Chapter 5 Cognitive Learning Theories,
Bruner’s Learning Theory
“Any subject can by taught effectively to
any child at any stage of development”
Chapter 5 Cognitive Learning Theories,
Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.1 About Bruner:
? Jerome Seymour
Bruner(1915-)
? Born in New York in
1915.
? 1931,studied law at Duke
Uni.,then studied Psy,
because of the influence
of Mcdougall.
? 1937,received B.A at
Duke Uni.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.1 About Bruner:
? 1938-1941,studied in Harvard Uni,and received his
Ph.D,(Honorary doctorates,Yale,Columbia,
Sorbonne,Berlin,Rome,etc.)
? 1941-1945,worked in psychological department in
the army during World War Ⅱ,
? 1945-72,taught in Harvard Uni.where he founded the
Center for Cognitive Studies in 1961.
? 1955-56,visiting professor at Oxford Uni.
? 1981-88,taught at the New School for Social
Research in New York City.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.1 About Bruner:
? 1965,presidency of APA.
? A Study of Thinking(1956),The process of
Education(1960),Toward a Theory of
Instruction(1966),Child’s Talk(1983),Actual
Minds,Possible Worlds(1983),Act of
Meaning(1988),etc,
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.1 About Bruner
? Bruner is a cognitive psychologist who is
highly interested in learning process,He has
been acknowledged as a major supplement of
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development,He
tried to extend the scope of the existing theory
of cognitive development by creating his
“Three Modes of Representation” and
pointing out the close relationship between
cognitive development and theory of
instruction.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Bruner’s ideas begin with his assumptions about
human perception and information processing.He
noted that we are constantly bombarded(炮轰，轰击）
with much more stimulation than we can consciously
attend to and process,so we attend selectively---we
focus on that portion of the input that is most
important or interesting,The input that we attend to is
actively perceived and interpreted in organized fashion,
using expectations developed through prior experience,
Input processed in this manner is stored in the form of
imagery,concepts,and other representational
structures,and they are ultimately organized into a
grand structure that constitutes the person’s model of
reality.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? In Bruner’s view,knowledge is organized into
categories that simplify the task of processing
and retaining information by allowing us to
interpret the new with reference to the
familiar,We can recognize instances as
examples of more general categories of
knowledge or events.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ Three modes of representation:
? Enactive mode(actions):learners acquire
knowledge by action,past events and
patterned motor response,Enactive mode
knowledge is knowledge about how to
manipulate the environment through overt
behavior,Images,words,and symbols are not
involved to any significant degree,This mode
is predominant in early childhood but
continuing throughout life.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Iconic mode(pictures):learners perceive outside with
images by using visual and other sensory
organizations,Thinking becomes less stimulus bound
and dependent on active manipulation of concrete
objects,Children are capable of understanding
knowledge presented in the iconic mode via pictures,
images,or memories of previously experienced
objects or events,They can begin to think about the
properties of objects rather than only about what can
be done with these objects,perform arithmetic
computations without having to count actual objects
or use their fingers.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Symbolic mode(words and numbers):learners
understand knowledge by language and
reason,moreover they start trying to solve
problems by thinking creatively.They can
understand and manipulate purely abstract
concepts,They must be able to do this in order
to profit from extended verbal instruction in
the more formal aspects of subject-matter
knowledge(higher-order rules and principles
expressing relationships among defined
concepts.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ Discovery learning:
? Bruner believes that much of the learning that
is most meaningful to learners is developed
through discoveries that occur during
exploration motivated by curiosity,He would
like schools to provide learners with more
opportunities to expand their knowledge by
developing and testing hypotheses rather than
merely reading or listening to the teacher.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? he advocates instructional methods that encourage
student learn by discovery,Opportunities to
manipulate objects actively and transform them
through direct action are valuable for inducing
curiosity,as are activities that encourage students to
search,explore,analyze,or otherwise process input
rather than merely respond to it,In theory,such
opportunities not only will increase students'
knowledge about the topic at hand but also will help
them develop generalized learning-to-learn strategies
useful for discovering knowledge in other situations.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Discovery learning allows students to move
through from enactive,iconic stage to
symbolic stage as they encounter new
information,First,the students manipulate
and act on materials,then form images as
they note specific features and make
observations from these experiences and
observations,When students are motivated
and participate in the discovery project,
discovery learning leads to superior learning.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ the process of discovery learning:
? (1)identify problems,The teacher must carefully
plan the questions that should be asked in order to
help students to attain the principle or abstract being
taught,order the examples in the lesson,and be
certain that the reference materials and equipment
are readily available.
? (2)generate hypotheses,Students are encouraged to
use their intuition,imagination,and creativity,to
make guesses based on incomplete evidence.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? (3)test hypotheses,Classroom learning should
be take place through inductive reasoning,by
using specific examples to formulate a general
principle.
? (4)apply conclusions to new situations.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Discovery learning,an example
? Man,A Course of Study(MACOS)(人：学科的中心）
? It is a social studies program for the middle
grades,MACOS deals with the varieties of
human beings and their habitats,cultures,and
behaviors,It relies on novelty,incongruity（ 不调
和的，不适宜）,and contrast to stimulate students'
curiosity and cause them to address the
content in an inquiry-oriented mode,
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? the classic example is the "fill-in-the-map" exercise in
which students are given maps indicating the physical
features of an area (temperatures,rainfall,elevations,
and locations of natural resources and waterways) and
are invited to speculate about the locations of the capital
city and the major seaport,the economic emphases likely
to develop in particular regions or the placement and
functions of the major highways or railroads,Later,the
students are given more detailed maps indicating the
development that actually occurred,This feedback
generally confirms the usefulness of the principles of
geography being learned but also introduces complexity
by showing that exceptions can occur due to unique local
factors (capitals are not always the largest or most
centrally located cities)
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? Discovery learning,an example
? MACOS uses novelty to stimulate curiosity by exposing
students to unfamiliar people,places,and practices,It
also helps students to structure the content by repeatedly
calling attention to four kinds of contrast,humans
versus animals,humans versus prehistorical
evolutionary precursors,contemporary humans versus
primitive humans,and adults versus children,In general,
the program tries to provide students with models to use
in analyzing the social world,to impart respect for the
capacities of humans as a continually evolving species,
and to develop students' confidence in their own
thinking and problem-solving abilities.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Limitations of discovery learning:
? (1) true discoveries are rare,and most of
them are made by the brightest and most
motivated students,(2) discovery learning is
uncertain and inefficient compared to more
direct instruction,(3) it places the teacher in
the unnatural role of withholding information
from students who are experiencing
frustration or "discovering" mistaken notions
that will have to be "unlearned" later,
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Limitations of discovery learning:
? (4) it needs careful planning and structuring--
providing the students with clear goals and with
needed information or skills,guiding their
exploration with cues or questions,and finishing
with a review to make sure that what they learn is
complete and accurate.
? (5) many discovery activities appear to be more
trouble than they are worth,Inquiry-oriented
science curricula,for example,often include an
experiment calling for comparison of plants grown
in sunlight with plants grown in the dark.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ the structure of a field of study.Bruner
emphasizes the students should be assisted in
grasping the structure of a field of study,
which means the overall pattern of a field of
study,If they grasp it,they are more likely to
remember what they learn,comprehend
principles that can be applied in a variety of
situations,and be prepared for mastering
more complex knowledge.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ the spiral curriculum:
? Bruner is famous for his statement that any subject
can be taught in some intellectually honest way to any
learner,This was not a claim that anyone can learn
anything; note the qualifier "in some intellectually
honest way."
? In applying this idea,he recommended the spiral
curriculum---instead of sequencing(先后顺序 ） objectives
so that learners move through successive steps of
increasing difficulty or complexity,learners are
brought back to given topics periodically but
encouraged to address them at different levels of
knowledge representation and analysis.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ the spiral curriculum:
? The idea is that each time the "spiral" comes around
to a particular topic,learners will have broadened
and deepened their knowledge about this and related
topics and therefore will be both able and motivated
to undertake a deeper exploration of it,
? e.g,the ability to recognize and label different
animals might be an appropriate initial objective,
Then students could learn classifications for animals
and the similarities and differences among animal
types,Later they could learn about the natural
habitats and behavior of various animals,and still
later they could study animal anatomy or physiology.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ useful errors:
? He has little interest in minimizing errors,a
principle that is basic to Skinner's approach,
Bruner believes error are useful for
maintaining interest and stimulating
hypotheses,He also believes that learners will
retain more if allowed to organize material
according to their interests.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational
implications
? open education
? open education calls
for (1) more flexible
use of space
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational implications
? (2) planning for a range of activities to occur
simultaneously as students learn through
exploration and discovery on their own or with
peers,and (3) readiness to respond to students'
initiatives and help them pursue their
individual interests.
? the open education philosophy achieved
considerable popularity among teacher-
educators in the 1960s and 1970s and was
implemented to some degree in many
elementary schools.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational implications
? Present both examples and nonexamples of the
concepts you are teaching.
? e.g.mammals include people,kangaroos,
whales,cats,dolphins,and camels as examples,
Chickens,fish,alligators(鳄鱼 ）,frogs,and
penguins as nonexamples.
? Ask students for additional examples and
nonexamples.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational implications
? Help students see connections among
concepts.
? e.g,ask questions such as,what else could
you call this apple?”(Fruit).,what do we do
with fruit”(Eat).,what do we call things we
eat?”(Food)
? Use diagrams,outlines,and summaries to
point out conclusions.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational implications
? Pose a question and let students try to find the
answer.
? e.g.How could the human hand be improved?
? What is the relation between the area of one
tile(地砖） and the area of the whole floor?
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational implications
? Encourage students to make intuitive guesses.
? e.g,Instead of giving a word’s definition,say,
“let’s guess what it might mean by looking at
the words around it.”
? Give students a map of ancient Greece and ask
where they think the major cities were.
? Don’t comment after the few guesses,Wait for
several ideas before giving the answer.
? Use guiding questions to focus students when
their discovery has led them too far astray.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.4 Evaluation of Bruner’ theory
? Contributions:
? Studied directly the students’ learning.
? Discovery learning as useful learning method.
? Intrinsic motivation(interests,curiosity,etc.)
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.4 Evaluation of Bruner’ theory
? Criticisms：
? Skinner points out,Teachers may choose to
use discovery techniques to avoid the
possibility of failure since they cannot fail if
they do not even attempt to provide instruction,
It is impossible for any group of inexperienced
students to discover for themselves more than
a tiny fraction of the accumulated knowledge
of a culture.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.4 Evaluation of Bruner’ theory
? Genuine,original discovery is rare inside or
outside the classroom.
? Discovery is often inefficient and time-
consuming and learning proceeds fitfully(断断
续续地）,
? Interpersonal problems may arise when
discovery method is used.
? Discovery method may be inappropriate at
certain times,with certain pupils,and in
certain learning situations.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.4 Evaluation of Bruner’ theory
? It has taken millions of thinker thousands
of years to accumulate knowledge about
natural and human phenomena,and it is
absurd to assume that a group of children
can even begin to come up with equivalent
insights.---B.F.Skinner.
Questions
? 1,Can students really be taught,or must
they learn on their own? What’s your
viewpoint of the role of discovery
learning?
? 2.According to Bruner,what is the
learning outcomes?
? 3.Give me examples of discovery learning
in classroom.
Bruner’s Learning Theory
“Any subject can by taught effectively to
any child at any stage of development”
Chapter 5 Cognitive Learning Theories,
Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.1 About Bruner:
? Jerome Seymour
Bruner(1915-)
? Born in New York in
1915.
? 1931,studied law at Duke
Uni.,then studied Psy,
because of the influence
of Mcdougall.
? 1937,received B.A at
Duke Uni.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.1 About Bruner:
? 1938-1941,studied in Harvard Uni,and received his
Ph.D,(Honorary doctorates,Yale,Columbia,
Sorbonne,Berlin,Rome,etc.)
? 1941-1945,worked in psychological department in
the army during World War Ⅱ,
? 1945-72,taught in Harvard Uni.where he founded the
Center for Cognitive Studies in 1961.
? 1955-56,visiting professor at Oxford Uni.
? 1981-88,taught at the New School for Social
Research in New York City.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.1 About Bruner:
? 1965,presidency of APA.
? A Study of Thinking(1956),The process of
Education(1960),Toward a Theory of
Instruction(1966),Child’s Talk(1983),Actual
Minds,Possible Worlds(1983),Act of
Meaning(1988),etc,
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.1 About Bruner
? Bruner is a cognitive psychologist who is
highly interested in learning process,He has
been acknowledged as a major supplement of
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development,He
tried to extend the scope of the existing theory
of cognitive development by creating his
“Three Modes of Representation” and
pointing out the close relationship between
cognitive development and theory of
instruction.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Bruner’s ideas begin with his assumptions about
human perception and information processing.He
noted that we are constantly bombarded(炮轰，轰击）
with much more stimulation than we can consciously
attend to and process,so we attend selectively---we
focus on that portion of the input that is most
important or interesting,The input that we attend to is
actively perceived and interpreted in organized fashion,
using expectations developed through prior experience,
Input processed in this manner is stored in the form of
imagery,concepts,and other representational
structures,and they are ultimately organized into a
grand structure that constitutes the person’s model of
reality.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? In Bruner’s view,knowledge is organized into
categories that simplify the task of processing
and retaining information by allowing us to
interpret the new with reference to the
familiar,We can recognize instances as
examples of more general categories of
knowledge or events.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ Three modes of representation:
? Enactive mode(actions):learners acquire
knowledge by action,past events and
patterned motor response,Enactive mode
knowledge is knowledge about how to
manipulate the environment through overt
behavior,Images,words,and symbols are not
involved to any significant degree,This mode
is predominant in early childhood but
continuing throughout life.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Iconic mode(pictures):learners perceive outside with
images by using visual and other sensory
organizations,Thinking becomes less stimulus bound
and dependent on active manipulation of concrete
objects,Children are capable of understanding
knowledge presented in the iconic mode via pictures,
images,or memories of previously experienced
objects or events,They can begin to think about the
properties of objects rather than only about what can
be done with these objects,perform arithmetic
computations without having to count actual objects
or use their fingers.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Symbolic mode(words and numbers):learners
understand knowledge by language and
reason,moreover they start trying to solve
problems by thinking creatively.They can
understand and manipulate purely abstract
concepts,They must be able to do this in order
to profit from extended verbal instruction in
the more formal aspects of subject-matter
knowledge(higher-order rules and principles
expressing relationships among defined
concepts.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ Discovery learning:
? Bruner believes that much of the learning that
is most meaningful to learners is developed
through discoveries that occur during
exploration motivated by curiosity,He would
like schools to provide learners with more
opportunities to expand their knowledge by
developing and testing hypotheses rather than
merely reading or listening to the teacher.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? he advocates instructional methods that encourage
student learn by discovery,Opportunities to
manipulate objects actively and transform them
through direct action are valuable for inducing
curiosity,as are activities that encourage students to
search,explore,analyze,or otherwise process input
rather than merely respond to it,In theory,such
opportunities not only will increase students'
knowledge about the topic at hand but also will help
them develop generalized learning-to-learn strategies
useful for discovering knowledge in other situations.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Discovery learning allows students to move
through from enactive,iconic stage to
symbolic stage as they encounter new
information,First,the students manipulate
and act on materials,then form images as
they note specific features and make
observations from these experiences and
observations,When students are motivated
and participate in the discovery project,
discovery learning leads to superior learning.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ the process of discovery learning:
? (1)identify problems,The teacher must carefully
plan the questions that should be asked in order to
help students to attain the principle or abstract being
taught,order the examples in the lesson,and be
certain that the reference materials and equipment
are readily available.
? (2)generate hypotheses,Students are encouraged to
use their intuition,imagination,and creativity,to
make guesses based on incomplete evidence.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? (3)test hypotheses,Classroom learning should
be take place through inductive reasoning,by
using specific examples to formulate a general
principle.
? (4)apply conclusions to new situations.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Discovery learning,an example
? Man,A Course of Study(MACOS)(人：学科的中心）
? It is a social studies program for the middle
grades,MACOS deals with the varieties of
human beings and their habitats,cultures,and
behaviors,It relies on novelty,incongruity（ 不调
和的，不适宜）,and contrast to stimulate students'
curiosity and cause them to address the
content in an inquiry-oriented mode,
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? the classic example is the "fill-in-the-map" exercise in
which students are given maps indicating the physical
features of an area (temperatures,rainfall,elevations,
and locations of natural resources and waterways) and
are invited to speculate about the locations of the capital
city and the major seaport,the economic emphases likely
to develop in particular regions or the placement and
functions of the major highways or railroads,Later,the
students are given more detailed maps indicating the
development that actually occurred,This feedback
generally confirms the usefulness of the principles of
geography being learned but also introduces complexity
by showing that exceptions can occur due to unique local
factors (capitals are not always the largest or most
centrally located cities)
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? Discovery learning,an example
? MACOS uses novelty to stimulate curiosity by exposing
students to unfamiliar people,places,and practices,It
also helps students to structure the content by repeatedly
calling attention to four kinds of contrast,humans
versus animals,humans versus prehistorical
evolutionary precursors,contemporary humans versus
primitive humans,and adults versus children,In general,
the program tries to provide students with models to use
in analyzing the social world,to impart respect for the
capacities of humans as a continually evolving species,
and to develop students' confidence in their own
thinking and problem-solving abilities.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Limitations of discovery learning:
? (1) true discoveries are rare,and most of
them are made by the brightest and most
motivated students,(2) discovery learning is
uncertain and inefficient compared to more
direct instruction,(3) it places the teacher in
the unnatural role of withholding information
from students who are experiencing
frustration or "discovering" mistaken notions
that will have to be "unlearned" later,
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? Limitations of discovery learning:
? (4) it needs careful planning and structuring--
providing the students with clear goals and with
needed information or skills,guiding their
exploration with cues or questions,and finishing
with a review to make sure that what they learn is
complete and accurate.
? (5) many discovery activities appear to be more
trouble than they are worth,Inquiry-oriented
science curricula,for example,often include an
experiment calling for comparison of plants grown
in sunlight with plants grown in the dark.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ the structure of a field of study.Bruner
emphasizes the students should be assisted in
grasping the structure of a field of study,
which means the overall pattern of a field of
study,If they grasp it,they are more likely to
remember what they learn,comprehend
principles that can be applied in a variety of
situations,and be prepared for mastering
more complex knowledge.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ the spiral curriculum:
? Bruner is famous for his statement that any subject
can be taught in some intellectually honest way to any
learner,This was not a claim that anyone can learn
anything; note the qualifier "in some intellectually
honest way."
? In applying this idea,he recommended the spiral
curriculum---instead of sequencing(先后顺序 ） objectives
so that learners move through successive steps of
increasing difficulty or complexity,learners are
brought back to given topics periodically but
encouraged to address them at different levels of
knowledge representation and analysis.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ the spiral curriculum:
? The idea is that each time the "spiral" comes around
to a particular topic,learners will have broadened
and deepened their knowledge about this and related
topics and therefore will be both able and motivated
to undertake a deeper exploration of it,
? e.g,the ability to recognize and label different
animals might be an appropriate initial objective,
Then students could learn classifications for animals
and the similarities and differences among animal
types,Later they could learn about the natural
habitats and behavior of various animals,and still
later they could study animal anatomy or physiology.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.2 Main ideas
? ※ useful errors:
? He has little interest in minimizing errors,a
principle that is basic to Skinner's approach,
Bruner believes error are useful for
maintaining interest and stimulating
hypotheses,He also believes that learners will
retain more if allowed to organize material
according to their interests.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational
implications
? open education
? open education calls
for (1) more flexible
use of space
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational implications
? (2) planning for a range of activities to occur
simultaneously as students learn through
exploration and discovery on their own or with
peers,and (3) readiness to respond to students'
initiatives and help them pursue their
individual interests.
? the open education philosophy achieved
considerable popularity among teacher-
educators in the 1960s and 1970s and was
implemented to some degree in many
elementary schools.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational implications
? Present both examples and nonexamples of the
concepts you are teaching.
? e.g.mammals include people,kangaroos,
whales,cats,dolphins,and camels as examples,
Chickens,fish,alligators(鳄鱼 ）,frogs,and
penguins as nonexamples.
? Ask students for additional examples and
nonexamples.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational implications
? Help students see connections among
concepts.
? e.g,ask questions such as,what else could
you call this apple?”(Fruit).,what do we do
with fruit”(Eat).,what do we call things we
eat?”(Food)
? Use diagrams,outlines,and summaries to
point out conclusions.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational implications
? Pose a question and let students try to find the
answer.
? e.g.How could the human hand be improved?
? What is the relation between the area of one
tile(地砖） and the area of the whole floor?
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.3 Educational implications
? Encourage students to make intuitive guesses.
? e.g,Instead of giving a word’s definition,say,
“let’s guess what it might mean by looking at
the words around it.”
? Give students a map of ancient Greece and ask
where they think the major cities were.
? Don’t comment after the few guesses,Wait for
several ideas before giving the answer.
? Use guiding questions to focus students when
their discovery has led them too far astray.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.4 Evaluation of Bruner’ theory
? Contributions:
? Studied directly the students’ learning.
? Discovery learning as useful learning method.
? Intrinsic motivation(interests,curiosity,etc.)
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.4 Evaluation of Bruner’ theory
? Criticisms：
? Skinner points out,Teachers may choose to
use discovery techniques to avoid the
possibility of failure since they cannot fail if
they do not even attempt to provide instruction,
It is impossible for any group of inexperienced
students to discover for themselves more than
a tiny fraction of the accumulated knowledge
of a culture.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.4 Evaluation of Bruner’ theory
? Genuine,original discovery is rare inside or
outside the classroom.
? Discovery is often inefficient and time-
consuming and learning proceeds fitfully(断断
续续地）,
? Interpersonal problems may arise when
discovery method is used.
? Discovery method may be inappropriate at
certain times,with certain pupils,and in
certain learning situations.
Chapter 5 Bruner’s Learning Theory
? 5.3.4 Evaluation of Bruner’ theory
? It has taken millions of thinker thousands
of years to accumulate knowledge about
natural and human phenomena,and it is
absurd to assume that a group of children
can even begin to come up with equivalent
insights.---B.F.Skinner.
Questions
? 1,Can students really be taught,or must
they learn on their own? What’s your
viewpoint of the role of discovery
learning?
? 2.According to Bruner,what is the
learning outcomes?
? 3.Give me examples of discovery learning
in classroom.
