Chapter 8
World Trade Organization
Outline of Chapter 8
Section 1,General Introduction to WTO
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
Section 4,Anti-dumping
Section 5,Subsidies and countervailing measures>>
Section 6,Safeguards
Section 7,Non-tariff measures(略 )
Section 8,GATS>
Section 9,Dispute settlement>
Books recommended>
Section 1:General Introduction to WTO
Ⅰ,A Brief History of GATT>
Ⅱ,The Differences and Relations
Between WTO and GATT>
Ⅲ,Nature >
Ⅳ,Objectives>
Ⅴ,Main functions>
Ⅵ,Structure (Main Organs)>
Ⅶ,Decision-making>
Ⅷ,Legal Framework>
Back to outline
Ⅰ,A Brief History of GATT
WTO— World Trade Organization came
into being on 1 January 1995.
headquartered in Geneva,Switzerland
GATT--- General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade,WTO’s predecessor-- was
established on October,1947
I,A Brief History of GATT
the Second World War
international economic cooperation
,Bretton Woods” conference
( New Hampshire)
World Bank --International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development
IMF--International Monetary Fund
ITO--International Trade Organization
specialized agencies of the United
Nations
I,A Brief History of GATT
A Charter for an International Trade
Organization (ITO) was drafted by the US and
amended by many other countries,
The Charter was intended to provide not only
world trade disciplines but also contained rules
relating to employment,commodity
agreements,restrictive business practices,
international investment and services,
The ITO Charter was finally agreed at a UN
Conference on Trade and Employment in
Havana in March 1948 (so called,Havana
Charter”).
A long way to go for ratification by legislatures
I,A Brief History of GATT
While the charter was seeking
ratification in national legislatures,
tariff negotiations were opened among
the 23 founding GATT,contracting
parties” in order to give an early boost
to trade liberalization after the Second
World War - and to begin to correct the
large overhang (突出问题) of
protectionist (贸易保护的) measures
which remained in place from the early
1930s,
I,A Brief History of GATT
This first round of negotiations resulted
in 45,000 tariff concessions (关税减让)
affecting $10 billion - or about one-fifth
- of world trade,
The tariff concessions and the principles
and basic rules in the draft ITO Charter
together became known as the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and
entered into force in January 1948,
It was assumed to be a provisional
system before ITO.
I,A Brief History of GATT
Although the ITO Charter was finally
agreed at a UN Conference on Trade and
Employment in Havana in March 1948,
ratification in national legislatures
proved impossible in some cases,
When the United States' government
announced,in 1950,that it would not
seek Congressional ratification of the
Havana Charter,the ITO was effectively
dead,
I,A Brief History of GATT
Despite its provisional nature,the GATT
remained the only multilateral instrument
governing international trade from 1948 until
the establishment of the WTO,
Although,in its 47 years,the basic legal text of
the GATT remained much as it was in 1948,
there were additional agreements and
continual efforts to reduce tariffs,Much of this
was achieved through a series of "trade
rounds",
I,A Brief History of GATT
There were altogether 8 rounds of
negotiations under GATT,The last one
was the Uruguay [′urugwai ]Round
which created a new system—WTO,
After 8 years of negotiation,every
issue was finally resolved in 1992,and
on 15 April 1994,the deal was signed
by Ministers from most of the 125
participating governments at a meeting
in Marrakesh马拉克什,Morocco摩洛哥,
I,A Brief History of GATT
In accordance with WTO Agreement
(Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World
Trade Organization),WTO came into being on
January 1,1995.
WTO is One of the youngest of the
international organizations,and the
only global international organization
dealing with the rules of trade between
nations.
Back
Ⅱ,Differences and Relations
Between WTO and GATT
A,Five Differences
The World Trade Organization is
not a simple extension of GATT; on
the contrary,it completely replaces
its predecessor and has a very
different character,Among the
principal differences are the
following,
Ⅱ,Differences and Relations
Between WTO and GATT
1,The GATT was a set of rules,a
multilateral agreement,with no
institutional foundation,only a
small associated secretariat(秘书处 )
which had its origins in the
attempt to establish an
International Trade Organization
in the 1940s,
The WTO is a permanent
institution with its own secretariat,
Ⅱ,Differences and Relations
Between WTO and GATT
2.The GATT was applied on a
“provisional basis” even if,after
more than forty years,
governments chose to treat it as a
permanent commitment(商业上的约定 ).
The WTO commitments are full
and permanent,
Ⅱ,Differences and Relations
Between WTO and GATT
3,The GATT rules applied only to
trade in goods,
In addition to goods,the WTO
covers trade in services and trade-
related aspects of intellectual
property,
Ⅱ,Differences and Relations
Between WTO and GATT
4,While GATT was a multilateral
instrument,by the 1980s many
new agreements had been added
of a plurilateral,and therefore
selective,
The agreements which constitute
the WTO are almost all multilateral
and,thus,involve commitments for
the entire membership,Plurilateral
Ⅱ,Differences and Relations
Between WTO and GATT
5,The WTO dispute settlement
system is faster,more automatic,
and thus much less susceptible (易受影响的 )to blockages,than the old
GATT system,The implementation
of WTO dispute findings(裁决)
will also be more easily assured,
Ⅱ,Differences and Relations
Between WTO and GATT
B,Relations
1,As a factual institution--GATT
was replaced by WTO;
2,As an agreement--GATT lives on
as,GATT 1994”;>
3,Basic principles are remained.
Back
Ⅱ,Differences and Relations
Between WTO and GATT
GATT lives on as,GATT 1994”,the
amended and up-dated version of
GATT 1947,which is an integral(构成整体所需要的) part of the WTO
agreements and which continues
to provide the key disciplines
affecting international trade in
goods,
last page
The WTO is the only global international
organization dealing with the rules of trade
between nations,
The WTO agreements are negotiated and
signed by the bulk of the world’s trading
nations and ratified in their parliaments,They
are part of international law.
It’ s a rules-based,member-driven
organization — all decisions are made by the
member governments,and the rules are the
outcome of negotiations among members,
It has international legal personality,The
organization and its officials have some rights
of immunity,
Back
Ⅲ,Nature
The relations among members of WTO
in field of trade should be conducted
with a view to:
1.Raising standards of living为了提高生活水平
2.Ensuring full employment保证充分就业
3,Bringing a large and steady growing
volume of real income and effective
demand
4.Expanding the production of and trade
in goods & services扩大生产和贸易
Ⅳ,Objectives
5.Seeking sustainable development and
environmental protection保护和维护环境,
寻求对世界资源的最佳利用,实现可持续发展的目标,
6.Ensuring that developing countries,
and especially the least developed
among them,secure a share in the
growth in international trade
commensurate (相当的 ) with the needs
of their economic development.保证发展中国家、特别是最不发达国家在国际贸易增长中获得与其经济发展需要相当的份额。
back
Ⅳ,Objectives
Ⅴ,Main functions
1.Implementation,administration and
operation of the covered agreements各项贸易协议的履行、管理和实施。
2.Forum for negotiations
发挥谈判论坛的作用
3.Dispute settlement
4.Review of national trade policies
5.Coherence in global economic policy-making
go on
Back
Ⅴ,Main functions
1.Implementation,administration and
operation of the covered agreements
The WTO facilitates the implementation,
administration and operation of the WTO
Agreement and the Multilateral Trade
Agreements,and furthers their objectives,It
also provides the framework,for those of its
Members that have accepted them,for the
implementation,administration and operation
of the Plurilateral Trade Agreements.
Ⅴ,Main functions
2.Forum for negotiations
The WTO provides the forum for negotiations
on multilateral trade relations in matters
covered by its various agreements,
It may also,on decision by the Ministerial
Conference,provide a forum for further
negotiations,and a framework for the
implementation of their results,on other
issues arising in the multilateral trade
relations among its Members,
Ⅴ,Main functions
3.Dispute settlement
The WTO administers the dispute
settlement system,which is a central
element in providing security and
predictability to the multilateral trading
system,serving to preserve the rights
and obligations of the Members of the
WTO.
Ⅴ,Main functions
4.Review of national trade policies
The WTO administers the Trade Policy
Review Mechanism,which is designed
to contribute to greater transparency
and understanding of the trade policies
and practices of WTO Members,to their
improved adherence to the rules,
disciplines and commitments of the
multilateral trading system,and hence
to the smoother functioning of the
system,
Ⅴ,Main functions
5.Coherence in global economic policy-
making
A Ministerial Declaration adopted at the
Marrakesh Ministerial Meeting
recognizes the role of trade
liberalization in achieving greater
coherence in global economic policy-
making,For this purpose,the WTO
cooperates,as appropriate,with the
International Monetary Fund and with
the World Bank,back
Ⅵ,Structure (Main Organs)
Ministerial Conference
General Council
Dispute Settlement Body
Trade Policy Review Body
Councils
Council for Trade in Goods
Council for Trade in Services
Council for TRIPs
Committees and other subsidiary bodies
wto chart
部长级会议 Ministerial Conference
总理事会 General Council
总理事会会议
Dispute Settlement
Body
总理事会会议
Trade Policy
Review Body
Standing
Committees
Council
for
Trade in
Services
Council for
TRIPs
Council
for
Trade in
Goods
Plurilaterals
Back
Councils
Ministerial Conference
The Ministerial Conference is the
supreme body of the WTO,composed of
representatives of all Members,with the
authority to carry out the functions of
the WTO,take the actions necessary to
this effect,and take decisions on
matters under any of the Multilateral
Trade Agreements if so requested by a
Member,
The Ministerial Conference is to meet at
least once every two years,back
General Council
The day to day business of the
WTO is conducted by the General
Council,also composed of
representatives of all WTO
Members,which meets on a
regular basis (normally once every
two months),The General Council
acts on behalf of the Ministerial
Conference in the periods between
its meetings,and reports directly
to it.back
Dispute Settlement Body
The General Council acts also as
the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB),
which has its own Chairman and its
own rules of procedure,to
discharge(履行) the functions
assigned to it under the Dispute
Settlement Understanding.
back
Trade Policy Review Body
The General Council meets also as
the Trade Policy Review Body,
which again has its own Chairman
and rules of procedure,to carry out
the review of Members’ trade
policies and practices(做法),as
provided for in the Trade Policy
Review Mechanism,
back
Councils
Three sectoral councils have been established
for goods,services and TRIPs matters,
respectively,
These Councils,operating under the general
guidance of the General Council,carry out the
responsibilities assigned to them by their
respective agreements and by the General
Council;
they meet as necessary to carry out their
functions; and they are open to
representatives of all WTO Members,
They may also establish subsidiary bodies,
such as committees and working parties.
back
Council for Trade in Goods
The Council for Trade in Goods
oversees the functioning of the
multilateral agreements on trade
in goods,
These include GATT and related
Understandings,and twelve other
agreements,as contained in Annex
1A to the WTO Agreement.
back
Council for Trade in Services
The Council for Trade in Services
oversees the functioning of the
General Agreement on Trade in
Services (GATS).
back
Council for TRIPs
The Council for TRIPs oversees the
functioning of the Agreement on
Trade-Related Aspects of
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs
Agreement).
back
Ⅶ,Decision-making
The WTO continues the practice of
decision-making by consensus followed
under the GATT 1947,Consensus is
defined as the situation where no
Member,present at a meeting where a
decision is taken,formally objects to
the proposed decision,
Ⅶ,Decision-making
However,it is recognized that there
may be situations where a consensus
cannot be reached,in which case the
matter may be decided by voting,
Voting rules are set out in the WTO
Agreement as the following.
Ⅶ,Decision-making
1,At meetings of the Ministerial
Conference and the General Council,
each Member of the WTO shall have one
vote,
Where the European Communities
exercise their right to vote,they shall
have a number of votes equal to the
number of their member States which
are Members of the WTO,
Ⅶ,Decision-making
2,Decisions of the Ministerial
Conference and the General Council
shall be taken by a majority of the votes
cast,unless otherwise provided in WTO
Agreement or in the relevant (相应的)
Multilateral Trade Agreement.部长级会议和总理事会的决定应以所投票数的简单多数作出,除非本协定或有关多边贸易协定另有规定。
Ⅶ,Decision-making
3.The Ministerial Conference and
the General Council shall have the
exclusive authority to adopt
interpretations of WTO Agreement
and of the Multilateral Trade
Agreements,The decision to adopt
an interpretation shall be taken by
a three-fourths majority of the
Members,
Ⅶ,Decision-making
4.In exceptional circumstances(在特殊情况下),the Ministerial Conference may
decide to waive(放弃,免除) an
obligation imposed on a Member by
WTO Agreement or any of the
Multilateral Trade Agreements,provided
that any such decision shall be taken by
three fourths of the Members unless
otherwise provided for in WTO
agreement.
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Ⅷ,,Legal Framework
WTO Agreement (Full Name)
ANNEX 1 ANNEX 2
DSU
Full Name
ANNEX 3
Trade Policy Review
Mechanism
ANNEX 4
Plurilateral
Trade
Agreements
Annex 1A
Multilateral
Agreements
on Trade
in Goods
Annex 1B
GATS
Full Name
Annex
1C
TRIPS
Full Name
back
Full Name
WTO Agreement---Marrakesh Agreement
Establishing the World Trade Organization
Annex 1B GATS---General Agreement
on Trade in Services
Annex 1C TRIPS---Trade-Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights
Annex 2 DSU--Dispute Settlement
Understanding -- Understanding on
Rules and Procedures Governing the
Settlement of Disputes
Chart
Annex 1A
GATT 1994 (Must be read with GATT 1947 )
Agriculture
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
卫生与植物检验措施协定
Textiles and Clothing
Technical Barriers to Trade
Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs)
Anti-dumping
Customs valuation
Preshipment Inspection 装船前检验协定
Rules of Origin 原产地规则协议
Import Licensing 进口许可证手续协定
Subsidies and Countervailing Measures
补贴与反补贴措施协定
Safeguards 保障措施协定
back
Annex 3
Trade Policy Review Mechanism
Annex 3 of the WTO Agreement establishes
a Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM),
Its purpose is to improve transparency,to
create a greater understanding of the
policies that countries are adopting,and to
assess(评估) their impact,Many members
also see the review as constructive
feedback on their policies.
back
ANNEX 4
Plurilateral Trade Agreements
Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft
Agreement on Government
Procurement
International Dairy Agreement
( terminated end 1997 )
International Bovine Meat
Agreement ( terminated end 1997)
Difference
Chart
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
关于 WTO基本原则的说明:
1、所谓的 WTO原则,不是某一个 WTO文件中规定的,而是学者的总结;
2、我国学者的观点也不完全一致,包括:非歧视原则、透明度原则、逐渐削减关税原则、一般取消数量限制原则、自由贸易原则、公平竞争原则、互惠原则等等。
3、本节以 WTO网站自己公布的原则为讲解内容。
不信看看去
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
1.Trade without discrimination,Most-
favoured-nation (MFN) and National
treatment
2.Freer trade,gradually,through
negotiation
3.Predictability,through binding and
transparency
4.Promoting fair competition
5.Encouraging development and economic
reform Back to Outline
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
1.Trade without discrimination
A country should not discriminate
between its trading partners (giving
them equally,most-favoured-nation”
or MFN status); and it should not
discriminate between its own and
foreign products,services or nationals
(giving them,national treatment”).
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
A,Most-favoured-nation treatment
(MFN)
a,Meaning,treating other people equally,
Under the WTO agreements,countries
cannot normally discriminate between their
trading partners,Grant someone a special
favour (such as a lower customs duty rate
for one of their products) and you have to
do the same for all other WTO members.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
b,Importance:
It is one of the bedrock principles of the
WTO,
It is the first article of GATT,which governs
trade in goods,
MFN is also a priority in GATS (Article 2)
and TRIPS (Article 4),although in each
agreement the principle is handled slightly
differently,
Together,those three agreements cover all
three main areas of trade handled by the
WTO,
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
c,Exceptions to MFN
① Regional Economic Organization 区域性经济组织 and
Customs Union关税同盟
Countries can set up a free trade
agreement that applies only to goods
traded within the group —
discriminating against goods from
outside.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
② Generalized System of Preferences 普惠制
The Generalized System of Preferences or "GSP" is
a system that grants products made in developing
countries lower tariff rates than those normally
enjoyed under Most-Favoured-Nation status as a
special measure granted to developing countries in
order to increase their export earnings and
promote their development.
The GSP is defined in the Decision on,Generalized
System of Preferences” of June 1971,and is a
measure taken based on the Decision on
“Differential and More Favourable Treatment,
Reciprocity,and Fuller Participation of Developing
Countries“,关于有差别与更优惠待遇、对等与发展中国家充分参与的决定,or the,Enabling Clause”(授权条款)。
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
The GSP has the following characteristics:
First,preferential tariffs may be applied not
only to countries with special historical and
political relationships (i.e,the British
Commonwealth),but to developing
countries more generally (thus the system
is described as,generalized”).
Second,the beneficiaries (受益者 )are
limited to developing countries.
Third,it is a benefit unilaterally granted by
developed countries to developing
countries,
But the agreements only permit these
exceptions under strict conditions.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
In general,MFN means that every
time a country lowers a trade barrier
or opens up a market,it has to do so
for the same goods or services from
all its trading partners — whether rich
or poor,weak or strong.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
B,National treatment
a,Meaning
Treating foreigners and locals equally,
National treatment (GATT Article III) means
imported and locally-produced goods should be
treated equally — at least after the foreign goods
have entered the market,The same should apply to
foreign and domestic services,and to foreign and
local trademarks,copyrights and patents,
National treatment only applies once a product,
service or item of intellectual property has entered
the market,Therefore,charging customs duty on
an import is not a violation of national treatment
even if locally-produced products are not charged
an equivalent tax,
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
b,Importance:
National treatment stands along side most-
favored-nation treatment as one of the
central principles of the WTO Agreement,
This principle of,national treatment” is
also found in all the three main WTO
agreements (Article 3 of GATT,Article 17 of
GATS and Article 3 of TRIPS),although
once again the principle is handled slightly
differently in each of these.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
C,Exceptions to National Treatment
⑴ Government Procurement
Meaning:
Article,GATT Article III:8(a) permits governments
to purchase domestic products preferentially,
making government procurement one of the
exceptions to the national treatment rule,
Why? This exception is permitted because the
contracting parties recognized the role of
government procurement in national policy,For
example,there may be a security need to develop
and purchase products domestically,or
government procurement may,as is often the case,
be used as a policy tool to promote smaller
business,local industry,or advanced technologies,
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
Exception to the exception:
While the GATT made government
procurement an exception to the national
treatment rule,the Plurilateral Agreement
on Government Procurement resulting from
the Tokyo Round mandates(要求 )
signatories(签署者 ) to offer national
treatment in their government procurement,
However,the contracting parties to the
WTO are under no obligation to join the
Agreement on Government Procurement,
In fact,it has mostly been developed
countries which have joined the Agreement,
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
⑵ Domestic Subsidies(国内补贴)
GATT Article III:8(b) allows for (容许 )the payment of subsidies
exclusively(专门地,专有地 ) to domestic
producers as an exception to the
national treatment rule,under the
condition that it is not in violation of
other provisions in Article III and the
Agreement on Subsidies and
Countervailing Measures,
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
The reason for this exception is that
subsidies were recognized to be an
effective policy tool,and is recognized to be
basically within the latitude(地区 ) of
industrial policy authorities,However,
because subsidies may have a negative
effect on trade,the Agreement on Subsidies
and Countervailing Measures imposes strict
disciplines on the use of subsidies,
( Section5,Subsidies and countervailing)
Case 1--WTO第一案
1995年 1月,世界贸易组织成立伊始就受理了一起非常棘手的贸易争端:委内瑞拉申诉美国。事情的起因是,1993年,美国环保署根据国会 1990年,清洁空气法,修正案制定的,汽油规则,,要求自 1995
年 1月 1日起在美国销售的汽油必须符合新的清洁度标准。在美国污染严重地区只允许销售法定清洁汽油(精炼汽油),在其余地区销售的常规汽油不得低于 1990年所售汽油的清洁度。关于 1990年清洁度标准的确定,分为两种情况:在 1990年营业 6个月以上的国内供应商可自行确定本企业的标准 (,独立底线,方案 ),而国外供应商和在 1990年营业不足 6个月的国内供应商必须执行法定标准 (,法令的底线,方案 )。
同时,美国从加拿大进口的石油也采用了,独立底线,方案。
美国的这一政策公布后,遭到了作为美国重要的国外汽油供应商委内瑞拉的反对,认为该政策违反了世界贸易组织的规则,严重损害了委内瑞拉的经济利益。于是,委内瑞拉便把美国,告到,了世界贸易组织。随后不久,巴西也加入了对美国的申诉。这便是所谓的,WTO第一案,。
问题:美国的做法是否符合非歧视原则?
Case 1--WTO第一案世界贸易组织的争端解决机构裁定美国的汽油政策违反了 WTO的国民待遇原则,
要求美国修改汽油政策,使其与世界贸易组织的规则相一致。美国接受了裁决,
并应委内瑞拉的要求,自 1996年 5月 20
日起的 15个月内修改其汽油政策。
1997年 8月 19日,美国签署了新的汽油政策,,WTO第一案,也最终得到了圆满解决。
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
2,Freer trade,gradually,through negotiation
What?
Why?Lowering trade barriers is one of the
most obvious means of encouraging trade,
The barriers concerned include customs
duties (or tariffs) and measures such as
import bans or quotas (配额) that restrict
quantities selectively,From time to time
other issues such as red tape and exchange
rate policies have also been discussed.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
How?Since GATT’s creation in 1947-48 there have
been eight rounds of trade negotiations,A ninth
round,under the Doha Development Agenda,is
now underway,At first these focused on lowering
tariffs (customs duties) on imported goods,As a
result of the negotiations,by the mid-1990s
industrial countries’ tariff rates on industrial goods
had fallen steadily to less than 4%.
But by the 1980s,the negotiations had expanded
to cover non-tariff barriers on goods,and to the
new areas such as services and intellectual
property.
Opening markets can be beneficial,but it also
requires adjustment,The WTO agreements allow
countries to introduce changes gradually,through
“progressive liberalization”,Developing countries
are usually given longer to fulfill their obligations.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
3,Predictability,through binding and transparency
Binding,In the WTO,when countries
promise to lower or not to raise a trade
barrier,or agree to open their markets for
goods or services,they,bind” their
commitments so the trade circumstances
can keep stable,The promises give
businesses a clearer view of their future
opportunities,With stability and
predictability,investment is encouraged,
jobs are created and consumers can fully
enjoy the benefits of competition — choice
and lower prices,
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
The multilateral trading system is an
attempt by governments to make the
business environment stable and
predictable.
A country can change its bindings,but
only after negotiating with its trading
partners,which could mean
compensating them for loss of trade,
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
Transparency The wto system tries to
improve predictability and stability in other
ways as well,
One way is to make countries’ trade rules
as clear and public (“transparent”) as
possible,Many WTO agreements require
governments to disclose their policies and
practices publicly within the country or by
notifying the WTO,The regular
surveillance(监督 ) of national trade policies
through the Trade Policy Review
Mechanism provides a further means of
encouraging transparency both
domestically and at the multilateral level.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
Another is to discourage the use of
quotas and other measures used to
set limits on quantities of imports —
administering quotas can lead to more
red-tape(繁琐拖沓的程序) and
accusations of unfair play,
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
4.Promoting fair competition
The WTO is sometimes described as a
“free trade” institution,but that is not
entirely accurate,The system does
allow tariffs and,in limited
circumstances,other forms of
protection,More accurately,it is a
system of rules dedicated to(致力于 )
open,fair and undistorted competition.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
The rules on non-discrimination — MFN and
national treatment — are designed to
secure fair conditions of trade,So too are
those on dumping (exporting at below cost
to gain market share) and subsidies,The
issues are complex,and the rules try to
establish what is fair or unfair,and how
governments can respond,in particular by
charging additional import duties calculated
to compensate for damage caused by unfair
trade.
Many of the other WTO agreements aim to
support fair competition,in agriculture,
intellectual property,services,for example,
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
5.Encouraging development
and economic reform
The WTO system contributes to
development,On the other hand,
developing countries need flexibility in the
time they take to implement the system’s
agreements,And the agreements
themselves inherit the earlier provisions of
GATT that allow for special assistance and
trade concessions for developing countries.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
Over three quarters of WTO members are
developing countries and countries in
transition to market economies,During the
seven and a half years of the Uruguay
Round,over 60 of these countries
implemented trade liberalization
programmes autonomously(自主地),At
the same time,developing countries and
transition economies were much more
active and influential in the Uruguay Round
negotiations than in any previous round,
and they are even more so in the current
Doha Development Agenda.
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
At the end of the Uruguay Round,
developing countries were prepared
to take on most of the obligations that
are required of developed countries,
But the agreements did give them
transition periods to adjust to the
more unfamiliar and,perhaps,difficult
WTO provisions — particularly so for
the poorest,“least-developed”
countries,
Section 2,Major Principles of WTO
A ministerial decision adopted at the end of the
round says better-off countries should accelerate
implementing market access commitments on
goods exported by the least-developed countries,
and it seeks increased technical assistance for
them,More recently,developed countries have
started to allow duty-free and quota-free imports
for almost all products from least-developed
countries,On all of this,the WTO and its members
are still going through a learning process,The
current Doha Development Agenda includes
developing countries’ concerns about the
difficulties they face in implementing the Uruguay
Round agreements,back
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
Political and economic realities made
GATT provide some exceptions from
its free trade policies.
1,The general exceptions (GATT
Article 20)
In order to protect certain essential
public policy objectives,the GATT
provisions allow a WTO member state
to avoid its GATT obligations,take
measures contrary to GATT,
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
Subject to (在 … 条件下) the requirement that such
measures are not applied in a manner which would
constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable (不公正的) discrimination between countries where
the same conditions prevail,or a disguised
restriction(伪装的限制) on international trade,
nothing in this Agreement shall be construed(解释为) to prevent the adoption or enforcement by any
contracting party of measures:本协定的规定不得解释为禁止缔约方采用或加强以下措施,但对情况相同的各国,
实施的措施不得构成武断的或不合理的差别待遇,或构成对国际贸易的变相限制,
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
(a) necessary to protect public morals;
(b) necessary to protect human,animal or plant
life or health;
(c) relating to the importation or exportation of
gold or silver;
(d) necessary to secure compliance with laws or
regulations which are not inconsistent with the
provisions of this Agreement,including those
relating to customs enforcement,the enforcement
of monopolies operated under paragraph 4 of
Article II and Article XVII,the protection of
patents,trade marks and copyrights,and the
prevention of deceptive practices; 为了保证某些与本协定的规定并无抵触的法令或条例的贯彻执行所必需的措施,包括加强海关法令或条例,加强根据协定第二条第 4款和第十七条而实施的垄断,保护专利权、商标及版权,以及防止欺诈行为所必需的措施 ;
(e) relating to the products of prison
labour;
(f) imposed for the protection of
national treasures of artistic,historic or
archaeological value; (具有艺术、历史或考古价值的财产)
(g) relating to the conservation of
exhaustible natural resources if such
measures are made effective in
conjunction with restrictions on
domestic production or consumption;与国内限制生产与消费的措施相配合,为有效保护可能用竭的天然资源的有关措施 ;
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
(h) undertaken in pursuance of (为了履行) obligations under any
intergovernmental commodity
agreement which conforms to criteria
submitted (提交) to the CONTRACTING
PARTIES and not disapproved by them
or which is itself so submitted and not
so disapproved;如果商品协定所遵守的原则已向缔约方全体提出,缔约方全体未表示异议。或商品协定本身已向缔约方全体提出,缔约方全体未表示异议,为履行这种国际商品协定所承担的义务而采取的措施 ;
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
(i) involving restrictions on exports of
domestic materials necessary to ensure
essential quantities of such materials to a
domestic processing industry during periods
when the domestic price of such materials is
held below the world price as part of a
governmental stabilization plan; Provided that
such restrictions shall not operate to increase
the exports of or the protection afforded to
such domestic industry,and shall not depart
from the provisions of this Agreement relating
to non-discrimination;在国内原料的价格被压低到低于国际价格水平,作为政府稳定计划的一部分的期间内,为了保证国内加工工业对这些原料的基本需要,
有必要采取的限制这些原料出口的措施 ;但不得利用限制 来增加此种国内工业的出口或对其提供保护,也不得背离本协定的有关非歧视的规定 ;
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
(j) essential to the acquisition or distribution
of products in general or local short supply;
Provided that any such measures shall be
consistent with the principle that all
contracting parties are entitled to an equitable
share of the international supply of such
products,and that any such measures,which
are inconsistent with the other provisions of
this Agreement shall be discontinued as soon
as the,conditions giving rise to them have
ceased to exist.在普遍或局部供应不足的情况下,
为获取或分配产品所必需 采取的措施 ;但采取的措施必须符合以下原则,所有缔约方在这些产品的国际供应中部有权占有公平的份额,而且,如采取的措施与 本协定的其他规定不符,它应在导致其实施的条件不复存在时,立即予以停止。
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
一、案情简介使用拖网渔船捕捞海虾会顺带地捕杀与海虾群居的海龟。为防止捕虾时顺带捕杀海龟,美国发明了一种救活装置( TED-turtle-excluder-device ),在渔网装置栅栏,海虾入网,而把海龟挡在外面,十分有效。
1989年美国在,濒危物种法,里增设了第 609条,规定凡未能在捕虾同时放活海龟者,禁止该国的海虾向美进口。此后美国先后几次发布指令实施第 609条。
印度、巴基斯坦、马来西亚与泰国对美海虾出口因而受到禁止,1996年 10月 8日上述几国先后与美国按
WTO解决争端程序进行协商,而未获结果,于是请求设立专家组审理此案。
海虾海龟案专家组审理后作出裁决,认为美国第 609条违背了
WTO自由贸易的规则,也不符合 GATT 1994第 20条
,一般例外,规定。
1998年 7月 13日,美国提出上诉。上诉机构组成上诉专家组,对该案进行了复审,并于 1998年 10月 12日提出了上诉报告。在上诉报告中,上诉专家组充分运用国际公法对解释的习惯规则,对第 609条是否合法进行了论证。认为第 609条符合 GATT1994第 20条
( g)项规定,并被承认有合法的环境目的;但是措施的实行在 WTO成员方间采取了任意的与无端的歧视的方式,违反了第 20条引言的规定。这些措施没有资格获得 GATT 1994第 20条提供的,例外,豁免。
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
(2) The security exceptions
The security exceptions set out in Article
XXI allow member state to avoid any
obligations they may have under the GATT
that are contrary to their "essential security
interests " or that conflict with their duties
"under the United Nations Charter for the
maintenance of international peace and
security",Most of the exceptions listed in
both Articles XX and XXI may be invoked
only if they are "necessary" or "essential"
to a member state's goals.
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
Nothing in this Agreement shall be
construed,
(a) to require any contracting party to
furnish any information the disclosure of
which it considers contrary to its essential
security interests; or
(b) to prevent any contracting party from
taking any action which it considers
necessary for the protection of its essential
security interests
(i) relating to fissionable materials(可裂变物质) or the materials from which they are
derived(可提炼裂变物质的原料) ;
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
(ii) relating to the traffic(贸易、交易) in arms,
ammunition(军火弹药) and implements of war
and to such traffic in other goods and materials as
is carried on directly or indirectly for the purpose
of supplying a military establishment;武器、弹药和军火的贸易或直接和间接供军事机构用的其他物品或原料的贸易 ;
(iii) taken in time of war or other emergency in
international relations; or战时或国际关系中的其他紧急情况 ;或
(c) to prevent any contracting party from taking
any action in pursuance of its obligations under the
United Nations Charter for the maintenance of
international peace and security.阻止任何缔约方根据联合国宪章为维持国际和平和安全而采取行动。
back
Section 4.Anti-dumping
Outline
Ⅰ,概述 〉
Ⅱ,反倾销的调查 〉
Ⅲ,倾销的认定 〉
Ⅳ,反倾销税的征收 >
Ⅴ,反倾销措施的行政复议和司法审查 >
Ⅵ,倾销协定中的争端解决 >
我国的反倾销法简介 >
back
Section 4.Anti-dumping
Ⅰ,Introduction
1.What is dumping?
Dumping is,in general,a situation of
international price discrimination,where
the price of a product when sold in the
importing country is less than the price of
that product in the market of the exporting
country,
Dumping occurs when foreign exporters sell
their goods in international markets at
prices lower than the price in their home
market (referred to as "normal value"),or
at prices below the cost of production,
Section 4.Anti-dumping
2,What is anti-dumping?
Countries may impose anti-dumping
duties (反倾销税) equal to the
margin(幅度) of dumping(倾销幅度)
if it is determined,through an
investigation,that the dumped
imports are causing injury to domestic
producers of the same product,
Section 4.Anti-dumping
In the simplest of cases,one identifies
dumping simply by comparing prices in two
markets,However,the situation is rarely,if
ever,that simple,and in most cases it is
necessary to undertake a series of complex
analytical steps in order to determine the
appropriate price in the market of the
exporting country (known as the,normal
value”) and the appropriate price in the
market of the importing country (known as
the,export price”) so as to be able to
undertake an appropriate comparison.
Section 4.Anti-dumping
3,What are the Anti-dumping Laws?
(1)Article VI of GATT 1947:
The contracting parties recognize that dumping,
by which products of one country are introduced
into the commerce of another country at less than
the normal value of the products,is to be
condemned if it causes or threatens material injury
to an established industry in the territory of a
contracting party or materially retards the
establishment of a domestic industry.,关税与贸易总协定》第 6条对反倾销作出规定。其中第 6条第 1款规定如下,‘‘ 用倾销手段将一国产品以低于正常价值的办法引入另一国的商业,如因此对一缔约方领土内一产业造成实质损害或实质损害威胁,或实质阻碍一国内产业的新建,
则倾销应予以谴责。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
(2)1967年,反倾销守则( Antidumping Code),
The Agreement on Anti-Dumping Practices,
entered into force in 1967 as a result of the
Kennedy Round,However,the United
States never signed the Kennedy Round
Code,and as a result the Code had little
practical significance.
关税与贸易总协定在第 6轮谈判 (肯尼迪回合 )签订了《反倾销法典》,对第 6条的实施作了比较详细的规定
Section 4.Anti-dumping
( 3) 1979年,反倾销守则,
The Tokyo Round Code,which entered
into force in 1980,represented a
quantum leap(巨大突破) forward.,
第 7轮谈判 (东京回合 )达成了《反倾销守则》
并取代了《反倾销法典》,
Section 4.Anti-dumping
( 4) 1994年,反倾销协定,
The Agreement on Implementation of
Article VI of GATT 1994,commonly known
as the Anti-Dumping Agreement,sets out
rules for the conduct of anti-dumping
investigations,including initiation of cases,
calculation of dumping margins,the
application of remedial measures,injury
determinations,enforcement,reviews,
duration of the measure and dispute
settlement.第 8轮谈判 (乌拉圭回合 )达成了《关于实施 1994年关税与贸易总协定第 6条的协定》
(简称《反倾销协定,),对反倾销的实体规则与程序规则进行了全面的规定。 back
Section 4.Anti-dumping
Ⅱ,反倾销的调查
1,反倾销调查申请的审查反倾销调查的发起可以有两种方式,一是有关当局自主发起,一是国内产业或其代表提起。
根据《反倾销协定》,只有在特殊的情况下,才由有关当局自主决定发起调查,即有充分的证据证明倾销、损害及因果关系存在,发起调查有正当性。
一般情况下由国内产业或其代表提出申请而开始调查,申请应提供倾销、损害及倾销与损害间有因果关系的证据。仅是断言而没有确实的证据,不符合要求。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
除此之外,申请应有足够的产业支持。即如果支持申请的国内生产商的生产超过了国内相同产品的总生产的 25%,并且支持申请的国内生产商超过了表示支持和反对的产业部分生产的国内相同产品产量的 50%,该申请即认为是由产业或代表产业提起。
与外国生产商有关系的国内生产商可以忽略,除 非它们表明其利益同样受到倾销的不利影响 。如果 国内生产商是对象商品的进口商,则可忽略。如果申请基于区域产业,则在区域产业的基础上确定申请是否由产业或代表产业提出。如果有关当局确定倾销或损害没有充分的证据证明,应驳回申请,终止调查。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
鉴于反顷销申提交本身容易造成贸易的不稳定,《反倾销协定》要求调查当局避免公布申请,但在作出发起调查的决定之后,有关当局有义务将发起调查的决定通知公众。
当倾销幅度或产品数量被确定为可忽略不计的最小值时,应终止调查。一般情况下小于正常价格 2%的倾销幅度,或占进口国相同产品市场的 3%以下,视为最小。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
2.反倾销调查中的证据提供依据《反倾销协定》,主管当局对发起调查的决定,以及整个调查期间,都要充分考虑有关倾销、损害及因果关系的证据的充分性与准确性。申请人在提出申请时应提供支持申请的有关证据。在调查开始之后,被指控倾销的出口商或进口商、出口国当局及其它利益关系方,应有充分的机会提供证据、进行答辩、反驳指控。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
申请应全文提供给已知出口商和出口方国家当局,一方提供的证据,应立即提供给参加调查的其他各方,各方有权看到调查当局在调查过程中使用的全部信息。在作出最终裁定前,当局应将考虑中的作为是否适用最终措施基础的事实通知所有利益关系人。对于保密性信息,提交方应提交非保密的概要,
否则调查当局可以不予理会该信息。如果出口商不按调查当局的要求提供信息,则调查当局以其掌握的现有最佳信息作出裁定。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
必要时,调查当局可以进行现场调查,但该调查只有在出口商或生产商、出口国政府同意的情况下进行。现场调查应提前通知,以便出口商、生产商准备提供信息,拒不同意现场调查可能导致当局使用其获得的最佳信息。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
在确定倾销幅度时,当局应对每一个已知出口 商或生产商确定单独的倾销幅度,在涉及太多出口商或生产商、产品种类以致不可能作出单独倾销幅度时,应使用有效的抽样 统计方法,对合理数目的利益关系人进行限制性审查,或对占出口产品数量最大百分比的产 品进行限制性审查。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
3,调查过程里的临时措施和价格承诺
A,临时措施调查过程分为初步裁定和终局裁定两个阶段。
调查过程中,如果已公告进行调查并给与利益关系方提供信息和意见的充分机会,并已作出存在倾销并因此造成国内产业损害的初步裁定,当局判定有必要采取措施防止在调查期间对产业造成损害时,有关当局可以裁定采取临时措施。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
临时措施可以采取征收临时税的方式,但协定规定最好采取支付现金或保函的保证方式,
其数额等于临时估计的反倾销税,但不得超过估计的倾销幅度。临时措施应从调查之日起 60天后采取,适用期限一般不超过 4个月。
特殊情况下可为 6个月或 9个月。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
B,价格承诺出口商也可以承诺提高他们的出口价格或停止以倾销价格出口,避免反倾销税。此为价格承诺 (Price Undertaking)。 但该承诺应由出口商自愿作出,而不应被迫作出。出口商是否作出价格承诺,不影响有关当局的调查和裁定。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
另外,在有关当局作出存在倾销和损害的初步裁定之前,有关当局不得要求或接受出口商的价格承诺,以防止出口商在其产品没有造成国内产业损害的情况下被要求做出该承诺。是否接受价格承诺由有关当局决定。如果有关当局对出口商承诺的对倾销有害影响的消除感到满意,可暂时中止或终止调查程序而不采取临时措施或征收反倾销税。承诺的价格提高不得高于需抵销的倾销幅度,如果提价幅度小于倾销幅度即可消除对国内产业的损害,该提价是可取的。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
在接受价格承诺后,有关当局应结束对有关倾销和损害的凋查 。 如果就倾销或损害作出了否定裁定,
承诺应自动终止,除非该裁定是基于价格承诺而作出的,在这种情况下可要求价格承诺维持一段合理的时间。如果出口商违反价格承诺,当局可根据协定,基于现有最佳信息,立即采取临时措施,对 在采取临时措施前进入消费不超过 90天的产品征收最终确定税,但该追溯征税不适用于违反承诺之前就已进 口 的产品。
价格承诺一直有效,直至能抵销倾销造成的损害。
若行政复议的结果认为价格承诺不 再 合理,则应予以终止。 back
Section 4.Anti-dumping
Ⅲ,倾销的认定 Determination of dumping
《反倾销协定》确定的基本原则是,只有根据《反倾销协定》规定进行的调查确定存在倾销进口,国内产业受到严重损害 (包括严重损害威胁和实质阻碍产业的建立 ),倾销进口与损害之间有因果关系,
成员国才可以征收反倾销税 。
其中,倾销的确定是最基本的要求。但与《反补贴协定》不同,《反倾销协定》并没有对倾销本身制定规则,这主要是因为倾销是商业企业的一种定价方法,不属于多边约束的直接范围。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
倾销是建立在进口产品在出口国或原产地国正常贸易过程中的正常价值与出口价格的公平比较之上的 。 如果一项产品从一国出口到另一国,该产品的出口价格低于在出口国正常贸易过程中旨在用于本国消费的相同产品的可比价格,即低于其正常价值,进入另一国的商业领域,该产品即被认为是倾销 。
正常价值与出口价格的差额即是倾销幅度 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
1,正常价值正常价值不是一种具体的价格,它是一种虚拟概念 。 正常价值有下述几种计算方法,可以基于不同的市场确定 。 通常使用的是出口国国内市场销售的相同产品的销售价格,但也可使用向第三国销售的价格或推定价格作为确定正常价值的基础 。 有时转口的中间国价格也可以作为确定正常价值的方法 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
(1)出口国国内价格和向第三国销售价格:
如果出口国构成了可靠市场,有关当局 应 据出口国的价格确定正常价值 。
如果出口国不构成可靠市场,而第三国构成了可靠市场,有关当局可基于其向第三国出口价格确定正常价值 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
① 出口国国内市场价格:
,反倾销协定,并没有对出口国国内市场价格作出规定 。 按对倾销的规定看,应理解为相同产品在出口 国 市场正常贸易过程中用于消费的价格 。
关于市场数量:该市场应有足够的相同产品的销售 。 通常认为出口国国内市场消费的相同产品的销售构成进口国产品销售的 5% 或以上,即足以用于确定正常价值 。,协定,还规定,如果有证据表明较低比例的国内销售仍然具有足够的数量提供适当比较,该较低比例亦应被接受 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
关于相同产品:,反倾销协定,将 ‘‘ 相同产品,(Like Product)定义为:,在所有方面都与该产品相似 (alike),或者在缺乏这一产品时,指那种虽然在所有方而与其 不 尽相同,但具有该产品非常类似的特性的其他产品 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
② 向第三国出口价格:
在出口国国市场正常贸易过程中不存在相同产品的销售时,或者由于该市场的特定情况,
或在出口国内市场的销售量太少,该销售不能用于适当比较时,倾销幅度可以通过与向一个第三 国 出口相同产品的可比价格比较确定 。 这即是向第三国出口价格 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
③ 对出口国国内销售价格和第三国销售价格的调整:
一般来说用于确定正常价值的价格为出口国的 FOB价格 (离岸价 格 ),而无论是出口国国内销售价格还是第三国销售价格,与 FOB价格都存在差异,因而有必要对其进行一系列的增加或减少的调整 。 这也正是确定价格的关键 。 除装卸费用,覆盖费用等调整外,还要根据不同的销售阶段,不同的贸易水平进行调整 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
(2)推定价格和低于生产成本的销售 。
① 推定价格 。 如果有关当局确定正常价值 不能 通过消费价格确定,正常价值可以是基于该商品的生产成本,一般销售和管理费用,
利润的推定价格 。 对于推定价格也需要按照对出口国销售价格和第三国销售价格的原则对其进行调整 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
下列情况下使用推定价值作为确定正常价值的基础:
国内市场或第三国市场不 可靠 ;
不予考虑的低于生产成本的销售;
不予考虑的正常贸易过程外的销售或不具代表性价格的销售;
不予考虑的用于建立虚假市场的销售;
不具备可比商品的同时销售;
或有关当局确定国内市场或第三国价格不适当时 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
② 低于生产成本的销售 。
无论使用何种计算方 法 来确定正常价值,其计算都是在正常的投入产出基础上进行的,
其销售都视为能够回收 成 本的销售 。 如果低于成本销售,则该销售违反了正常的经营规则和市场规则,不能用来作为计算价格的依据 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
《反倾销协定》规定,无论是在出口国国内市场,
还是向第三国销售,其价格低于每单位生产成本加上行政管理费、销售费和一般费用,不应认为是在正常贸易过程进行销售。所以即使在出口国或第三国有销售,如果该销售低于生产成本销售占销售的大部分,且该销售在连续的期限内 (正常是 1年,但不少干 6个月,与确定 正 常价值所审议的销售相一致的期限 )大量地进行,在合理期限内不能回收成本,可在确定正常价值时忽略该项销售,在确定正常价值时不予考虑。但协定没有明确这种情况下应采取的确定正常价值的方法 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
(3)非市场经济国家产品的价格确定 。
,关税与贸易总协定,是建立在自由经济基础之上的,对于非市场经济制度并没有作出规定,只是在附件 9关于第 6条的注释中提到,
从国家垄断贸易并由国家规定价格的国家进口商品,在决定可比价格时可能遇到困难 。
市场经济国家在其反倾销立法中对非市场经济国家产品的价格确定作了特别规定 。 下面介绍一下美国的有关规定 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
据美国反倾销法,所谓非市场经济国家,指由有关当局确定的不根据成本或定价结构的市场原则运行,从而该国商品的销售不反映商品的公平价值的任何外国 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
在确定某一外国为非市场经济国家时,应考虑如下因素:
① 外国货币转换成其他国家货币的程度;
② 劳资双方自由谈判决定工资的程度;
③ 该外国允许其他外国厂商合资或其他投资的程度;
④ 政府拥有或控制生产方法的程度;
⑤ 政府控制资源分配,价格和企业的产出决定的程度;
⑥ 有关当局视为适当的其他因素 。
一旦一国被有关当局确定为非市场经济国家,该确定将一直有效,直到被撤销,且该确定不受司法审查 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
如果调查的对象商品从非市场经济国家出口,
并且管理当局发现现有资料不允许根据出口国国内消费价格或第三国价格确定对象商品的正常价值,则管理当局应在生产该商品的生产要素的价值的基础上,增加一般费用、
利润和包装箱、覆盖物和其他费用的数额,
确定对象商品的正常价值。生产要素的估价应基于市场经济国家或有关当局视为合适的国家的这些要素的价值的现有最佳资料。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
对非市场经济国家的进口产品,也可以使用替代国产品来确定正常价值 。 如有关当局发现现有资料不足以据生产要素的价值确定对象商品的正常价值 。 有关当局应基于下述价格确定正常价值:与非市场经济国家经济发展水平可比的一个或多个市场经济国家生产的与对象商品可比的商品在其他国家包括美国的销售价格 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
应该看到无论是否采用替代国,在确定生产要素的价值时,实际上都是使用市场经 济国家的价值 。 只不过一种按产品的生产要素确定,一种按生产确定 。 法律要求该市场经济国家与非市场经济国家具有经济上的可比性 。
经济可比性主要依据人均国民生产总值来衡量 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
2.出口价格出口价格一般指进口商的购买价格 。 据美国法,出口价格是指在进口日之前美国之外的对象商品的生产商或出口商首次卖给美国的没有关联关系的买主用于出口到美国的,
进行适当调整的价格 。 美国以前称该价格为购买价格 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
如果不存在出口价格,或者由于出口商与进口商或第三者之间有联合或补偿安排使得出口价格不可靠,可以采用摊定出口价格
(Constructed Export Price),即出口产品首次转售给独立买主的价格,或者是在该产品不转售给独立买主也不以进口的条件转售的情况下,在合理基础上确定的价格 。
上述两种价格需要根据不同的情况进行增加或扣除的调整 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
3,出口价格与正常价值的比较在确定是否存在倾销时,应在出口价格或推定出口价格与正常价值之间进行公平的比较 。 其差额就是倾销幅度 。
倾销幅度 指对象商品正常价值超过出口或推定出口价格的数额 。 常用百分比表示 。
加权平均倾销幅度,有时使用加权平均倾销幅度,
指通过把某一具体出 口 商或生产商的总的倾销幅度除以该出口商或生产商总的出口价格和推定出口价格而确定的百分比 。 所谓加权,就是根据要素的重要性程度给予一定的相对权数或绝对权数 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
( 1) 公平比较 。,反倾销协定,要求公平比较出口价格和正常价值,该比较应在同一贸易水平 上
(通常应在出厂价的水平上 )进行,并尽可能接近于同一时间销售 。 对影响价格比较的 不同 因素根据每一案件的具体情况作出适当的调整,包括销售条件,
税收,贸易水平,数重,物理特征以及影响价格可比性的其他差异 。
在采用推定出口价恪时,应进行成本费用的调整,
包括进口与转售之间产生的关税,税收以及利润 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
(2)比较方法 。 ① 平均对平均比较法:倾销幅度通常应 在 加权平均正常价值与全部可比的出口交易的加权平均价格比较的基础上确定,即平均对平均比较法;
② 个别对个别比较法:每项交易的正常价值与出口价格进行比较的基础上确定,即个别对个别比较法;
③ 平均对个别比较法:如果出口价格在不同的购买人,地区或时间差别很大,可以在加权平均基础上确定 的 正常价值与单独出口交易的价格进行比较,
即平均对个别比较法 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
(3)货币转换 。 由于 汇 率变动极大地影响倾销幅度,为货币转换之目的,应使用销售当日的外汇汇率,但如果 销 售是在期货合同确定的外汇汇率基础上进行,应使用该汇率 。
(4)小额规则 。 据,反倾销协定,,当倾 x销幅度小 于出口价 格的 2% 时,该 倾销幅度 可忽略不计,调查应终止 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
4,产业损害在征收反倾销税以前,进口国必须确定倾销进口对进口国的生产相同产品的国内产业造成了实质损害或实质损害威胁,或实质阻碍产业的建立 。 损害的确定应基于确切的证据,
并通过对倾销进口的数量,对国内相同产品价格的影响以及倾销进口对国内产业的影响进行客观审查来确定 。 损害可以累积评估不同国家的进口确定 。 倾销进口与产业损害必须存在因果关系 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
( 1) 国内产业 。 确定损害和因果关系必须首先确定国内产业 。 国内产业范围的大小直接影响到损害和因果关系的确定 。 而国内产业的确定又以相同产品为基础 。
所谓国内产业,一般是指国内相同产品的总体生产商,或其国内相同产品产量占该产品的全部国内生产总产量的主要部分的生产商,既可以是全国生产商,也可以是主要生产商 。 而国内相同产品则指与被调查产品相同,或不相同时在特征和用途方面最相似的产品 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
关联企业不包括一国内产业的范围之内 。 如果国内相同产品的生产商和出口商或进口商是关联方,或如果国内相同产品的生产商也是进口商品的进口商,在适当的情况下,该生产商可从产业中排除,而不作为产业的一部分来计算,产业是除此之外的其他生产商 。
一生产 商是否是关联方,主要从生产商同出口商或进 口 商间是否存在控制关系来确定 。
如果一方法律上或经营中处于对另一方控制或指示的位置,即视为直接或间接控制另一方 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
作为关联方的情况主要有以下几种:
① 生产商直接或间接控制出口商或进口商;
② 出口商或进口商直接或间接控制生产商;
③ 第三方直接或间接控制生产商和出口商或进口商;
④ 生产商和出口商或进口商直接或间接控制第三方,
并且有理由相信该关系使生产商的行为与没有关系的生产商不同 。
美国法进一步规定,一国内生产商即使本身不进口对象商品,与进口商也没有公司附属关系,但如果其控制大量的进口,仍可视为关联方 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
反倾销或反补贴法允许基于区域产业来评估进口商品对国内产业的影响 。 区域产业可以视为国内产业 。 如果一国市场内存在两个或两个以上的竞争市场,每一市场内的生产商在该市场中销售其生产的相同国内产品的全部或几乎全部产品,并且该市场中的需求在很大程度上不是由位于其他地方的该产品的生产商供应的,每一个市场内的生产商可被视为一个独立的产业,这种情况下称为 区域产业 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
在这样的情况下,如果倾销进口商品集中于一单独的市场,并且如果该市场内的所有产品或几乎所有产品的生产商正受到实质损害或实质损害威胁,或如果一产业的建立正受到实质阻碍,即使作为总体的国内产业或其国内相同产品的总产量构成主要部分的生产商正受到损害,
也可能确定实质损害,实质损害威胁,或产业建立的实质阻碍对某一产业存在 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
(2)实质损害 。
何为实质损害 (Material Injury)并没有明确的规定或界定 。 是否存在损害需要根据调查的结果来确定,依据确切的证据作出 。 据,反倾销协定,,损害应指对某一国内产业的实质损害,对国内产业的实质损害威胁,或对某一产业的建立造成实质阻碍 。
实质损害的确定包括下述几方面的审查:
倾销进口产品的数量;
倾销产品对国内相同产品场价格的影响;
倾销进口产品对国内该相同产品生产商造成的后续冲击程度 。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
认定实质损害须考虑以下三点:
①倾销进口商品的数量。在绝对的条件下或相对于进口国的生产或消费的情况下,倾销商品的进口数量是否存在大量的增加。由于采取的是绝对和相对两种计算 方 法,因而即使某种倾销商品的绝对数量或其增加并不明显,也有可能用相对的计算方法得出数量的大幅度增加。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
②倾销进口商品对价格的影响主要考虑三个方面:
(a)与国内相同产品的价格相比,倾销进口商品是否一直存在大幅度的降价;
(b)该商品进口的结果是否严重抑制了价格;
(c)或是否在很大程度上阻止了本应发生的价格增长。
单独一个或其中几个因素的存在与否并不必然地起决定性作用。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
③倾销进 口 商品对国内产业的影响。
这个问比较复杂。首先涉及对国内产业的界定。
另一个问题是对有关因素的评估。协定要求评估国内产业状况有关的所有经济因素,包括但不限于,(a)产量、销售、市场份额、利润、
生产率、投资收益以及生产能力利用的实际的和潜在的下降; (b)影响国内价格的因素;( c)
对现金流量、库存、就业、工资、增长率、筹集资本及投资能力的实际的和潜在的负作用。
除上述三个方面外,美国法还要求考虑:倾销幅度的大小。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
(3)实质损害威胁。可以征收反倾销税的另一种情形是对国内产业的实质损害威胁。该损害威胁必须是明确可预见到的、
迫近的,而不仅仅是依据宣称、猜测或遥远的可能 性。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
确定国内产业是否受到实质损害威胁,除其他经济因素外,应特别考虑下列因素:
①倾销进口产品以极大增长比例进入进口国市场,表明由此引起进口巨大增加的可能性;
②出口商能充分自由处置迫近的大量增长的情况,表明存在着倾销产品向进口成员方市场出口量增长的可能性,考虑其他出口市场存在着吸引另外出口产品的能力;
③进口产品是否会对进口国国内价格带来重大的抑制性的影响,以及可能会增加进一步进 口的需求;
④受查产品的库存情况。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
(4)累积确定实质损害和实质损害威胁。
这是世界贸易组织《反倾销协定》和《反补贴协定》新规定的内容。如果来自不同国家的产品进 口,每一国家进口产品的倾销幅度或补贴数量超过了可以忽略不计的最小程度 (2% ),
从某一特定国家进口倾销产品的数量占进口国国内市场相同产品 3%以上,或不足 3%的单个国家的总和超过了 7%,每一国的进口量不可忽略不计;依据倾销进口产品之间的竞争条件以及倾销进口产品与国内相同产品之间的竞争条件,这种累积评估是适当的,则可以对来自不同国家倾销产品进口累积评估。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
允许累积确定不同国家的进口,使占极小市场份额的一国生产商和来自其他国家的更大更多的出口商合在一起计算,
因而可能被裁定为造成实质损害的一个原因。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
(5)倾销与损害的因果关系。
倾销进口必须与产业损害存在因果关系。《反倾销协定》要求必须表明因倾销的结果,倾销的进口产品正在造成本协定所指的损害。确定倾销进口产品和对国内产业造成损害之间的因果关系,应以当局对其所掌握的全部相关证据的审查为基础。有关当局除审查倾销进口外,
还应审查其他已知因素,这些因素同时正在对产业造成损害,其他因素造成的产业损害不得归因于倾销进口。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
有关因素包括:以非倾销价格进口的数量和价格,需求减少或消费模式的变化,
外国与国内生产商之间的竞争,贸易限制措施,技术发展,出口实绩和国内产业的生产能力等。但协定对因果关系的大小、衡量没有规定。
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Section 4.Anti-dumping
Ⅳ,反倾销税的征收
1、征税原则包括选择性、少征税和非歧视性。
在征税条件已经满足的情况下,由有关当局决定是否征收反倾销税,并决定征税的税额。如果较少征税即能足以消除对国内产业造成的损害,则应少征税,征收税额最好小于倾销幅度。
在对所有有关产品征收反倾销税时,应在非歧视的基础上对构成倾销、造成损害的进口产品按适当数额征税;但对已接受价格承诺的产品除外。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
2.可追溯征收一般情况下,只能对在征税裁定生效后进人消费的倾销产品征收反倾销税。在特殊情况下反倾销税可以追溯征收。如果作出实质损害 (不是实质损害威胁或实质阻碍产业的建立 )终局裁定,或作出损害威胁终局裁定 (但如不采取临时措施,本可导致损害产生 ),则可以从临时措施开始适用时追溯征收反倾销税。如果最终反倾销税高于已支付或应支付的临时税或保证数额,其差额不再征收;如果低于已支付或应支付的临时税或保证数额,其差额应予退还或重新计算税额。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
对于损害威胁的裁定或阻碍产业建立的裁定,最终反倾销税只能从损害威胁或阻碍裁定作出之日起计征,临时措施适用期间交付的押金应予退还。保证应立即解除。
追溯适用的期限还可以延及临时措施适用前 90天内进入消费的倾销产品 。 如果该产品存在造成损害的倾销史,或进口商知道或应知出口商在进行倾销,
该倾销会造成损害,且损害是由于相当短的时间内的大量进口造成的,并考虑到倾销进口的时间和数量及其他因素 (如进口产品库存酌迅速增加 ),可能严重削弱最终反倾销税的救济效果,则可以对临时措施适用前 90天内进入消费的倾销产品,征收最终反倾销税。但不得对调查开始前进入消费的产品追溯征税。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
3.税收的期限、终止和审查反倾销税一直有效,直至能抵销倾销造成的损害。反倾销税的利益关系人可以要求有关当局对反倾销税进行复议。若行政复议的结果使有关当局认为征收反倾消税不再合理则应予以终止。
尽管有上述规定,反倾销税不应超过 5年的期限,应在征税起的 5年期满之前终止 (日 落条款 )。但如果有关当局在该日期前自主发起的审查中,或基于国内产业或其代表在该日期前及时提出的有具体根据的要求的审查中,有关当局裁定终止反倾销税可能导致倾销和损害的继续或恢复,反倾销税应该继续。 back
Section 4.Anti-dumping
Ⅴ,反倾销措施的行政复议和司法审查
1,行政复议:
《反倾销协定》第 11条规定了对反倾销税和价格承诺的行政复议。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
根据《反倾销协定》,对反倾销税和价格承诺,经任何利益方要求,或当局认为有必要时,当局应对反倾销税和价格承诺的继续必要性进行复议 。 利益方有权要求当局就继续征税是否为抵销倾销所必要、如果取消征税或改变税额,损害是否可能继续或恢复进行复议。如复议的结果认为征税已缺乏依据,应立 即终止。价格承诺也适用同样原则。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
尽管有上述规定,任何反倾销税或价格承诺,应在实施 5年后终止,除非当局在此日之前的复议中,确定终止有关措施将导致倾销和损害的继续或恢复。有关证据和程序规定,同样适用于行政复议。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
2、反倾销的司法审查:
《反倾销协定》第 13条规定了司法审查。
《反倾销协定》规定,其国内立法包含反倾销措施的国家应确立司法、仲裁或行政法庭程序对行政机构的终局裁定进行审查,以及对行政复议进行审查。该法庭或程序应独立作出裁定或行政复议的当局。 back
Section 4.Anti-dumping
Ⅵ,倾销协定中的争端解决
《反倾销协定》建立反倾销措施委员会。
协定要求各成员对反倾销调查中采取的临时性和终局性措施应不迟延地通知委员会,并且每半年向委员会通知在该期限内采取的所有措施。
各成员应向反倾销措施委员会通知其反倾销立法、规章。没有反倾销立法、规章的成员也要通知这一事实。通知应包括立法、规章的全文,并提供世贸组织语言文本 (英语、法语和西班牙语 )。各成员有关立法的通知应受委员会的审查。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
各成员应每年两次就其采取的反倾销措施向委员会作出报告,并且向委员会提交有效的反倾销措施名单。对其临时措施和终局措施,各成员应立即向委员会通知。各成员应向委员会通知其发起和进行反倾销调查的主管当局。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
《反倾销协定》规定,如果某一成员认为其他成员正在使其丧失从本协定中直接或间接地获得的利益或使其利益受到损害,或者正在妨碍本协定目标的实现,为了就该事项取得相互满意的结果,该成员可书面提出与其他成员进行协商的要求。如果提出协商的成员认为没有达成相互满意的解决办法,进口成员行政当局已经采取最终措施,征收反倾销税或接受价格承诺,则该成员可将此事项提交争端解决机构
(DSB)处置。
Section 4.Anti-dumping
如果某一临时措施具有重大影响,要求协商的成员认为该临时措施违背了《反倾销协定》规定的采取临时措施的条件,该成员也可以将此事项提交争端解决机构解决。
《反倾销协定》规定了专家组对反倾销案件中的事实和协定解释的特殊审查标准。这一标准赋予了对国家当局事实认定和法律解释的尊重,
旨在避免专家组作出纯基于其观点的决定。
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我国的反倾销法一、立法概况
(一),外贸法》
第 41条:其他国家或者地区的产品以低于正常价值的倾销方式进入我国市场,对已建立的国内产业造成实质损害或者产生实质损害威胁,或者对建立国内产业造成实质阻碍的,国家可以采取反倾销措施,消除或者减轻这种损害或者损害的威胁或者阻碍。
第 42条:其他国家或者地区的产品以低于正常价值出口至第三国市场,对我国已建立的国内产业造成实质损害或者产生实质损害威胁,或者对我国建立国内产业造成实质阻碍的,应国内产业的申请,国务院对外贸易主管部门可以与该第三国政府进行磋商,要求其采取适当的措施。
我国的反倾销法
(二)相关条例:
1,1997年 3月 25日发布并实施,中华人民共和国反倾销和反补贴条例,;
2、《中华人民共和国反倾销条例》,于
2002年 1月 1日起施行。根据 2004年 3月
31日《国务院关于修改〈中华人民共和国反倾销条例〉的决定》再次修改 。
2004年 6月 1日起施行。
我国的反倾销法
(三)司法解释:
2002年 9月 11日最高人民法院审判委员会第 1242次会议通过,关于审理反倾销行政案件应用法律若干问题的规定》。
我国的反倾销法二、具体制度
(一 )倾销与损害根据我国《反倾销条例》,倾销是指在正常贸易过程中进 口 产品以低于其正常价值的出口价格进入中华人民共和国市场。
损害是指倾销对已经建立的国内产业造成实质损害或者产生实质损害威胁,或者对建立国内产业造成实质阻碍。
我国的反倾销法
(二 )反倾销调查
1、反倾销调查的提起根据我国的《反倾销条例》第 13条,有权向 外经贸部 提出反倾销调查申请的主体包括国内产业或者代表国内产业的自然人、法人或者有关组织。但在特殊情况下,外贸部没有收到反倾销调查的书面申请,但有充分证据认为存在倾销和损害存在,并且二者之间有因果关系的,经商国家经贸委后,可以决定立案。
( 外经贸部与国家经贸委已经合并,现为商务部)
我国的反倾销法
2.反倾销调查的主体外经贸部应自收到申请人提交的申请书及有关证据之日起 60天内,对申请是否由国内产业或者代表国内产业提出、申请书内容及所附具的证据等进行审查,经商国家经贸委后决定立案调查或者不立案调查。对倾销的调查和确定,
由对外贸易经济合作部负责。对损害的调查和确定,由国家经济贸易委员会负责。调查机关可以采用问卷、抽样、听证会、现场核查等方式向利害关系方了解情况,进行调查。
我国的反倾销法
3.出口商的承诺倾销进口产品的出口经营者在反倾销调查期间,
可以向外经贸部作出改变价格或者停止以倾销价格出口的价格承诺。外经贸部认为出口经营者作出的价格承诺能够接受的,经商国家经贸委后,可以决定中止或者终止反倾销调查,不采取临时反倾销措施或者征收反倾销税。
出口经营者违反其价格承诺的,外经贸部经商国家经贸委后,依照本条例的规定,可以立即决定恢复反倾销调查;根据可获得的最佳信息,
可以决定采取临时反倾销措施,并可以对实施临时反倾销措施前 90天内进口的产品追溯征收反倾销税,但违反价格承诺前的产品除外。
(六)我国的反倾销法
4.初裁和终裁外经贸部、国家经贸委根据调查结果,分别就倾销、损害作出初裁决定,并就二者之间的因果关系是否成立作出初裁决定,由外经贸部予以公告。如果初裁决定确定倾销、损害以及二者之间的因果关系成立的,外经贸部、国家经贸委应当对倾销及倾销幅度、损害程度继续进行调查,并根据调查结果分别作出终裁决定,
由外经贸部予以公告。
我国的反倾销法
(三 )反倾销措施
1.临时反倾销税初裁决定确定倾销成立,并由此对国内产业造成损害的,可以采取下列临时反倾销措施:
(1)征收临时反倾销税;
(2)要求提供现金保证金、保函或者其他形式的担保。
我国的反倾销法
2.反倾销税终裁决定确定倾销成立,并由此对国内产业造成损害的,可以征收反倾销税。
反倾销税应当根据 不 同出口经营者的幅度,分别确定。对未包括在审查范围内的出口经营者的倾销进 口产品,需 要征收反倾销税的,应当按照合理的方式确定对其适用的反倾销税。
我国的反倾销法反倾销税的征收有以下三种情形:
(1)终裁决定确定存在实质损害,并在此前已经采取临时反倾销措施的,反倾销税可以对已经实施临时反倾销措施的期间追溯征收。
(2)终裁决定确定存在实质损害威胁,在先前不采取临时反倾销措施将会导致后来作出实质损害裁定的情况下已经实施临时反倾销措施的,
反倾销税可以对已经实施临时反倾销措施的期间追溯征收 。
我国的反倾销法
(3 )终裁决定确定的反倾销税.高于已付或者应付的临时反倾销税或者为担保目的而估计的金额的,差额部分不予收取;低于已付或者应付的临时反倾销税或者为担保目的而估计的金额的,差额部分应当根据具体情况予以退还或重新计算税额。
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Section5,Subsidies and countervailing measures
反补贴,ppt
Section 6,Safeguards
(一)保障措施的定义 >
(二)保障措施的种类 >
(三)保障措施的条件 >
(四)实施保障措施的程序 >
(五)补偿与报复 >
我国的保障措施立法 >
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Section 6,Safeguards
(一)保障措施的定义在 WTO的各项规则中,具有保障功能的条款很多,如 1994年,关税与贸易总协定,第 6条的反倾销和反补贴、第 12条有关为保障国际收支而实施的限制、第 18条有关政府经济发展的援助、第 20条的一般例外、第 21条的安全例外等,这些条款从广义上均可纳入保障条款的范畴。但在乌拉圭回合谈判结束以后,作为一个正式法律用语的 ‘‘ 保障措施 ’’ 即专指
1994年,关税与贸易总协定,第 19条所规定的措施,
Section 6,Safeguards
保障措施,又称免责条款,依,关税与贸易总协定,第 19条的规定,保障措施指当一成员方发现由于关税减让和其他贸易壁垒的取消等原因,导致某一产品的进口激增,以致对其一国内生产商
domestic producers产生或即将产生严重损害时,该成员方可对该进口产品实施临时性的限制进口的措施。
Section 6,Safeguards
保障措施是法律上情势变迁原则在贸易上的一种体现,
在法律上的情势变迁原则只有当签订条约时的基础条件没有发生根本改变时,条约才能继续生效。如果条约生效后,情况发生根本变化,条约的义务也应有一个机制对其进行相应的调整,这就是情势变迁原则的核心。
就关贸总协定而言,成员依总协定的规定通过关税减让谈判承诺减让关税,或承诺取消数量限制,或承诺取消一些其他的非关税壁垒,在履行承诺的过程中进口一般会增长,这种增长如果在 一定 的幅度内是可以预期的或合理的则没有问题,但如果超过了一定的幅度,引起了严重的负面效果,如对国内相关产业造成了某种损害的情况下,总协定第 19条允许成员方偏离总协定规定的义务,采取保障措施。 back
Section 6,Safeguards
(二)保障措施的种类
1、关税措施与非关税措施保障措施可以从不同的角度进行分类,
从保障措施形态上分主要有两类:
一类是关税措施;
另一类是非关税措施。
Section 6,Safeguards
( 1) 关税措施关税措施又包括两种,即提高关税和背离关税约束。
提高关税:如原来是 40%减到了 20%,现在出现进口激增且给国内业产造成损害的情况了,可以将关税提高到 30%,或恢复到 40%,还有可能提高到 60%,这就是关税措施。
背离关税约束:如一成员现在的关税是 15%,虽没有把它减到 10%,但该成员承诺不提高这个关税,即为关税约束。当出现进口激增且造成国内产业的损害的情况时,该国可以偏离这关税约束义务,即可以把原来约束的 15%提高到 20% 。
Section 6,Safeguards
( 2)非关税措施非关税措施主要是数量限制,依关贸总协定第
11条的规定应当取消数量限制,但当出现进口激增的情况下,可以数量限制作为保障措施,
但对数量限制的水平应有一定的约束。
另一种非关税措施是数量限制与关税措施相结合的,即关税配额。关税配额不是单纯的关税措施,也不是单纯的数量限制,它是两者的结合。
Section 6,Safeguards
如果使用配额作为保障措施,协议规定不能将受限制产品的进口减少到低于最近 3年的平均水平,
除非提出明确的正当理由说明需要减至更低的水平,以防止损害或补偿损害。
配额在成员之间分配依协议遵循非歧视原则,不考虑供应来源,在不同成员间的分配必须反映不同成员在以往一代表期的市场份额。当某些成员进口增长的百分比与有关产品的总增长不成比例,
并且背离正常规则进行配额分配是合理的,也可以进行“配额调整 (quota modulation)”,这种调整即配额的分配可以不充分反映以往的市场份额,从而对特定成员进行限制,因此对某些供应商的打击比其他供应商要大 。
Section 6,Safeguards
非关税措施与关税措施相比较而言,关税措施对贸易的扭曲要小一些。 因此保障措施协议中没有对关税措施做过多的规定,但对数量限制措施则规定了一些标准,数量限制的水平不能低于前 3个年度的平均水平,如前 3年的进口水平分别是 10万,20万和 30万,平均水平就是
20万,则所定的配额就不能低于 20万。
另外还有一个整体的约束,即成员方应该只在救济,或防止,或补救产业损害的限度内采取这样的措施,即如果你提高 5%就能补救国内的产业损害了,就不能提高 10%。
Section 6,Safeguards
2,临时保障措施与最终保障措施保障措施从实施上可以分为两类:
一类是临时保障措施 >
另一类是最终保障措施 >
临时性保障措施临时性保障措施所针对的是在发起保障措施调查得出初步结论后,尚未进行磋商,而认为如不采取临时保障措施,国内产业的损害将无法挽回,此时可以采取临时保障措施。
为避免临时保障措施的滥用,协议对采取临时保障措施的前题和条件进行了规定。
临时保障措施实施的 前题 是,在延迟会造成难以弥补的损失的特殊情况下,成员可不经磋商而采取临时保障措施,但成员需依明显证据对进口增加已造成严重损害或正在威胁造成严重损害进行初步认定。
临时性保障措施对临时保障措施的实施规定的 限制条件有,
首先,临时保障措施的期限不能超过 200天,在中日
2001年贸易战中,日本即对进口自中国的大葱、生香菇和蔺草席等三种农产品实施了为期 200天的临时紧急限制进口措施。
其次,临时保障措施只能采取关税的方式。保障措施主要有关税措施和非关税措施,以及两者的结合。临时保障措施只能采取关税的方式是因为此种方式是可以补救的,因为采取临时关税措施时,调查还在继续,
如果调查的最终结果不能证实增加的进口已经导致或威胁导致对国内产业的损害,则增加的关税还应退还。
如果是采取了数量限制的措施则没有办法还原了。
最后,临时措施的 200天要记入最后实施的保障措施的期限。 back
最终保障措施最终保障措施的实施期是 4年,延长最长不应超过 8年,包括适用临时措施的期限、初始适用的期限及任何延期在内。保障措施实施期限的延长必须依第 2条有关条件的规定、第 3条有关调查及公告的规定以及第 4条有关损害确定的规定的程序进行审查。如调查认为保障措施对防止损害或补救损害仍有必要,而且有证据表明受救济的产业正处于调整之中,则实施保障措施的期限可以延长,但总期限不应超过 8
年。并需遵守第 8条有关补偿及第 12条有关通知与协商的义务。 back
Section 6,Safeguards
(三)保障措施的条件
,保障措施协定,第 2条是关于实施保障措施的前题条件的规定。依该条规定,某一成员方要实施保障措施必须证明存在某一产品的进口增长,且该进口增长导致了进口成员方相关产业的严重损害或严重损害成胁。
1、进口增长
2,损害状况包括对国内产业存在严重损害或严重损害威胁两种情况。
3,因果关系 back
Section 6,Safeguards
(四)实施保障措施的程序
,保障措施协定,规定的成员方在实施保障措施时应遵循的程序规则主要可以概括为通知、调查和磋商三个方面。
(四)实施保障措施的程序
1,通知
,保障措施协定,与反倾销协议和反补贴协议相比,对进口成员方规定了更严格的通知义务,
因为保障措施与反倾销及反补贴等措施不同,
它是一种可以针对公平贸易的进口限制措施,
保障措施的滥用会对自由贸易产生更大的扭曲作用,为此,乌拉圭回合谈判各方都认为应对保障措施的实施规定严格的通知和磋商制度。
以防止保障措施的滥用。
(四)实施保障措施的程序
2,调查依,保障措施协定,的规定,wto成员在实施保障措施之前,必须通过调查证明,保障措施协定,第 2条规定的条件都得以满足。
(四)实施保障措施的程序
3,磋商由于采取保障措施会影响到有关成员根据协议所享受的利益,因此,协议要求采取或延长保障措施的成员应给利害关系的成员提供事先磋商的充分机会。协议鼓励通过充分磋商达成谅解。 back
Section 6,Safeguards
(五)补偿与报复
,保障措施协定,第 8条是关于补偿与报复的规定。保障措施针对的是公平贸易条件下的进口,因此保障措施的实施必然对出口方的正当利益产生影响,为此,
协议第 8条规定实施保障措施的成员于其他利害关系的成员可就贸易补偿问题进行谈判。
(五)补偿与报复该条第 2款对达不成协议是的报复进行了规定。规定如依照第 12条第 3款进行磋商在 30日内不能达成双方满意的补偿方案,则利益受到影响的出口成员可在保障措施实施后的 90日内,且在货物贸易理事会收到关于报复的书面通知 30日后,
可以对实施保障措施的成员采取实质对等的报复措施。条件是货物贸易委员会不反对实施这种报复措施。
(五)补偿与报复
2001年 4月 23 日,日本政府称,依世贸文件中保障措施的相关规定,对进口自中国的大葱、
生香菇和蔺草席等三种农产品实施为期 200天的临时紧急限制进口措施。经中日磋商未达成协议后,中国攻府宣布对自日本进口的汽车、
空调和车载手机三项产品加征特别关税作为报复。在中日贸易争端从产生到结束的过程中,
中国的身份发生了较大变化,从非世贸成员方转变为世贸成员国。这促使日方在保障措施上从不过多考虑世贸有关采取保障措施的义务到不得不慎重考虑有关保障措施的规则。日方最终与中方达成共识,不对中国的三种农产品采取正式保障措施,中方也不再采取报复措施。
back
我国的保障措施立法一、外贸法:
第 44条:因进口产品数量大量增加,对生产同类产品或者与其直接竞争的产品的国内产业造成严重损害或者严重损害威胁的,国家可以采取必要的保障措施,
消除或者减轻这种损害或者损害的威胁,
并可以对该产业提供必要的支持。
我国的保障措施立法第 45条:因其他国家或者地区的服务提供者向我国提供的服务增加,对提供同类服务或者与其直接竞争的服务的国内产业造成损害或者产生损害威胁的,国家可以采取必要的救济措施,
消除或者减轻这种损害或者损害的威胁。
第 46条:因第三国限制进口而导致某种产品进入我国市场的数量大量增加,对已建立的国内产业造成损害或者产生损害威胁,或者对建立国内产业造成阻碍的,国家可以采取必要的救济措施,限制该产品进口。
我国的保障措施立法
,中华人民共和国保障措施条例,于 2001年 10
月 31日国务院第 46次常务会议通过 2001年 11
月 26日中华人民共和国国务院令第 330号公布 自 2002年 1月 1日起施行。
2004年 3月 31日 最近一次修订,自 2004年6月
1日起施行。
具体内容,请同学们查看法条。 back
Section 7,Non-tariff measures
Section 8,GATS
Section 9,Dispute settlement
Section 3,GATT Exceptions
2.祖父条款的例外美国国内法有关保护已获得的既得权利的立法内容,使之不受其后立法影响的法律规定,被称作,祖父条款,或,祖父权利,。关贸总协定为使更多的国家参加该协定,也借鉴了,祖父条款,,并作为其他一些条款执行的前提。
,祖父条款,的基本含义是,各成员在申请加入关贸总协定时,其议定书指定之日前现有正式立法并具有措辞或明文表达的普遍强制性的法律、法规若与关贸总协定的规定相冲突,前者优先适用。
,1994年关贸总协定,第 3条第 3款、第 6款均为,祖父条款,。这两条条款的主要内容是依照,祖父条款,的有关精神,分别规定了:在一定时间前已经实行的国内税如果与关贸总协定国民待遇原则有抵触,可以推迟实施国民待遇条款(第 3款 );或在某些特定日期前已经实施的国内数量限制条例,如果与国民待遇原则相违背,不应采取损害进口货物利益的办法加以修改,而应当把它们当做关税来进行谈判后取得一致意见再实行国民待遇原则(第 6款)。不过,在乌拉圭回合中,各成员方已经采取一揽子方式接受了乌拉圭回合通过的协议,这表明,这些协议一旦生效后,就在各成员方具有宪法性正式法律效力。
这也意味着,当各成员方国内法的规定与世界贸易组织协议规定发生冲突时,
世界贸易组织协议优先适用,所以,,1994年关贸总协定,第 3条第 3款和第
6款实际已失去其法律效用。