Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1 concept learning
? 7.1.1 concept
? A concept is a category under which specific elements
may be grouped.e.g,a red ball,a red pencil,and a red
chair are all instances of the simple concept,red”,An
“even number” is defined as any integer（ 整数） that is
divisible by two without a remainder,and that an,odd
number” is one that is not evenly(均匀地） divisible by
two.
? Many concepts are far more complex and less well
defined than the concept,red”,the concepts such as
“justice,love,democracy”are the ones that people may
spend a lifetime trying to understand.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.2 How do we learn concepts?
? Concepts are generally learned in two ways,One
way is to learn concepts by observation,Most
concepts we learn outside of school are by this way,
e.g,a child learns the concept,car” by hearing
certain vehicles referred to as a,car”,Initially,the
child might include pickup trucks or motorcycles
under the concept,car”,but as time goes on,the
concept is refined until the child can clearly
differentiate,car” from,noncar”.
? The other way is by definition,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.2 How do we learn concepts?
? e.g,it is very difficult to learn the concepts
“aunt”or,uncle” by observation alone,One
could observe hundreds of,aunts”and
“nonaunts” without deriving a clear concept
of,aunt”.In this case,the concept is best
learned by definition,To be an aunt,one must
be a female whose brother or sister(or
brother-or sister-in-law)has children.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? Just as concepts can be learned in two ways,so
can they be taught in two ways.
? One way is called example-rule approach,
Students may be given instances and
noninstances of a concept and later asked to
derive or infer a definition.
? Other way is called rule-example approach,
Students may be given a definition and then
asked to identify instances and noninstances.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? For most concepts taught in school,it makes most sense
to state a definition,present several instances(and
noninstances),and then restate the definition,showing
how the instances typify definition,This is called rule-
example-rule,e.g.,learning” might be defined as,a
change in an individual caused by experience”,
Instances might include learning of skills,information,
behaviors,and emotions,Noninstances might include
maturational changes,such as changes in behaviors or
emotions caused by the onset of puberty（ 青春期）,
Finally,the definition might by restated and discussed
in light of the instances and noninstances.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? (1) use a lot of examples
? Three rules when presenting examples of
concepts:
? Rule 1,order the examples from easy to
difficult.
? Highly typical exemplars are likely to be the
easiest for students to understand,e.g,A
science teacher presenting examples of stars
discusses the North Star before mentioning that
our sun is also a star.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? Rule 2,select examples that differ from one other.
The science teacher presenting the stars includes
examples of both new and old stars.
? Rule 3,compare and contrast examples and
nonexamples,The examples of objects in space that
are not stars include planets,our moon,and
meteors(流星）, The concept mammal,easy examples
are dogs,cats and humans,and nonexamples are
insects,reptiles（ 爬行动物）,and fish.How about dolphins,
bats,snakes,and kangaroos?
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? (2) combine examples with definitions to encourage full
understanding of a concept.
? We can begin with examples before presenting definitions of
the concept,or present the definition first,then give examples,
e.g.defining alliteration(头韵） as the repetition of initial
consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words,offering
examples such as,partridge（ 鹌鹑） in a pear tree” and,two
turtle doves（ 菜包肉末饭）,,
? A synthesis of the two approaches would involve presenting the
definition,followed by examples,followed by a reinforcement
of the definition.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? (3) distinguish between defining and characteristic
features,Defining features are features necessary and
sufficient for defining a concept,e.g,If an integer is
evenly divisible by two,this feature is a necessary
characteristic of an even number.Being divisible by two
is also enough to guarantee that integer is an even
number,So,divisibility by two is sufficient for evenness
of a number,Other example,a widow is a woman who
has previously been married(a necessary but not
sufficient feature) and whose husband has died(a
necessary and sufficient feature)
? A characteristic feature is a property typical of
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? Something represented in a concept,but not
always associated with it,e.g,the ability to fly is a
characteristic feature rather than a defining
feature of a bird,Having multiple players is a
characteristic feature of games,but not a
defining feature.
? (4) Help students link new concepts to what they
already know,For example,the teacher
introducing alliteration（ 头韵） might mention
that it belongs to a larger group of words that
also includes rhyming and assonance(类似的音）,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
?7.2 Reasoning
?7.2.1 what is reasoning
?Reasoning is process of drawing
conclusions from evidence.It is a basic
part of deep and thoughtful learning,By
reasoning,students make sense of what
they read and hear in class.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.2 inductive and deductive reasoning
? Inductive reasoning is the process of drawing
reasonable general conclusions from specific
facts or observations,or going from the
specific to the general.In induction,it is no
possible to have logic certainty,because there
is always the chance that the next observation
you make will disconfirm all the previous
observations have confirmed,e.g,an adult who
is mute will disconfirm the inference that all
adults talk.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.2 inductive and deductive reasoning
? Expert teacher look for ways to challenge conclusions
that students reach on the basis of inductive reasoning,
In this manner,teachers help students understand how
alternative conclusions often can be based on the same
set of facts,
? Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing specific,
logically valid conclusions from one or more general
premise,or going from the general to the specific,By
its nature,deductive reasoning leads to conclusions
that are logically certain,e.g,If a liquid boils at 2120F,
it is water,This liquid boils at 2120F,Therefore,it is
water.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Using syllogisms（ 三段论法，推论法，演绎）, A syllogism is a
deductive argument that permits a conclusion from a
series of two statements or premises,Each of these
two premises contains two terms,with one term
common to both premises,e.g.
? Premise A,You are taller than your best friend.
? Premise B,Your best friend is taller than your sister.
? Who is the tallest?
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Encouraging inductive reasoning
? Students need to be taught that it is important
to make inductive inferences,but also
important to be looking constantly for
disconfirmations of these inferences,Not only
is inductive reasoning a natural way to learn,it
is also a way in which students can sharpen
their reasoning skills in everyday life.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Repairing fallacious reasoning
? Expert teacher are quick to point out underlying
errors in students’ arguments or to help students come
to realize their own errors,By doing so these teacher
help students improve their reasoning skills in ways
that will be useful well beyond the immediate situation.
? Fallacies tend to result from the incorrect application
of heuristics---informal,intuitive,and often speculative
（ 投机的） shortcuts in thinking that may solve a
problem but are not guaranteed to do so,e.g,Are there
more words in the English language that begin with
the letter R or that have R as their third letter?
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Most respondents say that there are more words
beginning with the letter R(Tversky & Kahneman,1973),
Why? Because it is easier to generate words beginning
with the letter R than it is to generate words having R as
the third letter,In fact,there are more English language
words with R as their third letter.
? Another common fallacy is misuse of the
representativeness heuristic,When one use this
heuristic,he judge the probability that a particular
event or object belong to a certain category by how
obviously it resembles or represents the population from
which it comes,For instance,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Most people believe that if a coin is tossed six
times,a sequence of HTHHTH(with H
representing heads and T standing for tails) is
more likely than a sequence of HHHHTH,In
fact,each sequence is equally likely to be
generated by a random process,The first
sequence somehow seems to represent a random
coin-tossing process better than the second
sequence.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? A third common heuristic is overconfidence,
an overestimate of the likelihood of the
correctness of a judgment,Overconfidence
may explain why students are so reluctant to
check their work,proofread(校对） their papers,
and think before they talk,By warning
students of the overconfidence heuristic,you
may help them realize the importance of
checking over what they do.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Equally unsuccessful is underconfidence,a
thought pattern in which people believe they
are less likely to be correct than they actually
are,Underconfidence can impair a person’s
willingness to undertake challenges that he or
she is fully capable of meeting,
Underconfidence also leave students less
willing to ask a teacher or peer for help when
they are faced with challenges.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.3 Problem solving
? 7.3.1 what is problem solving?
? Problem solving is the process of moving from a
situation in need of resolution（ 决定，决心） to a solution,
overcoming any obstacles along the way.
? 7.3.2,The problem-solving cycle
? Step 1,Identify the existence of a problem
? Step 2,Define the problem,Students may recognize
they do not understand fractions,without being sure
of exactly what it is they do not understand( some
funny-looking numbers written one on top of another!)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.3.2,The problem-solving cycle
? Step 3,Represent and organize information
about a problem,e.g,John went to the store
and bought two small bars of candy for 80
cents,He gave the shopkeeper 1 dollar,How
much change did he receive?
? Student A,＄ 1.00 - ＄ 0.80 = ＄ 0.20
? Student B,100￠ - 80 ￠ = 20 ￠
? Student C,100 ￠ -40 ￠ -40 ￠ =20 ￠
? Student D,80 ￠ + X= ＄ 1.00
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.3.2,The problem-solving cycle
? Step 4,Create or select a strategy for
problem solving,
? Step 5,Allocate resources for problem
solving,Time is the first resource,Effort is
the second resource,Other resources are
money,space,equipment,and materials,etc,
Wise allocation of these resources in school
creates an effective environment for learning
and allows for flexibility,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.3.2,The problem-solving cycle
? Step 6,Monitor problem solving,As one is
solving a problem,he must keep track of his
problem solving,As result,he can discover the
wrong step,and correct it,without having to
rework the entire problem,Such a strategy
can save time and frustration.
? Step 7,Evaluate the solution to a problem,
Students need to check their work on a test,
proofread a paper,or even ask themselves
whether their answer to a problem make sense.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.4 Types of problems
? Well-structured and ill-structured problems,
? Well-structured problems are those with clear
paths to their solutions(Sternberg,1999),Many
problems students encounter in school are
well-structured problems,e.g,to choose among
several answer options on a vocabulary test,or
to solve a fairly difficult physics problem,
Students can use a well-defined path to reach
the solutions to these problems.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.4 Types of problems
? ill-structured problems are those with no clear
paths to a solution,Ill-structured does not refer
to something’s being wrong or amiss（ 有毛病的，错
误的） with the problems,It implies that the
problems have no other obvious paths to
solution.e.g,write a term paper on a topic of
their choice,Similarly,planning a effective
class presentation is to a large extent an ill-
structured problem because there is no set of
steps teachers can follow to guarantee a
successful lesson.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5 Strategies for problem solving
? 7.5.1 Algorithms（ 算法式） and heuristics
? An algorithm is to follow a clear and fixed set of
steps that guarantees a solution to a problem.e.g.the
problem of multiple 26 by 12,
? You buy security--- a guarantee of a correct
solution---but often at the expense of efficiency.
? Heuristic is an informal,intuitive,and often
speculative（ 投机的） strategy that might solve a
problem but is not guaranteed to do so(Korf,
1999).e.g,a heuristic for finding a friend is to start
by asking his other friends where he is.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.1 Algorithms（ 算法式） and heuristics
? Heuristics yield efficiency,but at the expense of the
security that you will definitely find the correct
solution,Here are four of the most common heuristics:
? (1)Means-ends analysis,The problem solver analyzes
the problem by viewing the goal and then tries to
decrease the distance between the current state and
the goal,A student who breaks down a problem,such
as completing a complex term paper,into smaller
problems or subgoals and works in turn on each
subgoal is using means-ends analysis.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.1 Algorithms（ 算法式） and heuristics
? (2) working forward,The problem solver begins with
an analysis of the current state and tries to solve the
problem from start to finish,The student who makes
a list of all the steps needed to complete the term
paper,before he begins it,is working forward.
? (3)working backward,The problem solver starts at
the end,or goal,and tries to work backward there,A
student who knows a final deadline for a complicated
project and them writes reminders in his or her
calendar about when to start each step so as to be
done in time is working backward.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.1 Algorithms（ 算法式） and heuristics
? (4)generate and test(trial and error),The problem
solver simply generates alternative courses of action,
not necessarily in a systematic way,and then
considers whether each course of action works,A
Student using this heuristic might sit down and
write the introduction of the term paper,before
realizing that he needed to do research,Although
this heuristic is generally regarded as ineffective,in
a completely new situation,it is sometimes better to
use it to gather data that will let you move to a more
methodical heuristic.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5 Strategies for problem solving
? 7.5.2 problem isomorphs,They are problems
that have the same formal structure,but
different ways of expressing this structure,
Sometimes a problem may stump(难住）
students,even though they already know
exactly how to solve the problem when it is
represented in a somewhat different form.
? e.g.,the monk problem”.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.2 problem isomorphs
? A monk decides to pursue study,contemplation,and prayer in a
place where he will not be disturbed,He decides that the best place
to go is an isolated monastery at the top of a high mountain (as
shown in Figure 9.3),The monk starts climbing the mountain at 8
A.M,and arrives at the top of the mountain at 4 P.M,of the same
day,He varies his speed,of course,depending on just how steep a
given part of the mountain is,and he also stops for lunch,The next
week,the monk,feeling spiritually refreshed,decides to return,He
starts his descent at 8 A.M,Feeling relaxed and peaceful,he
descends the mountain slowly not arriving at the bottom of the
mountain until 4 RM,Must there be a point on the mountain that
the monk passes at exactly the same time of day on the two
different days of his ascent and subsequent descent? Why or why
not?
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.2 problem isomorphs
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.2 problem isomorphs
? In a changed form,instead of imagine the same
monk going up and down the mountain on the
separate days,you image two separate monks,
one ascending the mountain and the other
descending the mountain on the same day,If
one goes up and the other simultaneously goes
down,clearly the two monks will have to pass
each other at some time of the day,as shown in
the following figure.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.2 problem isomorphs
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.6 Impediments to problem solving
? Mental set,a predisposition to think about a
problem in a particular way(Luchins,1942).
? Functional fixedness,unable to invent a
specific new use for something because of its
conventional use,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.7 Expertise in problem solving
? A study of the advantages experts have over novices
concludes they have five primary advantages (Chi,
Glaser,&Farr,1988):
? 1,They perceive large,meaningful patterns of
information more readily than novices,In other
words,they see the whole picture more easily than
do novices,who may become fixated on details.
? 2,They perform tasks more quickly and with fewer
errors than novices.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 3,They deal with problems at a deeper level than
novices,Therefore,they deal with the underlying
meanings of problems,not just with the way the
problems look or sound.
? 4,Their memory for information in their domain is
superior to that of novices because of their ability to
draw on more and better organized prior knowledge
about their domain of expertise.
? 5,They take more time to analyze a problem before
undertaking it,allowing them then to solve it more
efficiently than novices.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.8 Implications for teaching
? (1)Define problems,Teachers can practice
defining problems using the content of lessons
or naturally occurring opportunities,For
example,an elementary school teacher might
assemble(集合） the class to discuss a problem
the teacher has identified,The room is not
being cleaned up before students go to recess,
Students need to know what kind of problem
they face before they plan a solution strategy,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.8 Implications for teaching
? （ 2） Teach strategies
? （ 3） Look for isomorphs,An isomorph of a
geometry problem that requires finding the
perimeter(周长） of a rectangle（ 长方形） might involve
asking students to imagine walking the length and
width of the school soccer field,
? （ 4） Help students overcome impediments to
problem solving,Help students practice flexible
thinking,by occasionally doing things in a slightly
different way.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? What is declarative knowledge?
? Knowledge of objects and facts(knowing-
about things or knowing-what),also called
declarative memory,prepositional
knowledge,e.g,Beijing is the capital of
China,It is essential in both interpreting the
external world and in introspectively placing
one’s self in context.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How is declarative knowledge represented?
? Prepositions,
? Prepositional systems:
? Schema:
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How do we learn declarative knowledge?
? Four Steps,
? Step 1 New knowledge is presented via some medium
(video,text,audio etc) and is apprehended by the
learner,Apprehension involves some sort of attention
to the information,For example,when one is reading,
one is aware of the words and ideas on the page,In
this state the reader is attending to the text,However,
there are times when one is reading that their
attention is not fully focused on the text; for example,
when ones mind wanders while reading,
(Apprehension)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How do we learn declarative knowledge?
? Step 2,
? Material is translated by the learner into
propositions,At this step the learner is organizing
the information,Prior knowledge is an important
component during this step,The designer should
consider developing strategies such as advanced
organizers or graphic organizers to aid the learner in
translating the information,Analogies are helpful as
are reflection strategies,(Organizing)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How do we learn declarative knowledge?
? Step 3:
? Related propositions in the learner's memory
are activated,The information is stored and
organized within the learner's mind,
Learning styles becomes an important
element in determining how the learner stores
the information,(Organizing)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How do we learn declarative knowledge?
? Step 4:
? Elaborations are generated by the
learner as new connections stimulate the
formation of inferences,As a result of
this linking new knowledge is constructed,
(Elaborating)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How to teach declarative knowledge
? (1) arouse attention and state instructional
objectives
? (2) activate prior experience or knowledge
? (3) present new organized information
? (4) elaborate the relations between new and
prior knowledge
? (5) review and memorize
? (6) assess and evaluate
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? An example:
? 生物学的, 减数分裂, 教学过程举例
? 1、预期与注意：
? （ 1）设计问题、引发注意
? （ 2）告知教学目标
? ※ 能讲出精子与卵细胞形成过程中染色体的主要变化，并讲
出精子与卵细胞形成过程的区别
? ※ 能讲出减数分裂与有丝分裂的区别（至少 5个）
? ※ 能根据细胞分裂图形，判断细胞分裂时期与方式（ 10个
图至少对 7个）
? ※ 能绘制减数分裂过程中染色体,DNA随时期变化的曲线图
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 2、激活原有知识：提问有丝分裂的知识
? 3、选择性知觉：
? ※ 讲述有关概念（同源染色体、精原细胞等）
? ※ 通过多媒体呈现减数分裂的动态变化过程，提醒学
生注意同源染色体的行为变化
? 4、新信息进入原有命题网络：
? ※ 比较精子与卵细胞的形成过程的异同
? ※ 比较减数分裂与有丝分裂的异同
? 5、知识的巩固与转化
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? ※ 小结减数分裂，使减数分裂的知识得到巩固
? ※ 设计变式练习（图形变式为主）训练学生，
使学生形成判别细胞分裂方式与时期的技能
? ※ 反馈
? 6、知识的迁移与应用,
? ※ 编制细胞分裂测试题（选择、填空、识图、
绘图等）
? ※ 对测验结果作评价
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.10 Procedural knowledge
? What is procedural knowledge?
? Procedural knowledge is knowledge about
knowing how to perform certain activities.
? Examples,How to play basketball?
? How to drive a car? 1/3 + 5/6 =?
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.10 Procedural knowledge
? How is procedural knowledge represented?
? Productions,if---,then---
? Production systems:
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.10 Procedural knowledge
? How we learn procedural knowledge?
? (1)We are presented with a description of a
way to perform a task,
? (2) We practice it,perhaps haltingly at first
but our proficiency improves with continued
practice,and it benefits from feedback,
? (3)Finally,we reach the point at which our
ability to perform the task is automatic; we no
longer have to think about it,(Nickols,2000)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.10 Procedural knowledge
? How to teach procedural knowledge?
? (1) arouse attention and state instructional
objectives
? (2) activate prior experience or knowledge
? (3) present new organized information
? (4) elaborate the relations between new and
prior knowledge
? (5) practice
? (6)perform automatically
Questions
? 1,What are the differences between
declarative and procedural knowledge?
2,How to teach declarative knowledge in
classroom?
? 3,How to teach procedural knowledge in
classroom?
Knowledge learning and instruction
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1 concept learning
? 7.1.1 concept
? A concept is a category under which specific elements
may be grouped.e.g,a red ball,a red pencil,and a red
chair are all instances of the simple concept,red”,An
“even number” is defined as any integer（ 整数） that is
divisible by two without a remainder,and that an,odd
number” is one that is not evenly(均匀地） divisible by
two.
? Many concepts are far more complex and less well
defined than the concept,red”,the concepts such as
“justice,love,democracy”are the ones that people may
spend a lifetime trying to understand.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.2 How do we learn concepts?
? Concepts are generally learned in two ways,One
way is to learn concepts by observation,Most
concepts we learn outside of school are by this way,
e.g,a child learns the concept,car” by hearing
certain vehicles referred to as a,car”,Initially,the
child might include pickup trucks or motorcycles
under the concept,car”,but as time goes on,the
concept is refined until the child can clearly
differentiate,car” from,noncar”.
? The other way is by definition,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.2 How do we learn concepts?
? e.g,it is very difficult to learn the concepts
“aunt”or,uncle” by observation alone,One
could observe hundreds of,aunts”and
“nonaunts” without deriving a clear concept
of,aunt”.In this case,the concept is best
learned by definition,To be an aunt,one must
be a female whose brother or sister(or
brother-or sister-in-law)has children.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? Just as concepts can be learned in two ways,so
can they be taught in two ways.
? One way is called example-rule approach,
Students may be given instances and
noninstances of a concept and later asked to
derive or infer a definition.
? Other way is called rule-example approach,
Students may be given a definition and then
asked to identify instances and noninstances.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? For most concepts taught in school,it makes most sense
to state a definition,present several instances(and
noninstances),and then restate the definition,showing
how the instances typify definition,This is called rule-
example-rule,e.g.,learning” might be defined as,a
change in an individual caused by experience”,
Instances might include learning of skills,information,
behaviors,and emotions,Noninstances might include
maturational changes,such as changes in behaviors or
emotions caused by the onset of puberty（ 青春期）,
Finally,the definition might by restated and discussed
in light of the instances and noninstances.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? (1) use a lot of examples
? Three rules when presenting examples of
concepts:
? Rule 1,order the examples from easy to
difficult.
? Highly typical exemplars are likely to be the
easiest for students to understand,e.g,A
science teacher presenting examples of stars
discusses the North Star before mentioning that
our sun is also a star.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? Rule 2,select examples that differ from one other.
The science teacher presenting the stars includes
examples of both new and old stars.
? Rule 3,compare and contrast examples and
nonexamples,The examples of objects in space that
are not stars include planets,our moon,and
meteors(流星）, The concept mammal,easy examples
are dogs,cats and humans,and nonexamples are
insects,reptiles（ 爬行动物）,and fish.How about dolphins,
bats,snakes,and kangaroos?
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? (2) combine examples with definitions to encourage full
understanding of a concept.
? We can begin with examples before presenting definitions of
the concept,or present the definition first,then give examples,
e.g.defining alliteration(头韵） as the repetition of initial
consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words,offering
examples such as,partridge（ 鹌鹑） in a pear tree” and,two
turtle doves（ 菜包肉末饭）,,
? A synthesis of the two approaches would involve presenting the
definition,followed by examples,followed by a reinforcement
of the definition.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? (3) distinguish between defining and characteristic
features,Defining features are features necessary and
sufficient for defining a concept,e.g,If an integer is
evenly divisible by two,this feature is a necessary
characteristic of an even number.Being divisible by two
is also enough to guarantee that integer is an even
number,So,divisibility by two is sufficient for evenness
of a number,Other example,a widow is a woman who
has previously been married(a necessary but not
sufficient feature) and whose husband has died(a
necessary and sufficient feature)
? A characteristic feature is a property typical of
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.1.3 How should concepts be taught?
? Something represented in a concept,but not
always associated with it,e.g,the ability to fly is a
characteristic feature rather than a defining
feature of a bird,Having multiple players is a
characteristic feature of games,but not a
defining feature.
? (4) Help students link new concepts to what they
already know,For example,the teacher
introducing alliteration（ 头韵） might mention
that it belongs to a larger group of words that
also includes rhyming and assonance(类似的音）,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
?7.2 Reasoning
?7.2.1 what is reasoning
?Reasoning is process of drawing
conclusions from evidence.It is a basic
part of deep and thoughtful learning,By
reasoning,students make sense of what
they read and hear in class.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.2 inductive and deductive reasoning
? Inductive reasoning is the process of drawing
reasonable general conclusions from specific
facts or observations,or going from the
specific to the general.In induction,it is no
possible to have logic certainty,because there
is always the chance that the next observation
you make will disconfirm all the previous
observations have confirmed,e.g,an adult who
is mute will disconfirm the inference that all
adults talk.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.2 inductive and deductive reasoning
? Expert teacher look for ways to challenge conclusions
that students reach on the basis of inductive reasoning,
In this manner,teachers help students understand how
alternative conclusions often can be based on the same
set of facts,
? Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing specific,
logically valid conclusions from one or more general
premise,or going from the general to the specific,By
its nature,deductive reasoning leads to conclusions
that are logically certain,e.g,If a liquid boils at 2120F,
it is water,This liquid boils at 2120F,Therefore,it is
water.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Using syllogisms（ 三段论法，推论法，演绎）, A syllogism is a
deductive argument that permits a conclusion from a
series of two statements or premises,Each of these
two premises contains two terms,with one term
common to both premises,e.g.
? Premise A,You are taller than your best friend.
? Premise B,Your best friend is taller than your sister.
? Who is the tallest?
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Encouraging inductive reasoning
? Students need to be taught that it is important
to make inductive inferences,but also
important to be looking constantly for
disconfirmations of these inferences,Not only
is inductive reasoning a natural way to learn,it
is also a way in which students can sharpen
their reasoning skills in everyday life.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Repairing fallacious reasoning
? Expert teacher are quick to point out underlying
errors in students’ arguments or to help students come
to realize their own errors,By doing so these teacher
help students improve their reasoning skills in ways
that will be useful well beyond the immediate situation.
? Fallacies tend to result from the incorrect application
of heuristics---informal,intuitive,and often speculative
（ 投机的） shortcuts in thinking that may solve a
problem but are not guaranteed to do so,e.g,Are there
more words in the English language that begin with
the letter R or that have R as their third letter?
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Most respondents say that there are more words
beginning with the letter R(Tversky & Kahneman,1973),
Why? Because it is easier to generate words beginning
with the letter R than it is to generate words having R as
the third letter,In fact,there are more English language
words with R as their third letter.
? Another common fallacy is misuse of the
representativeness heuristic,When one use this
heuristic,he judge the probability that a particular
event or object belong to a certain category by how
obviously it resembles or represents the population from
which it comes,For instance,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Most people believe that if a coin is tossed six
times,a sequence of HTHHTH(with H
representing heads and T standing for tails) is
more likely than a sequence of HHHHTH,In
fact,each sequence is equally likely to be
generated by a random process,The first
sequence somehow seems to represent a random
coin-tossing process better than the second
sequence.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? A third common heuristic is overconfidence,
an overestimate of the likelihood of the
correctness of a judgment,Overconfidence
may explain why students are so reluctant to
check their work,proofread(校对） their papers,
and think before they talk,By warning
students of the overconfidence heuristic,you
may help them realize the importance of
checking over what they do.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.2.3 How to help students learn to reason？
? Equally unsuccessful is underconfidence,a
thought pattern in which people believe they
are less likely to be correct than they actually
are,Underconfidence can impair a person’s
willingness to undertake challenges that he or
she is fully capable of meeting,
Underconfidence also leave students less
willing to ask a teacher or peer for help when
they are faced with challenges.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.3 Problem solving
? 7.3.1 what is problem solving?
? Problem solving is the process of moving from a
situation in need of resolution（ 决定，决心） to a solution,
overcoming any obstacles along the way.
? 7.3.2,The problem-solving cycle
? Step 1,Identify the existence of a problem
? Step 2,Define the problem,Students may recognize
they do not understand fractions,without being sure
of exactly what it is they do not understand( some
funny-looking numbers written one on top of another!)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.3.2,The problem-solving cycle
? Step 3,Represent and organize information
about a problem,e.g,John went to the store
and bought two small bars of candy for 80
cents,He gave the shopkeeper 1 dollar,How
much change did he receive?
? Student A,＄ 1.00 - ＄ 0.80 = ＄ 0.20
? Student B,100￠ - 80 ￠ = 20 ￠
? Student C,100 ￠ -40 ￠ -40 ￠ =20 ￠
? Student D,80 ￠ + X= ＄ 1.00
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.3.2,The problem-solving cycle
? Step 4,Create or select a strategy for
problem solving,
? Step 5,Allocate resources for problem
solving,Time is the first resource,Effort is
the second resource,Other resources are
money,space,equipment,and materials,etc,
Wise allocation of these resources in school
creates an effective environment for learning
and allows for flexibility,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.3.2,The problem-solving cycle
? Step 6,Monitor problem solving,As one is
solving a problem,he must keep track of his
problem solving,As result,he can discover the
wrong step,and correct it,without having to
rework the entire problem,Such a strategy
can save time and frustration.
? Step 7,Evaluate the solution to a problem,
Students need to check their work on a test,
proofread a paper,or even ask themselves
whether their answer to a problem make sense.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.4 Types of problems
? Well-structured and ill-structured problems,
? Well-structured problems are those with clear
paths to their solutions(Sternberg,1999),Many
problems students encounter in school are
well-structured problems,e.g,to choose among
several answer options on a vocabulary test,or
to solve a fairly difficult physics problem,
Students can use a well-defined path to reach
the solutions to these problems.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.4 Types of problems
? ill-structured problems are those with no clear
paths to a solution,Ill-structured does not refer
to something’s being wrong or amiss（ 有毛病的，错
误的） with the problems,It implies that the
problems have no other obvious paths to
solution.e.g,write a term paper on a topic of
their choice,Similarly,planning a effective
class presentation is to a large extent an ill-
structured problem because there is no set of
steps teachers can follow to guarantee a
successful lesson.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5 Strategies for problem solving
? 7.5.1 Algorithms（ 算法式） and heuristics
? An algorithm is to follow a clear and fixed set of
steps that guarantees a solution to a problem.e.g.the
problem of multiple 26 by 12,
? You buy security--- a guarantee of a correct
solution---but often at the expense of efficiency.
? Heuristic is an informal,intuitive,and often
speculative（ 投机的） strategy that might solve a
problem but is not guaranteed to do so(Korf,
1999).e.g,a heuristic for finding a friend is to start
by asking his other friends where he is.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.1 Algorithms（ 算法式） and heuristics
? Heuristics yield efficiency,but at the expense of the
security that you will definitely find the correct
solution,Here are four of the most common heuristics:
? (1)Means-ends analysis,The problem solver analyzes
the problem by viewing the goal and then tries to
decrease the distance between the current state and
the goal,A student who breaks down a problem,such
as completing a complex term paper,into smaller
problems or subgoals and works in turn on each
subgoal is using means-ends analysis.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.1 Algorithms（ 算法式） and heuristics
? (2) working forward,The problem solver begins with
an analysis of the current state and tries to solve the
problem from start to finish,The student who makes
a list of all the steps needed to complete the term
paper,before he begins it,is working forward.
? (3)working backward,The problem solver starts at
the end,or goal,and tries to work backward there,A
student who knows a final deadline for a complicated
project and them writes reminders in his or her
calendar about when to start each step so as to be
done in time is working backward.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.1 Algorithms（ 算法式） and heuristics
? (4)generate and test(trial and error),The problem
solver simply generates alternative courses of action,
not necessarily in a systematic way,and then
considers whether each course of action works,A
Student using this heuristic might sit down and
write the introduction of the term paper,before
realizing that he needed to do research,Although
this heuristic is generally regarded as ineffective,in
a completely new situation,it is sometimes better to
use it to gather data that will let you move to a more
methodical heuristic.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5 Strategies for problem solving
? 7.5.2 problem isomorphs,They are problems
that have the same formal structure,but
different ways of expressing this structure,
Sometimes a problem may stump(难住）
students,even though they already know
exactly how to solve the problem when it is
represented in a somewhat different form.
? e.g.,the monk problem”.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.2 problem isomorphs
? A monk decides to pursue study,contemplation,and prayer in a
place where he will not be disturbed,He decides that the best place
to go is an isolated monastery at the top of a high mountain (as
shown in Figure 9.3),The monk starts climbing the mountain at 8
A.M,and arrives at the top of the mountain at 4 P.M,of the same
day,He varies his speed,of course,depending on just how steep a
given part of the mountain is,and he also stops for lunch,The next
week,the monk,feeling spiritually refreshed,decides to return,He
starts his descent at 8 A.M,Feeling relaxed and peaceful,he
descends the mountain slowly not arriving at the bottom of the
mountain until 4 RM,Must there be a point on the mountain that
the monk passes at exactly the same time of day on the two
different days of his ascent and subsequent descent? Why or why
not?
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.2 problem isomorphs
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.2 problem isomorphs
? In a changed form,instead of imagine the same
monk going up and down the mountain on the
separate days,you image two separate monks,
one ascending the mountain and the other
descending the mountain on the same day,If
one goes up and the other simultaneously goes
down,clearly the two monks will have to pass
each other at some time of the day,as shown in
the following figure.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.5.2 problem isomorphs
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.6 Impediments to problem solving
? Mental set,a predisposition to think about a
problem in a particular way(Luchins,1942).
? Functional fixedness,unable to invent a
specific new use for something because of its
conventional use,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.7 Expertise in problem solving
? A study of the advantages experts have over novices
concludes they have five primary advantages (Chi,
Glaser,&Farr,1988):
? 1,They perceive large,meaningful patterns of
information more readily than novices,In other
words,they see the whole picture more easily than
do novices,who may become fixated on details.
? 2,They perform tasks more quickly and with fewer
errors than novices.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 3,They deal with problems at a deeper level than
novices,Therefore,they deal with the underlying
meanings of problems,not just with the way the
problems look or sound.
? 4,Their memory for information in their domain is
superior to that of novices because of their ability to
draw on more and better organized prior knowledge
about their domain of expertise.
? 5,They take more time to analyze a problem before
undertaking it,allowing them then to solve it more
efficiently than novices.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.8 Implications for teaching
? (1)Define problems,Teachers can practice
defining problems using the content of lessons
or naturally occurring opportunities,For
example,an elementary school teacher might
assemble(集合） the class to discuss a problem
the teacher has identified,The room is not
being cleaned up before students go to recess,
Students need to know what kind of problem
they face before they plan a solution strategy,
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.8 Implications for teaching
? （ 2） Teach strategies
? （ 3） Look for isomorphs,An isomorph of a
geometry problem that requires finding the
perimeter(周长） of a rectangle（ 长方形） might involve
asking students to imagine walking the length and
width of the school soccer field,
? （ 4） Help students overcome impediments to
problem solving,Help students practice flexible
thinking,by occasionally doing things in a slightly
different way.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? What is declarative knowledge?
? Knowledge of objects and facts(knowing-
about things or knowing-what),also called
declarative memory,prepositional
knowledge,e.g,Beijing is the capital of
China,It is essential in both interpreting the
external world and in introspectively placing
one’s self in context.
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How is declarative knowledge represented?
? Prepositions,
? Prepositional systems:
? Schema:
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How do we learn declarative knowledge?
? Four Steps,
? Step 1 New knowledge is presented via some medium
(video,text,audio etc) and is apprehended by the
learner,Apprehension involves some sort of attention
to the information,For example,when one is reading,
one is aware of the words and ideas on the page,In
this state the reader is attending to the text,However,
there are times when one is reading that their
attention is not fully focused on the text; for example,
when ones mind wanders while reading,
(Apprehension)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How do we learn declarative knowledge?
? Step 2,
? Material is translated by the learner into
propositions,At this step the learner is organizing
the information,Prior knowledge is an important
component during this step,The designer should
consider developing strategies such as advanced
organizers or graphic organizers to aid the learner in
translating the information,Analogies are helpful as
are reflection strategies,(Organizing)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How do we learn declarative knowledge?
? Step 3:
? Related propositions in the learner's memory
are activated,The information is stored and
organized within the learner's mind,
Learning styles becomes an important
element in determining how the learner stores
the information,(Organizing)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How do we learn declarative knowledge?
? Step 4:
? Elaborations are generated by the
learner as new connections stimulate the
formation of inferences,As a result of
this linking new knowledge is constructed,
(Elaborating)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.9 Declarative knowledge
? How to teach declarative knowledge
? (1) arouse attention and state instructional
objectives
? (2) activate prior experience or knowledge
? (3) present new organized information
? (4) elaborate the relations between new and
prior knowledge
? (5) review and memorize
? (6) assess and evaluate
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? An example:
? 生物学的, 减数分裂, 教学过程举例
? 1、预期与注意：
? （ 1）设计问题、引发注意
? （ 2）告知教学目标
? ※ 能讲出精子与卵细胞形成过程中染色体的主要变化，并讲
出精子与卵细胞形成过程的区别
? ※ 能讲出减数分裂与有丝分裂的区别（至少 5个）
? ※ 能根据细胞分裂图形，判断细胞分裂时期与方式（ 10个
图至少对 7个）
? ※ 能绘制减数分裂过程中染色体,DNA随时期变化的曲线图
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 2、激活原有知识：提问有丝分裂的知识
? 3、选择性知觉：
? ※ 讲述有关概念（同源染色体、精原细胞等）
? ※ 通过多媒体呈现减数分裂的动态变化过程，提醒学
生注意同源染色体的行为变化
? 4、新信息进入原有命题网络：
? ※ 比较精子与卵细胞的形成过程的异同
? ※ 比较减数分裂与有丝分裂的异同
? 5、知识的巩固与转化
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? ※ 小结减数分裂，使减数分裂的知识得到巩固
? ※ 设计变式练习（图形变式为主）训练学生，
使学生形成判别细胞分裂方式与时期的技能
? ※ 反馈
? 6、知识的迁移与应用,
? ※ 编制细胞分裂测试题（选择、填空、识图、
绘图等）
? ※ 对测验结果作评价
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.10 Procedural knowledge
? What is procedural knowledge?
? Procedural knowledge is knowledge about
knowing how to perform certain activities.
? Examples,How to play basketball?
? How to drive a car? 1/3 + 5/6 =?
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.10 Procedural knowledge
? How is procedural knowledge represented?
? Productions,if---,then---
? Production systems:
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.10 Procedural knowledge
? How we learn procedural knowledge?
? (1)We are presented with a description of a
way to perform a task,
? (2) We practice it,perhaps haltingly at first
but our proficiency improves with continued
practice,and it benefits from feedback,
? (3)Finally,we reach the point at which our
ability to perform the task is automatic; we no
longer have to think about it,(Nickols,2000)
Chapter 7
Knowledge learning and instruction
? 7.10 Procedural knowledge
? How to teach procedural knowledge?
? (1) arouse attention and state instructional
objectives
? (2) activate prior experience or knowledge
? (3) present new organized information
? (4) elaborate the relations between new and
prior knowledge
? (5) practice
? (6)perform automatically
Questions
? 1,What are the differences between
declarative and procedural knowledge?
2,How to teach declarative knowledge in
classroom?
? 3,How to teach procedural knowledge in
classroom?
