Chapter 14 Motivation
The educator’s job is not increase motivation
per se(本身） but to discover,initiate,and
sustain student’s motivation to learn,and to
engage in activities that lead to learning
Chapter 14 Motivation
? 14.1 What is motivation
? Motivation is an internal process that activates,
guides,and maintaining behavior over time,In
plain language,it’s what gets you going,keeps
you going,and determines where you are trying
to go.
? Motivation may vary both in intensity and
direction,
Chapter 14 Motivation
? 14.1 What is motivation
? Motivation may come from intrinsic
characteristics of a task,it may also come from
sources extrinsic to the task.
? Some tasks,such as playing games,have enough
intrinsic incentive value to motivate one to learn,
? Much of what must be learned is not inherently
interesting,so,extrinsic incentives are needed,
Extrinsic reinforcers may range from praise to
grades to recognition to prizes or other rewards.
14.1 What is motivation
? 14.1 What is motivation
? Lepper’s experiment on the impact of rewards on
motivation
? Lepper et al(1973)gave preschoolers an opportunity to
draw with felt-tipped(毡头墨水） markers,which many
of them did quite enthusiastically,The children were
randomly divided into three groups,one was told they
would receive a reward for drawing a picture for a
visitor(a Good Player Award） ; one was given the
reward as surprise(not dependent on their drawing);
and one received no reward,Over the next four days
observes recorded the free-play activities of the children,
no reward.
14.1 What is motivation
? Lepper’s experiment on the impact of rewards on
motivation
? The results showed that those who had received a
reward for drawing spent about half as much time
drawing as those who had received the
“surprise”reward and those who had not gotten.
? The authors suggested that promising extrinsic
rewards for an activity that is intrinsically interesting
may undermine intrinsic interest by inducing children
to expect a reward for doing what they had previously
done nothing,
14.1 What is motivation
? How motivation affects learning and behavior?
? (1)It directs learning and behavior toward particular
goals.
? (2) It leads to increased effort and energy.
? (3) It increases initiation of,and persistence in,
activities.
? (4) It enhances cognitive processing.
? (5)It determines what consequences are reinforcing.
? (6) It leads to improved performance,
14.2 Theories of motivation
? 14.2 What are some theories of motivation?
? Motivation and behavioral learning theory
? The behavior that have been reinforced in the past
are likely to be repeated than behaviors that have
not been reinforced or have been punished,
? Accordingly,students who have been reinforced for
studying(receiving good grades or the approval of
teachers and parents)will be motivated to study,On
the contrary,the students who have not been
reinforced---,unmotivated,Those who have been
punished might be motivated to avoid studying,
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and behavioral learning theory
? In fact,Skinner and other behavioral theorists
would argue that there is no need for separate
theories of learning and motivation because
motivation is simply a product of reinforcement
history.
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and Human Needs
? Hierarchy of needs:
? Deficiency needs:physiological needs,safety
needs,belongingness and love needs,esteem
needs
? Growth needs:need to know and understand,
aesthetic needs,and self-actualization need.
? Self-actualization means the desire to become
everything that one is capable of
becoming(Maslow,1954).
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and dissonance theory
? Cognitive dissonance theory(Festinger,1957)
holds that people experience tension or
discomfort when a deeply held value or belief is
challenged by a psychologically inconsistent
belief or behavior,To resolve the discomfort,
they may change their behaviors or beliefs,or
they may develop justifications or excuses that
resolve the inconsistency,
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and attribution
? Attribution theory(Weiner,1989) seeks to
understand explanations and excuses,
particularly when applied to success or failure,
He suggests that most explanations for success
or failure have three characteristics,The first
is whether the cause is seen as internal or
external,The second is whether it is seen as
stable or unstable,The third is whether it is
perceived as controllable or not.
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and attribution
? The central assumption is that people will
attempt to maintain a positive self-image,
Therefore,when anything good happens,they
are likely to attribute it to their own efforts or
abilities,but anything bad happens,they will
believe that it is due to factors over which they
had no control,
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and attribution
? One concept central to attribution theory is locus of
control,The word,locus”means,location”,A person
with an internal locus of control is one who believes
that success or failure is due to his or her own efforts
or abilities,An external locus of control,---,luck,task
difficulty,or other people’s actions,
? Researches found students high in internal locus of
control have better grades and test scores than do
students of the same intelligence who are low in
internal locus of control,
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Learned helplessness and attribution training
? An extreme form of the motive to avoid failure
is called learned helplessness,which is a
perception that no matter what one does,one
is doomed to failure or ineffectuality:”Nothing
I do matters”,In academic settings,it can be
related to an internal,stable explanation for
failure:I fail because I am dumb,and that
means I will always fail.
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Learned helplessness and attribution training
? Learned helplessness can be avoided or
alleviated by giving students opportunities for
success in small steps,immediate feedback,and,
most important,consistent expectations and
follow-through.
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and expectancy theory
? Motivation(M) = Perceived probability of
success(Ps) × Incentive value of success(Is)
? This formula is called an expectancy model,or
expectancy- valence model,
? It implies that people’s motivation to achieve
something depends on the product of their
estimation of their chance of success(Ps) and
the value they place on success(Is).
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Achievement motivation:the generalized tendency to
strive for success and to choose goal-oriented,
success/failure activities,Achievement-motivated
students will persist longer at a task than students less
high in achievement motivation,even after they
experience failure,and will attribute their failures to
lack of effort rather than to external factors such as
difficulty or luck,In short,achievement-motivated
students want and expect to succeed,and when fail,
they redoubt their efforts until they do succeed.
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and Goal orientations:
? Dweck(1986) and Nicholls(1984) found that some
students are motivationally oriented toward learning
goals(mastery goals),while others are oriented toward
performance goals.
? Students with learning goals see the purpose of
schooling as gaining competence in the skills being
taught,while those with performance goals primarily
seek to gain positive judgments of their
competence(and avoid negative judgments),Students
striving for learning goals are likely to take difficult
courses and to seek challenges,while,the students with
performance goals focus on getting good grades,take
easy courses,and avoid challenging situations,
14.3 How to enhance intrinsic motivation
? (1) Arousing interest,It is important convince
students of the importance and interest level of
material about to be presented,
? (2) Maintaining curiosity:
? (3) using a variety of interesting presentation
modes.
? (4) helping students set their own goals,
14.4 Principles for providing
incentives to learn
? (1) expressing clear expectations,
Communicating clear expectations is
important when introducing assignments.
? (2) providing clear feedback,Feedback means
information on the results of one’s efforts,It
can serve as an incentive,
? (3)providing immediate feedback.
? (4) providing frequent feedback.
The educator’s job is not increase motivation
per se(本身） but to discover,initiate,and
sustain student’s motivation to learn,and to
engage in activities that lead to learning
Chapter 14 Motivation
? 14.1 What is motivation
? Motivation is an internal process that activates,
guides,and maintaining behavior over time,In
plain language,it’s what gets you going,keeps
you going,and determines where you are trying
to go.
? Motivation may vary both in intensity and
direction,
Chapter 14 Motivation
? 14.1 What is motivation
? Motivation may come from intrinsic
characteristics of a task,it may also come from
sources extrinsic to the task.
? Some tasks,such as playing games,have enough
intrinsic incentive value to motivate one to learn,
? Much of what must be learned is not inherently
interesting,so,extrinsic incentives are needed,
Extrinsic reinforcers may range from praise to
grades to recognition to prizes or other rewards.
14.1 What is motivation
? 14.1 What is motivation
? Lepper’s experiment on the impact of rewards on
motivation
? Lepper et al(1973)gave preschoolers an opportunity to
draw with felt-tipped(毡头墨水） markers,which many
of them did quite enthusiastically,The children were
randomly divided into three groups,one was told they
would receive a reward for drawing a picture for a
visitor(a Good Player Award） ; one was given the
reward as surprise(not dependent on their drawing);
and one received no reward,Over the next four days
observes recorded the free-play activities of the children,
no reward.
14.1 What is motivation
? Lepper’s experiment on the impact of rewards on
motivation
? The results showed that those who had received a
reward for drawing spent about half as much time
drawing as those who had received the
“surprise”reward and those who had not gotten.
? The authors suggested that promising extrinsic
rewards for an activity that is intrinsically interesting
may undermine intrinsic interest by inducing children
to expect a reward for doing what they had previously
done nothing,
14.1 What is motivation
? How motivation affects learning and behavior?
? (1)It directs learning and behavior toward particular
goals.
? (2) It leads to increased effort and energy.
? (3) It increases initiation of,and persistence in,
activities.
? (4) It enhances cognitive processing.
? (5)It determines what consequences are reinforcing.
? (6) It leads to improved performance,
14.2 Theories of motivation
? 14.2 What are some theories of motivation?
? Motivation and behavioral learning theory
? The behavior that have been reinforced in the past
are likely to be repeated than behaviors that have
not been reinforced or have been punished,
? Accordingly,students who have been reinforced for
studying(receiving good grades or the approval of
teachers and parents)will be motivated to study,On
the contrary,the students who have not been
reinforced---,unmotivated,Those who have been
punished might be motivated to avoid studying,
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and behavioral learning theory
? In fact,Skinner and other behavioral theorists
would argue that there is no need for separate
theories of learning and motivation because
motivation is simply a product of reinforcement
history.
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and Human Needs
? Hierarchy of needs:
? Deficiency needs:physiological needs,safety
needs,belongingness and love needs,esteem
needs
? Growth needs:need to know and understand,
aesthetic needs,and self-actualization need.
? Self-actualization means the desire to become
everything that one is capable of
becoming(Maslow,1954).
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and dissonance theory
? Cognitive dissonance theory(Festinger,1957)
holds that people experience tension or
discomfort when a deeply held value or belief is
challenged by a psychologically inconsistent
belief or behavior,To resolve the discomfort,
they may change their behaviors or beliefs,or
they may develop justifications or excuses that
resolve the inconsistency,
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and attribution
? Attribution theory(Weiner,1989) seeks to
understand explanations and excuses,
particularly when applied to success or failure,
He suggests that most explanations for success
or failure have three characteristics,The first
is whether the cause is seen as internal or
external,The second is whether it is seen as
stable or unstable,The third is whether it is
perceived as controllable or not.
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and attribution
? The central assumption is that people will
attempt to maintain a positive self-image,
Therefore,when anything good happens,they
are likely to attribute it to their own efforts or
abilities,but anything bad happens,they will
believe that it is due to factors over which they
had no control,
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and attribution
? One concept central to attribution theory is locus of
control,The word,locus”means,location”,A person
with an internal locus of control is one who believes
that success or failure is due to his or her own efforts
or abilities,An external locus of control,---,luck,task
difficulty,or other people’s actions,
? Researches found students high in internal locus of
control have better grades and test scores than do
students of the same intelligence who are low in
internal locus of control,
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Learned helplessness and attribution training
? An extreme form of the motive to avoid failure
is called learned helplessness,which is a
perception that no matter what one does,one
is doomed to failure or ineffectuality:”Nothing
I do matters”,In academic settings,it can be
related to an internal,stable explanation for
failure:I fail because I am dumb,and that
means I will always fail.
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Learned helplessness and attribution training
? Learned helplessness can be avoided or
alleviated by giving students opportunities for
success in small steps,immediate feedback,and,
most important,consistent expectations and
follow-through.
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and expectancy theory
? Motivation(M) = Perceived probability of
success(Ps) × Incentive value of success(Is)
? This formula is called an expectancy model,or
expectancy- valence model,
? It implies that people’s motivation to achieve
something depends on the product of their
estimation of their chance of success(Ps) and
the value they place on success(Is).
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Achievement motivation:the generalized tendency to
strive for success and to choose goal-oriented,
success/failure activities,Achievement-motivated
students will persist longer at a task than students less
high in achievement motivation,even after they
experience failure,and will attribute their failures to
lack of effort rather than to external factors such as
difficulty or luck,In short,achievement-motivated
students want and expect to succeed,and when fail,
they redoubt their efforts until they do succeed.
14.2 Theories of motivation
? Motivation and Goal orientations:
? Dweck(1986) and Nicholls(1984) found that some
students are motivationally oriented toward learning
goals(mastery goals),while others are oriented toward
performance goals.
? Students with learning goals see the purpose of
schooling as gaining competence in the skills being
taught,while those with performance goals primarily
seek to gain positive judgments of their
competence(and avoid negative judgments),Students
striving for learning goals are likely to take difficult
courses and to seek challenges,while,the students with
performance goals focus on getting good grades,take
easy courses,and avoid challenging situations,
14.3 How to enhance intrinsic motivation
? (1) Arousing interest,It is important convince
students of the importance and interest level of
material about to be presented,
? (2) Maintaining curiosity:
? (3) using a variety of interesting presentation
modes.
? (4) helping students set their own goals,
14.4 Principles for providing
incentives to learn
? (1) expressing clear expectations,
Communicating clear expectations is
important when introducing assignments.
? (2) providing clear feedback,Feedback means
information on the results of one’s efforts,It
can serve as an incentive,
? (3)providing immediate feedback.
? (4) providing frequent feedback.
