16.422 Human Supervisory Control Memory & Attention A Model of Human Information Processing 16.422 Perception Working Memory & Cognition Response selection Response execution Sensory Processing (STSS) Long-term memory System Environment (Feedback) Attention Resources Selection Wickens & Hollands, 2000 ? STSS = short term sensory storage ? Perception drives bottoms-up processing while long term memory drives top-down processing Working Memory ? Also known as short term memory ? Three components – Verbal (phonological store & articulatory loop) – Visuospatial sketchpad – Central executive ? Temporary buffer 16.422 FAA Human Factors http://www.hf.faa.gov/Webtraining/Cognition/Memory/memory1.htm Working Memory Limitations ? Limited capacity – Miller’s magic “7 +/- 2” ? Chunking & parsing – Skill & expertise ? Information will decay unless maintained in working memory through the articulatory loop (rehearsal) or stored in long term memory. – A fundamental component of learning ? Memory lost within 30 seconds unless rehearsed. 16.422 Long Term Memory ? Semantic network of knowledge – Knowledge is procedural, declarative, and general – Encoded in terms of meaning and events ? Not a random process ? A loosely structured “database” ? Unlimited capacity ? Development of mental models – An abstract mental structure that allows understanding and insight into an event, problem, etc. ? How knowledge was encoded influences recall ? Perception vs. Long Term Memory – Recognition is much easier than recall 16.422 ? Declarative – knowledge of facts ? We can identify thousands of different colors but in general can only name ~ 17. Problems with Memory 16.422 ?Unreliable ? Recognition vs. recall ? Do we forget or does information decay? FAA Human Factors http://www.hf.faa.gov/Webtraining/Cognition/Memory/memory1.htm More Problems with Memory 16.422 ? Retrieval and Inference – False memories ? Effect of Prior Knowledge – Memory reconstruction often uses general knowledge and expectations to fill in the gaps ? Memory can distort perception in systematic ways. – Tendency to overestimate colors, slow speeds (but underestimate high ones!), distances, etc. ? Eyewitness testimony – Framing effect – Subjects shown film of automobile accident. Subjects asked: Did you see a broken headlight? or Did you see the broken headlight? (There was actually none.) ? Results: Subjects more likely to respond yes to the broken headlight. Memory & Automated System Design 16.422 ? Calculations, comparisons, and workspace navigation tasks which require extensive use of working memory increases the mental workload for that task. – Also increases likelihood of error. ? Can increase working memory capacity by using two senses instead of one ? Promote consistent mapping – Negative transfer ? Mental model support – Training strategies ? Part task ? When Two S Better than One, Tindall-Ford, S., Chandler, P. and Sweller, J., Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 3(4), 257-287 (1997).ensory Modes are A Model of Human Information Processing 16.422 Working Memory & Cognition Sensory Processing (STSS) Response selection Response execution Perception Long-term memory System Environment (Feedback) Attention Resources Selection Wickens & Hollands, 2000 ? STSS = short term sensory storage Attention 16.422 ? Three general categories ? Selective ? Cognitive tunneling ?Focused ? Environmental distractions ?Divided ? Time-sharing ? Attention is perceptually driven ? We tend to notice significant changes in light, motion, temperature, sound, color, novelty, or information complexity ? Cocktail Party Phenomenon Attention & Visual Perception 16.422 ? Peripheral vision (rods) – Helps to see movement, change – Poor acuity and brightness ? Foveal vision – Focused perception (cones) – Helps to see details, color – Pursuit & saccadic movements ? Saccades – Eye “jumps” from one spot to next – Dwell times ? Scanning versus target search – Both occur in supervisory control Vigilance & Attention 16.422 ? Vigilance – Monitoring for signal detection over extended periods of time (e.g. radar watch, airport security, etc.) ? People cannot maintain vigilance past 30 minutes in low workload monitoring conditions . High mental workload is problematic Vigilance is problematic Better Performance Worse Low High Attentional demand Designing to Direct Attention 16.422 ? Spatial Proximity – Promotes divided attention – Heads-up display – Conformal symbology ? Salience of visual cues – Intelligent cueing ? Proximity Compatibility Principle – Display v. processing proximity – Configural displays ? Emergent features & pattern recognition ? What about auditory attention?