食品加工营养手册（英文版）：36659_indx

absorption of Amadori compounds 280 of calcium 103 of copper 117, 127–33 of iron 105 of Maillard reaction products 280–1 of melanoidins 281 of minerals 98–9, 103, 105, 108 of vitamin C 62 of zinc 108 advertising functional foods 310–11 nutrition claims 147 Aeromonas species of bacteria 354, 355 alcohol consumption 9, 69 allergens 447–8 Alzheimer’s disease 82 Amadori rearrangement products (ARPs) 266–9, 280 amine oxidases 119 amino acids 271, 273 cross-linked 277–80 amino-carbalines 282–3 amino-imidazo-azaarenes (AIAs) 283 anaemia 78, 99, 106, 228 anaerobic respiration 346 analytical systems see functionality testing anti-freeze peptides 339 anti-mutagenic compounds 446 antinutrients 197, 324–5 antioxidants 42, 52–4, 63–4, 281, 294 ascorbic acid 62, 258–9, 297, 322–3 and high pressure processing 437, 440 and irradiation 382 see also vitamin C Asian communities 47, 51 atherosclerosis 178 b-carbolines 283 b-carotene 35, 39–40, 42–6, 64–5, 250–1, 358–9 backcross programmes 197 bacteria 350–4, 373, 411 bakery products 427–30 beriberi 66–9 bioactivity 53, 57–9, 168–9 bioavailability of nutrients 169, 201–2 in cereal foods 302–3 copper 128–9 folates 71 iron 130, 228 minerals 323–4 vitamin A 38 bioefficacy of vitamin A 38–9 biogenic amines 236 biomarkers 171–2, 174–5, 181 biotin 37, 80–1, 257 and irradiation 380, 381–2 blanching 334–5, 338, 415–16 and vitamin loss 260–1 Index Index 475 blood clotting 57–8, 59 blood glucose 170, 174–5 bone health and meat 235 osteoporosis 50–1, 60, 103–4 and vitamin D 50–1 and vitamin K 58–9, 60–1 caeruloplasmin 119 calciferol 46, 48–50 and irradiation 382–3 see also vitamin D calcium 50, 58–9, 98, 102–5 absorption 103 food sources 104 reference nutrient intake 104 safe intake 105 CALEUR study 21 calorific information 155 Campylobacter 373 cancer 9, 18–19, 44, 209 and antioxidants 52 and b-carotene 42–4 colon cancer 51, 211–14 and meat eating 210, 211–14 carbohydrates 154, 173–4, 175, 306–8 and continuous-flow heat processing 469–70 and extrusion cooking 317–19 and irradiation 383 carbon dioxide 343–5, 346–7 cardiovascular disease (CVD) see heart disease carnitine 236 carnosine 236 carotenoids b-carotene 35, 39–40, 42–6, 64–5, 250–1, 358–9 and high pressure processing 440–1 and irradiation 380 and modified atmosphere packaging 358–9 catechol oxidase 119 cell differentiation 40 cellular growth 51 cereal foods 22, 102, 166, 185–6, 301–11 bioavailability of nutrients 302–3 mechanical processing 302–5 nutritional significance 302–3 nutritionally enhanced 308–11 thermal processing 303, 305–8 cholesterol 198–200, 214–15, 223, 296, 320 LDL-cholesterol oxidation 54 choline 236 Clostridium botulinum 351 cobalamins 77–80, 257 deficiency diseases 78–9 food sources 37, 77 and irradiation 380, 381–2 toxicity 80 Codex Alimentarius 388, 389–90 coeliac disease 48 cold spots 411–12, 419 colon cancer 51, 211–14 colonic bulk 181 colour of foods 276–7, 345 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) 221–3 consumers food choice factors 149, 150–1, 168 improving consumer confidence 168 understanding of labelling 149–56 continuous-flow heat processing 462–72 and carbohydrates 469–70 commercialisation 471–2 and fats 469–70 flash-cooling 466 food quality 466–8 heat exchanger selection 464–6 and proteins 468–9 steam infusion 465 steam injection 465 streamline flow 468 technical problems 472 thermal degradation kinetics 463–4 time-temperature profile 466–7 turbulent flow 468 and vitamins 470–1 copper 65, 117–35 absorption 117, 127–33 bioavailability 128–9 deficiency diseases 117, 121–2 distribution in the body 131 in drinking water 123 food sources 120–1 function of cuproenzymes 118–20 functional copper status 127 and heart disease 122 intake assessment 124–7 putative indicators 125–6 reference nutrient intake 120 serum copper 125–6 toxicity 117, 122–4 coronary heart disease (CHD) see heart disease cross-linked amino acids 277–80 476 Index cuproenzymes 118–20 cyanocobalamin 380, 381–2 cytochrome-c oxidase 118 DAFNE (DAta Food NEtworking) project 11, 17–18 dairy products 128, 446, 447 data sources 7, 10–22 European surveys 13–22 food balance sheets (FBS) 10, 22 food frequency questionnaires 13 household budget surveys (HBS) 11–12, 17–18 individual dietary surveys (IDSs) 12–13 deep frying 293, 298 dehydration, and vitamin loss 262 dephytinisation 130 diabetes 48, 172, 174–5, 178 diacylglycerols 294 diamine oxidase 119 diet data sources 7, 10–22 European dietary patterns 22–8 Mediterranean countries 25, 28–9, 196, 213 and health 8–10 nutrition and the elderly 20–1 dietary reference values 34–5 digestibility of food 446–7 disease-nutrient interactions 63–5 DNA damage and repair 56 dopamine b-hydroxylase (DbM) 119 drinking water 123 drip loss 333, 336 elderly people 20–1, 47–8 and antioxidant vitamins 64 immune system 55–6 electrolysis 416 electromagnetic radiation 397 electrons 374–5, 377 embryogenesis 41 end-points 171, 174, 181 energy information provision 155 value calculations 146 enhanced diffusion 415–16 enhancement see nutritional enhancement enzymes 320 cuproenzymes 118–20 xenobiotic enzymes 281–2 see also Maillard reaction equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging (EMAP) 347–50 Escherichia coli 373, 386, 390 Euronut-SENECA study 20–1, 28 European dietary patterns 22–8 Mediterranean countries 25, 28–9, 196, 213 European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) 18–19, 28 European surveys 13–22 extrusion cooking 314–26 and antinutrients 324–5 and carbohydrates 317–19 future trends 325–6 and lipids 321 Maillard reactions 320 and minerals 323–4 and phenolic compounds 325 and phytohormones 325 and proteins 320–1 and thiamin 323 vitamin stability 321–3 wet extrusion 316–17 faecal bulk 171, 180–6 fats and continuous-flow heat processing 469–70 and frying 293 information provision 153, 154 in meat 214–23, 234 fatty acids 217–22 and cholesterol 223 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) 221–3 monounsaturated fatty acids 218 polyunsaturated fatty acids 219–21 saturated fatty acids 218 trans-fatty acids 222 ferroxidases 119 fibre 155, 166, 181–2, 309, 319 fish freezing 336–7 high pressure processing 443–4 trimethylamineoxide reduction 345–6 flash-cooling 466 flavonoids 202 flour production 304–5 fluoride 98 folates 70–7, 202–3, 256 bioavailability 71 Index 477 and cardiovascular disease (CVD) 75–6 deficiency effects 76 food sources 37, 70–1 fortification of foods 74–5, 77 reference nutrient intake 36, 72, 74 requirements 72–5 toxicity 76–7 food balance sheets (FBS) 10, 22 food frequency questionnaires 13 food matrix properties 170 Food Standards Agency (FSA) 160–1 fortification 195, 202–3 with folates 74–5, 77 with minerals 102, 324 see also nutritional enhancement fractures see bone health freezing 331–40 anti-freeze peptides 339 drip loss 333, 336 fruit 333–6 ‘glassy state’ freezing 338–9 meat and fish 336–7 Ostwald ripening 333 quality and nutrient loss 332–3 vegetables and fruit 333–6 and vitamin loss 261 fruit availability 24, 25 and cancer protection 44, 65 and cardiovascular disease 65, 75–6 cooking methods 335–6 high pressure processing 446 modified atmosphere packaging 356–62 storage after harvest 334 washing and blanching 334–5, 338 frying 293–8 deep frying 293, 298 and fat consumption 293 frying oil 294–5, 298 impact on nutrients 296–7 meat 428–30 sensory characteristics 297–8 shallow frying 293 FSA (Food Standards Agency) 160–1 functional foods market for 186–7 marketing 310–11 functionality testing biomarkers 171–2, 174–5, 181 data limitations 168–9, 173–4 end-points 171, 174, 181 extrapolation between products 167 food matrix properties 170 food processing and nutritional quality 165–7 future trends 186–8 glycaemic-glucose equivalents 174–80 indices 172–3 faecal bulking index 180–6 glycaemic index (GI) 173, 175–9 market for functional foods 186–7 types of tests 167 validation of tests 172 wheat bran equivalents 180–6 gamma rays 374, 375 genetic engineering 197–8, 200–1, 204–6 ‘glassy state’ freezing 338–9 glucosinolates 325, 361–2 glutathione 236 glycaemic index (GI) 173, 175–9, 307 glycaemic-glucose equivalents 174–80 goitre 99, 111, 196 Grasbeck-Immerslund syndrome 78 Guideline Daily Amounts (GDAs) 158–9 haemorrhagic disease of the newborn (HDN) 59–60 hair colour 82 haptocorrins 78 heart disease cardiovascular disease 8–9, 20, 75–6, 122 and copper deficiency 122 coronary heart disease 9, 20, 53–5 vascular cell dysfunction 56 and vitamin E 53–5 heat exchangers 464–6 heat processing see thermal processing hephaestin 131 heterocyclic amines (HAs) 282–5 high pressure processing 433–61 and allergens 447–8 anti-mutagenic compounds 446 and ascorbic acid 437, 440 and carotene 440–1 commercial food products 436, 438–9 dairy products 446, 447 digestibility of food 446–7 equipment 435–6 fish products 443–4 food quality 433–4 478 Index fruit 446 future trends 448 and lipids 442–5 meat products 444–5 and mineral content 445–6 and retinol 441 safety 434–5 and sweeteners 445 vegetables 446 and vitamins 437–42 histidinoalanine (HAL) 278–9, 279–80 homocysteine 72, 75–6, 80, 84–5 household budget surveys (HBS) 11–12, 17–18 Hox family genes 41 hunter-gatherer diets 227 hydroperoxides 294–5, 384 hyperglycaemia 174 hypervitaminosis A 44–5 immune system and elderly people 55–6 and vitamin A 41–2, 43 and vitamin C 65–6 and vitamin D 51–2 and vitamin E 55–6 and zinc deficiency 109 Indian Childhood Cirrhosis (ICC) 124 indices 172–3 faecal bulking index 180–6 glycaemic index (GI) 173, 175–9 individual dietary surveys (IDSs) 12–13 infants, haemorrhagic disease of the newborn (HDN) 59–60 information panels 151–6 infrared heating 398, 423–31 bakery products 427–30 food industry applications 426–7 food quality 428–30 frying meat 428–30 future trends 430–1 near infrared heating (NIR) 424 nutritional quality 430 penetration depths 426 iodine 98, 99, 102, 111 deficiency disorders 8, 196 ionising radiation see irradiation iron 64–5, 98, 99, 105–7 absorption 105 bioavailability 130, 228 deficiency diseases 228 food sources 107 iron/vitamin C reaction 64 in meat 228–30, 235 reference nutrient intake 106–7 safe intake 107 irradiation 371–92 and ascorbic acid 382 benefits 385–6 and biotin 380, 381–2 and calciferol 382–3 and carbohydrates 383 and carotenoids 380 and cobalamins 381–2 consumer attitudes to 386–9 and cyanocobalamin 380, 381–2 effect on food 377–8 future trends 390–1 history of 372–3 and lipids 383–4 and niacin 380, 381–2 nutritional adequacy 379–80 principles of 373–7 and proteins 384 and pyridoxine 380, 381–2 regulation of 386–90 and riboflavin 380, 381–2 safety of 378–9, 385 and thiamin 380, 381–2 and tocopherols 383 and vitamins 262, 380–3 wholesomeness of irradiated food 384–5 isotope studies 132–3 Keshan disease 112 Korsakoff syndrome 69 labelling 142–63 consumer understanding of 149–56 future trends in 161–3 Guideline Daily Amounts (GDAs) 158–9 legibility 160 nutrition information panels 151–6 Nutrition Labelling Directive 144–9 research findings 157–61 retailer influence on 149–50 LDL-cholesterol oxidation 54 legislation see regulation lipids 24–5, 297 extrusion cooking 321 high pressure processing 442–5 irradiation 383–4 lipoic acid 236 Listeria monocytogenes 351–2, 373 lycopene 197 Index 479 lysine 273–4 lysinoalanine (LAL) 277, 279–80 magnesium sodium 98 Maillard reaction 266–75, 280–2 and extrusion cooking 320 manganese 129 margarines 198–200 marketing functional foods 310–11 and nutrition claims 147 meat availability 22, 25–6 and bone health 235 and cancer 210, 211–14 colour retention 345 consumption trends 210–11 fat components 214–23, 234 freezing 336–7 health-promoting components 235–6 high pressure processing 444–5 iron content 228–30, 235 nutritional importance 209–10 Palaeolithic diets 226–7 phosphorus content 231 protein content 223–4 satiating powers 227 selenium content 230–1, 235 vitamin B content 231–2 vitamin D content 232–3 zinc content 230 mechanical processing 302–5 Mediterranean diets 25, 28–9, 196, 213 melanoidins 275–7, 281 menadione 57 Menkes disease 121–2, 131 methylation cycle 71, 72 methylmalonic acid (MMA) 79–80 microbial safety 350–4, 373, 411 microwave processing 396–406 effect on food 401–3 industrial exploitation 405–6 nutritional adequacy of food 405 principles 398–401 safety 403–5 milk 250, 253, 255–7, 261, 468–9, 470 milling 302–5 abrasive processes 303–4 reductive processes 304 minerals 97–113 absorption 98–9, 103, 105, 108 bioavailability 323–4 calcium 98, 102–5 copper see copper dietary sources 100–2 extrusion cooking 323–4 fluoride 98 food fortification 102, 324 frying 297 high pressure processing 445–6 iodine 98, 99, 102, 111 iron 98, 99, 105–7 magnesium sodium 98 molybdenum 98, 129 nutrition labelling 145–6 phosphorus 98 potassium 98 reference nutrient intake 97–8, 100 safe intakes 100 selenium 99, 111–13 supplements 101 zinc 99, 107–10, 129 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 342–62 anaerobic respiration 346 use of carbon dioxide 343–5, 346–7 colour retention of meat products 345 equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging 347–50 fruits 356–62 microbial safety 350–4 non-respiring products 346–7, 354–5 optimal gas atmosphere 346–7 use of oxygen 345–6 and provitamin carotenoids 358–9 respiring products 347–50 trimethylamineoxide reduction 345–6 vegetables 356–62 vitamin C 356–8 molybdenum 98, 129 MONICA Project 20 monoacylglycerols 294 monoamine oxidase 119 monounsaturated fatty acids 218 mutagenic heterocyclic amines (HAs) 282–5 near infrared heating (NIR) 424 neural tube defects 70, 72–4, 203 niacin 82–3, 231, 255 food sources 37 and irradiation 380, 381–2 reference nutrient intake 36 nicotinamide 82–3 nicotinic acid 82–3 night blindness 35 480 Index non-respiring products 346–7, 354–5 nuclear receptors 40 nucleotides 236 nutrition claims 147 nutrition information panels 151–6 Nutrition Labelling Directive 144–9 declared values 146–7 definitions 146 energy value calculations 146 format of information 145–6 implementation and enforcement 148 and nutrition claims 147 timescales 147 nutritional enhancement 196–206 and bioavailability 201–2 of cereal foods 308–11 compared to fortification 202–3 genetic engineering 197–8, 200–1, 204–6 pedigree selection and backcross programmes 197 reducing antinutritional factors 197 supplements 198 nutritional melalgia 81–2 obesity 234 ohmic heating 407–19 advantages 409–12 cold spots 411–12, 419 commercialisation 416–17 electrical conductivity and heating rate 410–11 and electrolysis 416 enhanced diffusion 415–16 microbial destruction 411 modelling heating patterns 417–18 nutrient loss 413–16, 417 principles 407–9 process parameters 418 product specifications 418 temperature distribution 411–12, 419 1,25-OHD 48–50, 103 osteocalcin 50–1, 58 osteomalacia 233 osteoporosis 50–1, 60, 103–4 Ostwald ripening 333 oxygen 345–6 Palaeolithic diets 226–7 pantothenic acid 37, 81–2, 255 pedigree selection 197 pellagra 83 peptidyl-glycine μ-amidating mono- oxygenase (PAM) 119 phenolic compounds 325, 359–61 phosphorus 98, 231 phytates 197 phytohormones 325 plasma homocysteine 72, 75–6, 80, 84–5 polyunsaturated fatty acids 219–21 pork lard 295 postprandial glycaemia 173–4 potassium 98 pressure treated foods see high pressure processing product shelf life 262–3 proteins 154–5, 297 continuous-flow heat processing 468–9 extrusion cooking 320–1 irradiation 384 meat content 223–4 provitamin carotenoids see carotenoids pyridoxine 83–5, 256–7 and irradiation 380, 381–2 pyrolysis products 282–3 radiation processing see irradiation radioisotopes 133, 134 receptors 60 recommended dietary allowance (RDA) 34–5 reference nutrient intake (RNI) calcium 104 copper 120 folates 36, 72, 74 iodine 111 iron 106–7 minerals 97–8, 100 niacin 36 riboflavin 36 selenium 112 thiamin 36 vitamin A 35, 36, 38 vitamin B 36 vitamin C 36 vitamin D 36 zinc 109 regulation of flour production 304–5 of irradiation 386–90 Nutrition Labelling Directive 144–9 relative glycaemic potency (RGP) 174–80 resistant starch 307–8 respiring products 347–50 Index 481 retinol 35, 40–1, 44, 45, 381 and high pressure processing 441 see also vitamin A retrograded starch 308 riboflavin 85–6, 231, 254–5, 255, 413 food sources 37, 85 and irradiation 380, 381–2 reference nutrient intake 36 rice 200–1 rickets 47, 233 safe intakes (SI) calcium 105 cobalamins 80 copper 117, 122–4 folates 76–7 iodine 111 iron 107 minerals 100 selenium 113 thiamin 70 vitamin A 44–6 vitamin C 66 vitamin D 52 vitamin E 56 vitamin K 61 zinc 110 safety of high pressure processing 434–5 of irradiation 378–9, 385 microbial safety 350–4, 373, 411 of microwave processing 403–5 of thermal processing 282–5 Salmonella 373 salt 155 satiety 227 saturated fatty acids 218 scurvy 62 seasonal affective disorders (SAD) 51 selenium 99, 111–13, 230–1, 235 reference nutrient intake 112 safe intake 113 selenosis 99, 113 SENECA see Euronut-SENECA study serum copper 125–6 shallow frying 293 shelf life of products 262–3 short-wave infrared heating 424 smokers 63–4 sodium intake 155 starches 306–8, 318, 414, 469 steam infusion 465 steam injection 465 sterilisation 463–4 Strecker degradation 269 sugars 175, 273, 317 superoxide dismutase (SOD) 119 supplements 101, 195, 198 surveys see data sources sweeteners 445 thermal degradation kinetics 463–4 thermal processing 265–85, 407, 462 of cereal foods 303, 305–8 cross-linked amino acids formation 277–80 Maillard reaction 266–75, 280–2 melanoidins 275–7, 281 molecular level reactions 265–6 thermal degradation kinetics 463–4 toxic compound formation 282–5 and vitamin loss 261 see also continuous-flow heat processing; ohmic heating thiamin 66–70, 231, 253–4, 413 deficiency effects 68–70 extrusion cooking 323 food sources 37, 67 functions and requirements 67–8 irradiation 380, 381–2 reference nutrient intake 36 toxicity 70 thioredoxin 197 tocopherols 52–3, 297, 383 see also vitamin E tocotrienols 52 toxicity see safe intakes (SI) trans-fatty acids 222 TRANSFAIR study 21–2 triacylglycerols 294 trimethylamineoxide reduction 345–6 Tyrolean Infantile Cirrhosis (ICC) 124 tyrosinase 119 UHT milk 250, 253, 256–7, 261, 468–9 validation of tests 172 vascular cell dysfunction 56 vegetable oils 24, 26, 443 vegetables availability 22, 25 and cancer protection 44, 65 and cardiovascular disease 65, 75–6 cooking methods 335–6 and copper absorption 128 freezing 333–6 high pressure processing 446 482 Index modified atmosphere packaging 356–62 storage after harvest 334 washing and blanching 334–5, 338 vegetarians 51, 195, 224–6 vision 35, 40 night blindness 35 vitamin A 35–46, 248 bioavailability 38 bioefficacy 38–9 continuous-flow heat processing 470–1 deficiency disorders (VADD) 35, 38, 44, 196, 200 equivalence factor 39–40 food sources 37 health aspects 35, 38, 40–4 high pressure processing 440–1 hypervitaminosis A 44–5 and the immune system 41–2, 43 irradiation 380, 381 ohmic heating 413 reference nutrient intake 35, 36, 38 stability during processing 249–51 toxicity symptoms 44–5 vitamin B cobalamins (B 12 ) 77–80, 257 continuous-flow heat processing 470–1 food sources 37 frying 297 high pressure processing 441–2 irradiation 380, 381–2 in meat 231–2 ohmic heating 413 pyridoxine (B 6 ) 83–5, 256–7 reference nutrient intake 36 riboflavin (B 2 ) 85–6, 254–5 stability during processing 253–7 thiamin (B 1 ) 66–70, 253–4 vitamin C 62–6 absorption 62 biochemical functions 63 continuous-flow heat processing 470–1 disease-nutrient interactions 63–5 food sources 37 health aspects 62, 63–6 high pressure processing 437, 440 and the immune system 65–6 iron/vitamin C reaction 64 irradiation 380, 382 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 356–8 ohmic heating 413 reference nutrient intake 36 and smokers 63–4 stability during processing 258–9 toxicity 66 vitamin D 46–52 and bone health 50–1 continuous-flow heat processing 470 food sources 37 health aspects 47–52 and the immune system 51–2 irradiation 382–3 in meat 232–3 ohmic heating 413 1,25-OHD 48–50 reference nutrient intake 36 safety 52 stability during processing 251–2 vitamin E 52–7, 247–8 bioactivity 53 continuous-flow heat processing 470 food sources 37, 52 health aspects 53–6 and heart disease 53–5 high pressure processing 441–2 and the immune system 55–6 irradiation 383 safety 56 stability during processing 251 vitamin K 57–61 biological activity 57–9 and bone health 58–9, 60–1 food sources 37, 57 health aspects 59–61 high pressure processing 441–2 ohmic heating 413 safety 61 stability during processing 252–3 vitamins blanching 260–1 continuous-flow heat processing 470–1 and dehydration 262 extrusion cooking 321–3 freezing 261 frying 297 high pressure processing 437–42 irradiation 262, 380–3 labelling 145–6, 249 loss during processing 260–2 ohmic heating 407, 413 and product shelf life 262–3 protecting 263 stability during processing 247–59 Index 483 as supplements 195 thermal processing 261, 305–6 vitamin-vitamin interactions 259–90 Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome 69 wet extrusion 316–17 wheat bran equivalents 180–6 WHO-MONICA Project 20 wholesomeness of irradiated food 384–5 Wilson’s disease 124 World Trade Organization (WTO) 389–90 X-Rays 374–5, 377, 378 xenobiotic enzymes 281–2 Yersinia enterocolitica 352–3 zinc 99, 107–10, 129 absorption 108 deficiency 109 meat content 230 reference nutrient intake 109 safe intake 110