-layered PP cups 510–11 polystyrene (PS) 498–9, 530, 530–1 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) 31 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 498–9 polyvinylalcohol (PVOH) 523–4, 531 polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) 26, 199–200 positive lists 460, 472 potassium permanganate scavengers 37–8, 39, 41 potassium sorbate 297, 392 poultry products 1, 368, 450–6 preformed tray and lidding film (PTLF) machines 198 preservation 1, 5–6 combining MAP with other preservation techniques 287–311 MAP and 312–14 traditional methods 51 preservatives 292, 297–9 pressure differential leak testing 278 processing 77 minimal 244–7, 250–1, 252–3 package leak detection during 277–9 reducing pathogen risks 255–6 product/headspace volume ratio 198–9, 409–10 Profresh sachet 394 protective microbes 244, 300–1 see also lactic acid bacteria proteins 71, 532–3 see also non-migratory bioactive polymers protozoan parasites 241, 242, 247, 320 provitamin A carotenoids 218–19 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 80, 332 species 249–50, 370 psychotrophic microorganisms 247–8, 450 pulsed UV light 333–5 putrescine 130–1 qualitative consumer testing 552–3, 553–4 quality 208–30, 303 compounds indicating 128–32 effect of MAP on nutritional quality 215–22 fresh produce 215–22 non-respiring food products 215 extending quality of fish 396 freshness indicators see freshness indicators improving MAP through modelling 345, 355, 356 intelligent packaging techniques 11–12 leakage, product safety and 276–7 packaging-flavour interactions and 156–8 quantitative consumer testing 553, 553–5 questionnaires 554 quinones 220 radio frequency identification (RFID) 542–5, 546 standardisation 543–4 ready meals 1–2, 293–4, 396 recovery 491, 492, 528 recycling 491, 492, 497–518, 528 conventional recycling processes 505–6 direct contact applications 512–13 future trends 513–14 Index 587 recycling (cont.) indirect contact applications 509–12 recyclability of packaging plastics 498–500 recyclability of plastic packaging 500–4 super-clean processes 503–4, 506–7 technology 503–4 testing safety and quality of recycled material 504–9 using recycled plastics in packaging 509–13 redox indicators 26, 280 reducing compounds 280 regeneration of silica gel 173–4 regulation 64, 75–6 see also legislation relative humidity 149, 181, 184 release-type active packaging systems 6–8, 9 release-type antimicrobial packaging 51 reliability 111 remelting 506 research 13, 256 respiration 35–6, 190 respiration rate 204 ripening 35–6, 349–50 roasted chicken balls 454–6 sachets 8 oxygen scavenging 27–31 safety 76, 208–30, 288, 303, 481 consumers and 560–1 European legislation 489–92 high oxygen MAP 197 leakage and 276–7 microbial safety of MAP 210–14 ‘Safety and Information in Packaging’ programme 538–40 Safety Monitoring and Assurance System (SMAS) 122 Salmonella species 235, 238, 240, 242–3, 246, 250, 290 typhimurium 80 salt (sodium chloride) 172, 178, 292, 297–8 scavengers 6, 7–8, 22–49 carbon dioxide 7, 41–2 ethylene see ethylene scavengers future trends 44–5 moisture see moisture absorbers odour 8, 42–4, 393–4 oxygen see oxygen scavengers seasons, growth 535–7 security tags 17, 138 self-cooling cans/containers 10 self-heating cans/containers 10 sensitivity studies 354 sensory quality see quality sensory testing 508–9 shape 490 shelf-life 303, 485 Actipak study and extending capacity 465–6 antimicrobial packaging and extension of 92–4 high oxygen MAP and extending 203 MAP and food preservation 312–14 novel MAP applications and fresh produce 193, 194 packaging optimization 441–2, 444–5 TTIs and monitoring during distribution 112–16 Shelf Life Decision System (SLDS) 120–1 Shewanella putrefaciens 386 Shigella sonnei 240 species 239 shock 537–8 shredded lettuce 568–72 silica gel 173–4, 175 silicates 172, 176–8 silver nitrate 56 silver zeolite 56, 391 simulants 474, 476–7 size 490 slaughtering facilities 378 Smellrite/Abscents 44 sniffing device 513 see also electronic nose snorkel type (ST) machines 198, 374–5, 377 sodium chloride (salt) 172, 178, 292, 297–8 sodium lactate (Na-lactate) 292, 299 softdrink bottles 511, 512 solubility 62–3 soluble gas stabilisation (SGS) 292, 300, 387–8, 388–90 solvent casting 63 sorbic acid 297 source control 499, 500 spacers, polymeric 88 specific activity 60 specific migration limit (SML) 460, 529 specific spoilage organisms (SSOs) 386 spoilage 588 Index fish 385–7, 395–6 MAP, food preservation and 312–14 meat 369–72 delaying microbial spoilage 369–71 mechanisms 314 micro-level modelling 345 see also microorganisms spore-forming bacteria 293–4 stability 72–4 standards, suitability with respect to 446, 448–9, 449–58 Staphylococcus aureus 324–5, 326, 328, 332, 333, 334 starch 522 native 522 thermoplastic 522, 526, 527, 530 starch-based polymers 520, 522–4, 530, 531 starch-clay nano-composites 524–6, 527 Stefan-Maxwell equations 348 stock rotation 116–21 storage 63, 445 integrating active packaging, distribution and 5, 18, 204, 535–49 meat colour stability 402–3, 404–8 effects of temperature 371–2 reducing pathogen risks 254 strain variation 251 Strecker degradation reaction 41 stress responses 250–1, 255–6 STRIPPAX sachet 44, 394 succinimidyl succinate (SS) esters 89–90 sulphur dioxide emitters 9 sulphuric compounds 131–2 super-chilling 294–5, 396 super-clean processes 503–4 cleaning efficiency 506–7 supermarkets 377–8 supply chain 535–49 intelligent supply chain 18 for perishable foods 535–8 role of packaging in 5–6, 538–40 see also integrated active packaging, storage and distribution surface functionalisation 79, 85–8 surface-treated packaging materials 10 sweeteners 480–1 swelling, polymer 86 symbols ’do not eat’ 489–90 for food contact materials 471 synthetic polyesters 523, 530 tagging 18 Temchron indicator 108 temperature 181, 313, 537–8 control and high oxygen MAP 201 glass transition temperature 146, 147 low temperature preservation 292, 294–5, 396 MAP performance under dynamic temperature conditions 563–75 meat colour stability 404–8 effects on storage life 371–2 packaging-flavour interaction 149, 158 reducing pathogen risks 254, 256 storage temperature and pathogen survival 242–3 surface temperature after irradiation 335 temperature-sensitive films 10 Tempil indicator 108 tenderisation 369 texture 368–9 thermoform-fill-seal (TFFS) machines 192, 326–7 thermoplastic starch (TPS) 522, 526, 527, 530 three-layered PP cups 510–11 3M Monitor Mark 108, 108–9 time 537–8 time-temperature indicators (or integrators) (TTIs) 11, 94–5, 103–26 consumer acceptance 557–9 current TTI systems 108–10 defining and classifying 104–6 development of 106–8 fish 394, 396 future trends 121–2 integrated packaging, storage and distribution 540–1 legislation and 473–4, 486 MAP performance 565 maximising effectiveness of 111 monitoring shelf-life during distribution 112–16 optimization of distribution and stock rotation 116–21 requirements for 106 total immersion 476–7 toxicity 490 toxicological evaluation 466–7 Toxin Alert indicator 395 Toxin Guard 136 traceability 18, 542–5, 546 tracer gas leak detection 279 Index 589 traditional preservation methods 51 transportation 483, 536–7, 537–8 trimethylamine (TMA) 130, 386 trimethylamine-oxide (TMAO) 385–6 tristimulus colorimetric measurements 418–19 2–in-1 44, 394 tyramine 130–1 ultraviolet (UV) radiation 255, 314–15, 315–20 combined UV/ozone lamp 317–18, 327–32, 335–6 future trends 332–6 UV irradiated nylon 10, 82–3 UV-light absorbers 8 UNIFAC group contribution model 160 ‘unintended’ atmospheres 247–8 United States (USA) 12, 14, 75–6 FDA 504, 514–15 ‘use by’ date 485, 486, 487 vacuum chamber (VC) machines 192 vacuum packaging 12, 22–3 variation 345–6, 350–1, 356, 572–3 Verifrais package 390 vertical form-fill-seal (VFFS) machines 198, 326 vibration 537–8 viruses 239–42, 243, 247, 320 visual oxygen indicators 280, 281–2 vitamin C 216–18 vitamin E 44 VITSAB TTIs 109, 110, 394 volatile nitrogen compounds 130, 135 volume control 488–9, 573 volume ratio 198–9, 409–10 VTT Precision Packaging Concept 441–58 basic requirements 444–5 calculating the coefficients 448–9 examples of use 449–58 importance of package characteristics 448 improving decision-making 458 optimization results 449 package and storage combinations 445 scoring selected package types 445–8 warm product, packing 508, 568, 569–72, 573 washing fresh produce 245–7 recycling technology 503–4, 505–6 see also super-clean processes waste legislation 491–2 problem of plastic packaging waste 519–20 volume of package waste 446, 448–9, 449–58 water modelling diffusion and loss 344, 349 packaging-flavour interaction 149, 154–5 resistance of starch-based products 522–3 see also humidity; moisture regulation water activity 182 water of hydration 179 weight control 488–9 wet chemical oxidation procedures 86–7 Wexler’s equation 178 white light 332–3, 334 wholesale 491 wine barrels 482 xenon flashlamp 332–3, 334 yeasts 231, 320 Yersinia enterocolitica 212–14, 238, 241, 246, 290 species 235 Zero 2 oxygen scavenger 32 590 Index